And Present Condition of Tripoli, with some accounts of the
other Barbary States.
No. II.
From the year 1551, when Tripoli was taken by Dragut, to the early part
of the eighteenth century, it continued to form a part of the Turkish
empire; and as such, but little is known respecting it. However, though
governed by a Pasha appointed from Constantinople, and garrisoned
exclusively by Turkish troops, it did not entirely lose its
nationality, and appears to have been much less dependant on the
Sultan, than the other parts of his dominions; for we find upon record,
treaties between Tripoli and various European powers concluded within
that period, in which no mention whatever is made of the Porte. That
with England, was negotiated in 1655 by Blake, immediately after his
successful bombardment of Tunis; it proved however of little value, for
ten years after, Sir John Narborough was sent with a fleet against
Tripoli, on which occasion the celebrated Cloudesley Shovel first
distinguished himself, in the destruction of several ships under the
guns of the castle.
At length a revolution was effected in the government; the allegiance
to the Sultan was thrown off, and his paramount authority was reduced
to a mere nominal suzerainty. In the year 1714, Hamet surnamed
Caramalli, or the Caramanian, from a province of Asia Minor in which he
was born, while in command of the city as Bey or lieutenant during the
absence of the Pasha, formed a conspiracy among the Moors, by whose
aid, the city was freed from Turkish troops in a single night. Three
hundred of them were invited by him to an entertainment at a castle a
few miles distant from Tripoli, and were despatched as they
successively entered a dark hall or passage in the building; of the
others, many were found murdered in the streets next morning, and but a
small number escaped to tell the dreadful tale. A Moorish guard was
instantly formed, strong enough to repel any attack which could have
been expected; and Hamet was proclaimed sovereign, under the title of
Pasha. The new prince did not however trust entirely to arms, for the
security of his title, but instantly sent a large sum to
Constantinople, which being properly distributed, he succeeded in
obtaining confirmation, or rather recognition by the Sultan. He
moreover solemnly adopted Abdallah the infant son of his predecessor
and declared him heir to the throne; but he altered these views, if he
had ever entertained them, when his own children grew up, for his
eldest son was made Bey or lieutenant at an early age, and afterwards
succeeded him; Abdallah, however, lived through nearly three reigns, as
Kiah, or governor of the castle, and was murdered in 1790, by the hand
of the late Pasha Yusuf.
Hamet seemed really desirous to advance the true interests of his
dominions, and for that purpose endeavored to make friends of the
European nations. Within a few years after his accession, he concluded
treaties with England, the United Provinces, Austria and Tuscany, one
of which alone, contains a vague proviso, respecting the approval of
the Sultan. The stipulations of these treaties are principally
commercial, or intended to secure the vessels of the foreign power,
from capture; no mention is made in them of any payments to Tripoli,
but it is generally understood that considerable sums were annually
given by the weaker states for the purpose of obtaining such exemption,
and by the more powerful in order to encourage the piracies. By these
means the commerce of the country was increased; the manufactures of
Europe were imported for the use of its inhabitants, and for
transportation into the interior, by the caravans; in return, dates,
figs, leather, &c. were exported from Tripoli, and cattle from the
ports lying east of it. One of the most valuable articles sent to
Europe, was salt, brought from the desert and the countries beyond,
where it is found in abundance, of the finest quality, either as
rock-salt or in sheets resembling ice on the sand. Soda was likewise
exported in great quantities, principally to France; but the facility
with which it is now obtained from common salt, has much lessened the
value of that substance and the quantity of it carried from Tripoli.
This commerce was carried on exclusively in foreign vessels,
principally English, Dutch and French; those of Tripoli being all
fitted out as cruisers, and engaged in piracy. None of its vessels
indeed could venture to leave the place without being armed and manned
to an extent which the profits of a trading voyage would not warrant;
for in addition to the Spaniards, Venitians, Genoese and other maritime
states, with one or other of which the Tripolines were generally at
war, they had a constant and inveterate enemy in the Knights of Malta,
whose gallies were ever hovering about the port, and who in the
treatment of their captives, improved upon the lessons of cruelty
taught by their Barbary neighbors.
These cruisers were charged to respect all vessels belonging to powers
with which Tripoli had treaties; but such charges were occasionally
forgotten, when a richly laden ship was encountered by a Corsair
returning perhaps from a fruitless cruise; and the Pasha who was
entitled to a large portion of each prize, sometimes shewed less
alacrity than was promised by his treaties in causing the damage to be
repaired. A mistake of this kind with regard to some French vessels,
provoked that government in 1729, when it was at peace with England, to
send a squadron to Tripoli, for the purpose of demanding satisfaction.
The result of this display was a treaty, the terms of which were
dictated by the French Admiral de Gouyon. The Pasha in the most abject
manner acknowledged his infractions of the former treaty, and accepted
with gratitude, the pardon and peace which the Emperor[1] of France was
pleased to grant him--all the French prizes taken were to be restored,
or indemnification made for those which were lost or injured--the
French captives were to be released, together with twenty other
_Catholic_ prisoners to be selected by the Admiral--Tripoline cruisers
were to be furnished with certificates from the French Consul, who was
to take precedence of all other Consuls on public occasions--French
vessels with their crews were not to be molested--together with many
other provisions, calculated to give to France immunities and
advantages, not enjoyed by any other nation. As an additional
humiliation, all stipulations made or that might be made with the
Porte, were to be observed by Tripoli; and the treaty was to remain in
force one hundred years.
[Footnote 1: The King of France is always styled Emperor in
negotiations with the Oriental Powers.]
This treaty is one of the many evidences of the want of common sense,
which formerly presided over diplomatic negotiations, and rendered
their history a record of unjust pretension on the one hand, of
duplicity and subterfuge on the other. Exclusive advantages for a
period which might as well have been left indefinite, are arrogantly
extorted from a petty state, without reflecting, that supposing the
utmost desire on its part, they could be observed only until some other
strong power should demand the same for itself. The Barbary states have
long known the absurdity of this, and have profited by it; to the force
of the greater nations, they have merely opposed the _Punica fides_,
and when availing resistance cannot be made, they sign any treaty
however humiliating, trusting to Allah for an opportunity to break it
profitably.
The inutility of these exclusive stipulations was soon proved; for in
1751 Tripoli became involved in difficulties with Great Britain, from
circumstances similar to those which had provoked the ire of France.
The quarrel terminated in a similar manner; a fleet was sent, and a
treaty dictated, less humiliating in style to the weaker and less
arrogant on the part of the stronger, than that with France, but giving
to Great Britain in effect, all the exclusive or superior advantages,
and to her consul the same precedence of all other consuls, which had
already been solemnly guarantied to the French. As a matter of course
the latter sent a squadron soon after, to require a renewal of the
treaty of 1729 with stipulations still more in their favor, to which of
course the Pasha consented. The same plan has been pursued by these two
great nations, with regard to the other states of Barbary; and the
court of each Bey, Pasha or Emperor, has been a perpetual theatre for
the intrigues and struggles for influence of their consuls.
In the early treaties with these states, we see no provision against
piracy in general, no protest against the principle;--Tripoline
cruisers shall not make prizes of our vessels, nor appear within a
certain distance of our coasts--thus much they say; but nothing else
appears, from which it might be gathered, that Tripoli was other than a
state, respectable itself and complying with those evident duties,
which compose the body of national morals. In fact Great Britain and
France, each keeping a large naval force in the Mediterranean, which
could immediately chastise any offence against its own commerce, not
only had no objection to the practice of piracy, but even secretly
encouraged it; as the vessels of the weaker states were thus almost
excluded from competition in trade. The abandonment of this despicable
policy is one among the many triumphs of principle and feeling, which
have marked the advance of civilization during the last twenty years,
and which authorize us in hoping that a desire to promote the general
welfare of mankind, may in future exert an influence in the councils of
statesmen.
In addition to his acts of pacific policy, Hamet extended his dominions
by force of arms; he conquered Fezzan, a vast tract of desert,
sprinkled with _oases_ or islands of fertile soil, lying south of
Tripoli and which has until lately been held by his successors; this
conquest was important from the revenue it yielded, and from the
advantages it afforded to caravans to and from the centre of Africa. He
also reduced to complete subjection, the intractable inhabitants of the
ancient Cyrenaica or part lying beyond the Great Syrtis; and upon the
whole displayed so much energy and real good sense in his actions, that
viewing the circumstances under which he was placed, he may be
considered fairly entitled to the appellation of _Great_, which has
been bestowed on him by the people of Tripoli. Sometime before his
death, he became totally blind, which affliction was believed by the
more devout of his subjects, to have been sent as punishment for an act
of tyranny, such as daily practised in those countries. In one of his
visits to a mosque in the vicinity of the city, he chanced to see a
young girl, the daughter of the Marabout or holy man of the place,
whose beauty made such an impression on him, that he ordered the father
to send her that evening richly drest to the castle, under penalty of
being hacked to pieces, if he should fail to do so. She was accordingly
conveyed to the royal apartments, but the Pasha on entering the room,
found her a corpse; in order to save herself from violence, she had
acceded to the wish of her father and taken a deadly potion. It is
needless to relate what were the torments inflicted upon the parent;
while writhing under them, he prayed that Allah would strike the
destroyer with blindness; and his prayer was granted, it is said, as
soon as uttered. However this may have been, a blind sovereign cannot
long retain his power in Barbary; and Hamet probably felt that his own
authority was less respected; for without any other ostensible reason,
he deliberately shot himself in presence of his family in 1745. At
least such is the account of his end given to the world.
After the death of Hamet the Great, the usual dissensions as to who
should succeed him, for sometime distracted the country; his second son
Mohammed at length established his claim, and with singular
magnanimity, permitted seven of his brothers to live through his reign,
which ended with his life in 1762.
Ali, the son and successor of Mohammed, was not so indulgent, and
accordingly his uncles were soon despatched. One of them, a child, was
however believed to have escaped, and a man was for many years
supported at Tunis, whom the politic sovereign of that country affected
to consider as the prince. The pretensions of this person were even
favored by the Sultan, who, ever desirous of re-establishing his power
over Tripoli, adopted this means of keeping the country in a ferment,
and the Pasha in alarm. However, after this first bloody measure, which
is considered as a mere act of prudence in the East, Ali passed his
reign, not only without any show of cruelty, but actually exhibiting in
many cases a degree of culpable kindness. He seems indeed to have been
a weak and really amiable man, possessing many negative virtues, and
even a few positive; among the latter of which, were constancy and real
attachment for his family. He had but one wife, who doubtless merited
the devoted respect with which he always treated her; and when we read
the details of their family life, as recorded in the agreeable pages of
Mrs. Tully,[2] it is difficult to imagine that such scenes could have
taken place within the bloodstained walls of the castle of Tripoli.
[Footnote 2: Narrative of a Ten Year's residence in Tripoli, from the
Correspondence of the family of the late Richard Tully, British Consul
at Tripoli, from 1785 to 1794.]
But if Ali received pleasure and consolation from his faithful Lilla
Halluma, the mutual hatred of their three sons rendered the greater
part of his existence a horrible burden. Hassan, the eldest of the
princes, was a man of much energy, together with a considerable share
of generosity and good feeling. He was at an early age invested by his
father with the title of Bey, which implies an acknowledgement of his
right to succeed to the throne, and moreover gives him the command of
the forces, the only effectual means of substantiating that right. In
this office he soon distinguished himself during many expeditions which
he commanded against various refractory tribes; and under his
administration, the army and the revenues of the country began to
recover from the miserable state in which the supineness of his father
had permitted them to languish. Indeed, upon the whole, he gave promise
of as much good with as little alloy, as could possibly have been
expected in a sovereign of Tripoli.
Hamet, the second son of the Pasha, inherited the weakness of his
father, without his better qualities, and exhibited throughout life the
utmost want of decision; in prosperity ever stupidly insolent; in
adversity the most abject and degraded of beings, the slave of any one
who was pleased to employ him. An improper message sent by the Bey to
his wife, soon after their marriage, provoked a deadly hatred against
his elder brother, which only exhibited itself however in idle vaporing
threats of vengeance. The distracted parents did all in their power to
produce a reconciliation, but in vain; the Bey was haughty, and Hamet
implacable; neither trusting himself in the presence of the other,
unless armed to the teeth and environed by guards.
Yusuf, the youngest son, was the reverse of Hamet; brave, dashing and
impetuous, he had scarcely reached his sixteenth year, before he openly
declared his determination to struggle with the Bey for the future
possession of the crown, or even to pluck it from the brow of his fond
and tottering parent. Hassan at first regarded this as the mere
ebullition of boyish feelings, and endeavored to attach him by acts of
kindness; but they were thrown away on Yusuf, who apparently siding
with Hamet, acquired over him an influence which rendered him a ready
tool. The whole country was engaged in the dispute, and daily brawls
between the adherents of the opposing parties rendered Tripoli almost
uninhabitable.
The report of this state of things produced much effect at
Constantinople; the Sultan wished to regain possession of Tripoli, and
he had reason to fear lest its distracted state should induce some
christian power to attempt its conquest. It was therefore arranged in
1786, that an attack should be made on the place by sea, while the Bey
of Tunis should be ready with a force to co-operate by land if
necessary. The Capoudan Pasha or Turkish High Admiral, at that time was
the famous Hassan, who afterwards distinguished himself in the wars
against Russia on the Black Sea, and against the French in the Levant,
particularly by the relief of Acre in 1799, while it was besieged by
Buonaparte. He was the mortal enemy of Ali, and was moreover excited by
the hope of obtaining the sovereignty of the country in case he should
succeed in getting a footing. A large armament was therefore prepared;
but its destination was changed, and instead of recovering Tripoli, the
Capoudan Pasha had orders to proceed to Egypt, and endeavor to restore
that country to its former allegiance; the Mamelukes having succeeded
in establishing there an almost independent authority.
The Tripoline Princes had been somewhat united by the news of the
projected invasion; but this change in the objects of the Porte, again
set the angry feelings of the brothers in commotion, and a severe
illness with which their father was seized at the time, gave additional
fury to their enmity, by apparently bringing the object of their
discord nearer. As the old Pasha's death was expected, the Bey called
the troops around him, and every avenue to the castle was defended;
Yusuf and Hamet on their parts assembled their followers, and declared
their resolution to overthrow Hassan or perish in the attempt, being
convinced that his success would be the signal of their own
destruction. Their tortured mother prepared to die by her own hands,
rather than witness the dreadful scenes which would ensue on the
decease of her husband. Ali however recovered, and things remained in
the same unsettled state for three years longer; the mutual animosity
of the Princes increasing, and the dread of invasion causing every sail
which appeared, to be regarded with anxiety and suspicion.
Yusuf had now reached his twentieth year, and had acquired complete
influence over the mind of his father; a quarrel about a servant had
raised a deadly feud between him and Hamet, and the Bey feeling more
confidence from the success of several expeditions, was rendered less
cautious than he should have been. Lilla Halluma made every effort to
produce unity of feeling among them, and at length prevailed upon
Hassan to meet his youngest brother in her apartments. The Bey came
armed only with his sword, and even that defence he was induced to lay
aside, by the representations of his mother. Yusuf appeared also
unarmed, but attended by some of his most devoted black followers; he
embraced his brother, and declaring himself satisfied, called for a
Koran on which to attest the honesty of his purpose. But that was a
signal which his blacks understood, and instead of the sacred volume,
two pistols were placed in his hands; he instantly fired at the
luckless Bey, who was seated next their mother; the ball took
effect--the victim staggered towards his sword--but ere he could reach
it, another shot stretched him on the floor; he turned his dying eyes
towards Lilla Halluma, and erroneously conceiving that she had betrayed
him, exclaimed, "Mother, is this the present you have reserved for your
eldest son!" The infuriated blacks despatched him by an hundred stabs,
in the presence not only of his mother, but also of his wife, whom the
reports of the pistols had brought to the room. Yusuf made his way out
of the castle, offering up as a second victim the venerable Kiah
Abdallah, whom he met with on his passage; he then celebrated the
successful issue of his morning's achievement by a feast. This happened
about the end of July, 1790.
Hamet was absent when the murder took place, and on his return was
proclaimed Bey, but not until the consent of Yusuf had been obtained,
which the miserable Pasha had been weak enough to require. The two
brothers then swore eternal friendship, accompanying the oath with the
ceremonies considered most solemn on such occasions. But oaths could
have but little weight with men of their respective characters; they
could give no security to Hamet, nor act as restraints upon Yusuf. In a
short time the brothers disagreed; the Bey fortified himself in the
castle, while Yusuf established his quarters in the Messeah, or plain
which lies on one side of the City, and raised the standard of revolt.
A number of discontented Moors and Arabs were soon assembled in his
cause, and he formed a partial siege of the place.
Meanwhile the Sultan was again at leisure to carry into effect the long
projected plan against the country. A squadron was prepared, and one
Ali-ben-Zool, a notorious pirate, was placed in command, and furnished
with a _firman_ or commission as Pasha. This squadron entered the
harbor of Tripoli on the night of the 29th of July, 1793, and during
the confusion that ensued, the Turks having got possession of the
gates, were in a short time masters of the town. The _firman_ was then
read, and the Pasha was summoned to deliver the castle to the
representative of his sovereign. The poor old man was struck almost
senseless with the news; his wife and family finding that resistance
was impossible escaped, carrying the Pasha more dead than alive out of
the city, where they at first were protected by an Arab tribe. Yusuf
seeing when too late the misery which he had brought on his family, at
length begged forgiveness from his father, and the Princes uniting
their forces, endeavored by an assault on the town to retrieve their
fortunes; but it proved unsuccessful; the Pasha's party was betrayed,
and the Turkish power was for a time established. Every species of
cruelty was then committed by Ali-ben-Zool, for the purpose of
extorting money from the wretched inhabitants, and scenes were acted,
which it would be shocking to relate. The unfortunate Lilla Halluma
soon died of grief; her husband and sons retired to Tunis, where they
were received and generously assisted by the Bey.
The Porte at length was induced by the cruelties of its agent, to
withdraw its support, and leave was given to the Caramalli family to
regain their dominions. Ten thousand troops accordingly marched from
Tunis in the spring of 1795, under the command of Hamet and Yusuf; ere
they reached Tripoli, Ali-ben-Zool had evacuated the place, and retired
to Egypt. This ruffian was afterwards made Governor of Alexandria in
1803, subsequently to the expulsion of the French, where he pursued the
same course of cruelty and extortion as at Tripoli, until he was at
length murdered by his guards.
It is not to be supposed that Yusuf took all these pains merely to
establish his brother quietly in Tripoli; the rude soldiery who decide
matters of that kind in Barbary, could not but see a difference between
him and Hamet, which was by no means in favor of the latter. Of this
disposition Yusuf took full advantage, and so ingratiated himself with
the troops, that when at length the news of old Ali's death reached the
city, he was unanimously proclaimed Pasha; his brother, who was absent
at the time, on returning, found the gates closed against him, and
received an order from the new sovereign to retire to the distant
province of Derne, and remain there as Bey. Hamet having no other
resource, went to his place of banishment, and remained there for some
time; but finding that his brother was daily making attempts to destroy
him, he at length in 1797 retired to Tunis, where he was supported by
the Bey.
The earliest act of Yusuf with regard to foreign intercourse, was the
conclusion of a treaty with the United States, which was signed on the
4th of November, 1796, Joel Barlow then American Consul at Algiers and
Colonel David Humphries, being the agents of the latter party. Its
terms are generally reciprocal; passports are to be given to vessels of
each country by which they are to be known--"As the Government of the
United States is not in any sense founded on the christian religion,
and has in itself no character of enmity against the laws, religion or
tranquillity of Mussulmen, no pretext arising from religious opinions
shall ever produce an interruption of the harmony between the two
countries"--the Pasha acknowledges the receipt of money and presents,
"in consideration for this treaty of perpetual peace and friendship,
and no pretence of any periodical tribute or farther payment is ever to
be made by either party." Finally, the observance of the treaty is
"guarantied by the most potent Dey and Regency of Algiers, and in case
of dispute, no appeal shall be made to arms, but an amicable reference
shall be made to the mutual friend of both parties, the Dey of Algiers,
the parties hereby engaging to abide by his decision."
To the terms of this treaty it would be difficult to offer any
objection; the United States were anxious that their commerce in the
Mediterranean should be undisturbed; their naval force was inadequate
to its protection, and it was then considered inexpedient to increase
that force. Presents were given in compliance with a custom generally
if not always observed, and it was certainly the more manly course to
have the fact openly stated in the treaty, with the proviso annexed,
that none others were to be expected. The treaty between the United
States and Algiers was on terms less equal, as it contained a
stipulation on the part of the former to pay an annual value of
twenty-one thousand dollars in military stores.
Thus secured from interruption, the American commerce in the
Mediterranean rapidly increased, and the Tripoline corsairs were daily
tantalized by the sight of large vessels laden with valuable cargoes,
which were to be passed untouched, for no other reason than because
they sailed under the striped flag and carried a piece of parchment
covered with unintelligible characters. This must have been the more
vexatious to the corsairs as they never met with ships of war belonging
to the nation which they were thus required to respect.
Reports of this nature did not fail to produce their effect upon Yusuf;
his cupidity was excited, and he doubtless feared that his popularity
might suffer, if his subjects were longer prevented from pursuing what
had always been considered a lawful and honorable calling in Barbary.
He had collected a small maritime force, estimated in 1800 at eleven
vessels of various sizes, mounting one hundred and three guns, and thus
considered himself strong enough to give up the further observance of a
treaty with a power which appeared so incapable of enforcing it. In
this idea he was encouraged by his naval officers. The chief of these
was a Scotch renegade, who had been tempted to exchange the kirk for
the mosque, and his homely name of Peter Lyle, with his humble
employment of mate to a trading vessel, for the more sounding title of
Morat Rais, and the substantial appointment of High Admiral of Tripoli.
Rais Peter is represented by all who knew him as destitute of real
talent, but possessing in its stead much of that pliability of
disposition which is supposed to form an essential characteristic of
his countrymen; however that may have been, he for some time enjoyed
great credit with the Pasha, and employed it as far as he could against
the interests of the United States. Whether this arose from any
particular enmity, or from the hope of enjoying a share of the
anticipated spoil, is uncertain; but to his influence was mainly
ascribed the proceedings which led to a rupture of the peace. Another
abettor of the war was the Vice Admiral Rais Amor Shelly, a desperate
ruffian, who was most anxious to be engaged where there was such
evident promise of gain. Hamet Rais, the minister of marine, was of the
same opinion, and probably of all his councillors, Yusuf placed the
greatest confidence in him; he is represented as a man of great
sagacity and energy--such indeed, that Lord Nelson thought proper in
1798, to send a ship of the line, with a most overbearing letter,
demanding his exile, which the Pasha promised, but after the departure
of the ship thought no more about it. The only friend of the United
States in the regency, was the Prime Minister Mahomet d'Ghies, whom
every account represents as an honorable and enlightened gentleman.
Thus fortified by the assurances of his counsellors, and farther
induced by his success in bringing Sweden to his terms, Yusuf commenced
his proceedings against the United States in 1799, by making
requisitions of their consul; these were resisted, and to a proposal
from Mr. Cathcart (the consul) that reference should be made to the Dey
of Algiers, as provided in such cases by the treaty, the Pasha replied
that he no longer regarded the stipulations of that convention. His
intentions became more clearly defined in the ensuing year, when Rais
Shelly returned from a cruise, with an American brig, which he had
brought in under pretence of irregularity in her papers; she was indeed
restored, but not until after long delay and the commission of
numberless acts of petty extortion, accompanied by hints that such
lenity would not be again displayed. Considerable time having elapsed
without any answer from the United States, the consul was informed that
the treaty with his country was at an end; that the Pasha demanded two
hundred and fifty thousand dollars as the price of a new one; and that
it must contain an engagement on the part of the United States, to pay
an annual tribute of twenty-five thousand dollars for its continuance.
No reply having been made to this, war was formally declared by Tripoli
on the 11th of May, 1801, the American flag staff was cut down by the
Pasha's orders on the 14th, and Mr. Cathcart left the place a few days
after.
A swarm of cruisers instantly issued from the port of Tripoli, and
spread themselves over every part of the Mediterranean; two of them
under Morat Rais arrived at Gibraltar, with the intention of even
braving the perils of the unknown Atlantic, in search of American
vessels. In the course of a few weeks five prizes were taken by the
corsairs; but the consul of the United States had long foreseen the
danger, and given timely warning, so that interruption of their
commerce was almost the only evil afterwards suffered.
As soon as the news of these exactions arrived in Washington, President
Jefferson caused a squadron, composed of three frigates and a sloop of
war, to be fitted out and despatched to the Mediterranean, under
Commodore Dale; it entered that sea about the end of June, 1801, and
was probably the first American armed force seen in its waters. This
squadron was sent with the hope that its display would be alone
sufficient to bring the Pasha back to the observance of the treaty; the
Commodore was therefore instructed to act with great caution, so as to
repress rather than provoke hostilities; and he was made the bearer of
letters to each of the Barbary sovereigns, couched in the most amicable
terms and disclaiming all warlike intentions. The squadron touched
first at Tunis, where its appearance somewhat softened the Bey, who had
begun the same system of exactions from the American consul; it then
sailed for Tripoli, before which it appeared on the 24th of July.
The sight of such a force was very disquieting to Yusuf, who sent a
messenger on board to learn what were its objects. The Commodore
replied by asking what were the Pasha's views in declaring war, and on
what principles he expected to make peace? To this Yusuf endeavored to
evade giving a direct answer, and he hinted that his principal cause of
complaint was the dependence on Algiers implied by the terms of the
first and the last articles of the treaty, which he considered
humiliating. The American commander not being empowered to negotiate,
remained for some days blockading the harbor, until having learnt that
several cruisers were out, he thought proper to go in search of them.
One only was encountered, a ship of fourteen guns, commanded by Rais
Mahomet Sous, which after an action of three hours, on the 1st of
August, with the schooner Enterprize, struck her colours; the Americans
lost not a man, the Tripolines had nearly half their crew killed or
wounded. As orders had been given to make no prizes, the cruiser was
dismantled, and her captain directed to inform the Pasha, that such
"was the only tribute he would receive from the United States."
Notwithstanding the desperate valor displayed in this action by the
Tripolines, Yusuf thought proper to ascribe the result to cowardice on
the part of the commander; and poor Mahomet Sous, after having been
paraded through the streets of the city on an ass, exposed to the
insults of the mob, received five hundred strokes of the bastinado.
This piece of injustice and cruelty however, produced an effect the
reverse of that which was intended; for after it, no captain could be
induced to put to sea, and those who were out already, on learning the
treatment experienced by their comrade, took refuge from the Americans
and the Pasha, for the most part among the islands of the Archipelago.
The two largest vessels which had been arrested at Gibraltar on their
way to the Atlantic, by the appearance of the United States' squadron,
were laid up at that place, their crews passing over into Morocco.
The American commerce being thus for the time secured from
interruption, a portion of the squadron returned to the United States;
the remainder passed the winter in the Mediterranean, and were joined
in the ensuing spring (1802) by other ships. Nothing however was
attempted towards a conclusion of the difficulties with Tripoli by any
decisive blow; the American agents in the other Barbary states were
instructed to procure peace if possible, on condition of paying an
annual tribute; and partial negotiations were carried on, principally
through the mediation of the Bey of Tunis. They however proved
ineffectual, as Yusuf demanded an amount far beyond that which the
American government proposed. The operations of the squadron were
limited to mere demonstrations; a simple display of force being
considered preferable to active measures. On one occasion however, the
Constellation frigate, while cruising off the harbor of Tripoli, was
suddenly becalmed, and in this defenceless situation, was attacked by a
number of Tripoline gun-boats; their fires would soon have reduced her
to a wreck, had not a breeze fortunately sprung up, which enabled her
to choose her position; several of the gun-boats having been then
quickly destroyed, the remainder were forced to retreat into port.
The system of caution and forbearance by which the foreign policy of
the American government was then regulated, renders the history of its
transactions in the Mediterranean during the first four years of this
century by no means flattering to the national pride. There was a
disposition to negotiate and to purchase peace, rather than boldly to
enforce it, which must have been most galling to the brave spirits who
were thus obliged to remain inactive; and it certainly encouraged the
Barbary governments in the opinion that the Americans were disposed to
accept the more humiliating of the two alternatives, paying or
fighting, which they offered to all other nations. It would not perhaps
be just at present to censure this patient policy; the institutions of
the country were then by no means firmly established, and the utmost
circumspection was necessary in the management and disposition of its
resources. There was also great reason to apprehend that a decided
attack on one of the Barbary powers, would produce a coalition of the
whole, aided by Turkey, which might have given a blow, severe and
perhaps fatal, to the commerce of the United States in the
Mediterranean. The Americans may however at least rejoice, that a more
dignified system can now with assurance be pursued, in the conduct of
all their affairs with foreign nations.
* * * * *
The length of this article renders its conclusion in the present number
inconvenient; the remainder will appear in our next.