CHAPTER XVIII

Conclusion

The story of Majorca has, in the course of its detailed narration,

included attempts to describe the scenery of various localities of the

island, the capital in ancient times, the mountains and caves, the

towns and country houses. With the conclusion of the story we turn

to the island as it is at present. We find areas of forest-covered

mountains, which are calculated to contain 25,000 acres of pines,

12,000 acres of ilex, and 2,000 of carob-trees; at least, this was the

calculation twenty years ago. The best account of the geology of these

mountains will be found in the work of M. Hermite.[28]

Turning to the trees grown to support the people in the fertile plains,

the same authority gives an area of 50,000 acres as covered by vines

and 33,000 by almond-trees, besides apricots. The olives cover 86,000

acres--70,000 in the mountains, and the rest for the most part near

their bases. The flora of the island is abundant and beautiful; and

there is an excellent book on the subject by Don Francisco Barcelo y

Combis.[29]

The people are the descendants of men who fought with En Jayme,

increased by a certain amount of immigration--Catalans who speak a

dialect of the Catalan language among themselves, but who nearly all

understand Spanish. Among the upper classes the names of Moncada or

Togores, Sureda, Cotoner, Fortuñy, Zaforteza, Despuig, Torrellas,

Truyolls, Villalonga, are as prominent now as they were six hundred

years ago and have been ever since. After a visitor has seen the

cathedral and churches, the Lonja with its slender pillars, and the

handsome Casa Consistorial with its frescoes and portraits of Majorcan

worthies, nothing can be more interesting than to saunter through the

streets and look at the old palaces of the nobility, with their quaint

architecture, coats of arms, and picturesque courtyards. In front of

the ‘Mercado’ is the great palace of the Burgues Zaforteza family. In a

street of the same name is the Montenegro palace. In the narrow Fortuñy

Street there is an ancient house with the name of Priamo Villalonga

carved over the lintel of the door. Here lived the gallant defender

of the royal castle against the rebels in 1522. The Villalongas are

no longer there, having moved to a more modern abode in another part

of the town. In nearly every street there is a palace or some other

building which is interesting either for its architecture or its

associations.

Among the leading people of Palma the name of Don Bartolomé Bosch y

Cerda, His Britannic Majesty’s Vice-Consul, cannot be overlooked, for

his courtesy and kindness and his thorough knowledge of the island have

largely increased the pleasure derived by many visitors from a sojourn

in Majorca.

The best-known visitor--if His Highness ought not rather to be called a

resident--was the Archduke Luis Salvator, whose magnificent monograph

of the Balearic Islands is well known. Miramar has been mentioned as

the abode of King Sancho, and afterwards as the place where Raimondo

Lulio founded his college. But it is better known as the spot which the

Archduke turned into an earthly paradise. He rebuilt the house which

existed on the site of the former convent, laid out the lovely garden,

and constructed roads and paths. He filled the house with old Majorcan

furniture and Majolica ware, some of it with the metallic lustre for

the manufacture of which the island was once famous. The Archduke also

restored a little chapel in the garden, which contains an ancient

picture of Raimondo Lulio. But it is now more than twelve years since

the Archduke has visited the island.

The Majorcans excel as masons and carpenters. The mole, which forms the

harbour, is as fine a piece of masonry work as is to be found in the

Mediterranean. All the ashlar work of public buildings is remarkable

for the fineness and exactness of the points of junction; and the

vaulting, especially in the churches, displays no small mechanical

skill, and even genius. Carpenters’ work is equally good; and it is

interesting to see them at work, with their shops open to the streets.

There are many factories in the island; and while one member of a

family works on a farm, others at trades, the rest can get employment

in factories. All help, and the cottage in which the family lives

generally has a small garden of flowers and vegetables. All the people

are decently dressed and shod and have sufficient food. The Majorcans

are certainly a handsome race, the men strongly built and well set up,

the young women comely and graceful.

There are no beggars, except a few cripples. Begging or seeking

presents is not the habit of the people. If boys are offered small

change received in a shop they will generally refuse it, saying that

they have done nothing for it. The cathedral carpenter sent his boy up

a tree, at the request of a stranger, to get a leaf, and he was given

a shilling for want of change. Some time afterwards the same stranger

was passing, and the carpenter came out with the difference between

a shilling and a _peseta_, saying he thought that the present was

intended to be a _peseta_ and not a shilling. Information respecting

land tenures, mode of cultivation, exports, and other statistics will

be found in Mr. Bidwell’s ‘Balearic Islands.’[30]

The story of Majorca is necessarily very closely connected with the

general history of Aragon and its various dependencies. It is full of

chivalrous deeds and wonderful adventures, as well as of evidence of

those more solid and steady efforts which indicate fine qualities in

a race. Thus, in the course of centuries, the existing islanders have

been formed, and they are very much what might have been expected from

their history. It is a history which should have a place in the study

of European progress and development; for, small though the island

is, the Majorcans have been in the forefront during the Middle Ages,

and even in later times, alike as men of the sword and men of the pen.

A knowledge of the island’s story will furnish a number of historical

associations which will, as it were, clothe the beautiful scenery with

living interest. It thus appeals alike to the student who remains at

home and to the traveller who visits the island.

It seems desirable to conclude with some information for the latter

class of readers respecting accommodation at Palma. The hotel, which

was opened a few years ago by Señor Albareda, faces the old church of

St. Nicholas and the Zaforteza palace; while the avenue called the

‘Rambla’ is on one hand, and the ‘Paseo del Borne,’ leading to the

port, on the other. It possesses every comfort and convenience, is

admirably managed, and has a well-informed and most obliging landlord.

This ‘Grand Hotel’ has a pleasant annex in the country, at Porto Pi,

and the hotel in the beautiful valley of Soller is also comfortable

and well managed. The visitor to Majorca is thus able to make himself

acquainted with the lovely scenery, the history, and present condition

of the island under the most advantageous conditions.

[Illustration: MAJORCA]

PART II

MINORCA

CHAPTER I

Minorca--Its prehistoric remains--Mago the Carthaginian--Successive

occupations

The sister island of Minorca is some twenty miles E.N.E. of Majorca,

and is about the size of the Isle of Wight, twenty-one miles in length

by eight broad. But its smaller size and more exposed situation deprive

it of advantages enjoyed by its more favoured sister. Minorca is in the

shape of an irregular parallelogram, lying W.N.W. to E.S.E., and has an

area of 683 square kilometres. The island is divided into two distinct

regions of almost equal extent by a line running east and west. The

northern half is covered with hills, for the most part bare, with two

culminating points. Near the centre of the island is ‘Monte Toro,’

rising in the form of a sugarloaf to a height of 1,150 feet. Farther

west is the Monte de Santa Agueda, 850 feet high. The rock consists

of slates, with strata generally much contorted and of Devonian age,

but capped in some places by Jurassic rocks which contain fossils and

numerous impressions of plants.

Owing to the frequent northerly gales, especially in the winter, the

arboreal vegetation of the northern region, and indeed of the whole

island, is scanty. There are some woods of ilex and Aleppo pines in

sheltered places, and the shrub vegetation consists of myrtle, a

_Phillirea_ (wild olive?), and three species of _Erica_.

The southern region is more sheltered and more fertile. It consists

of an undulating tableland cut by profound ravines and sloping from

the hills to the southern coast, where it terminates in rocky cliffs.

The formation is a good building limestone of Miocene age with nearly

horizontal strata. In this southern region the shrubby vegetation

consists of a buckthorn (_Rhamnus Alaternus_) and the _lentisco_

(_Pistacia Lentiscus_). But there are few trees, and the ground is

excessively stony. In the ravines the vegetation becomes richer and

more varied.

There are no rivers or streams, and the people are entirely dependent

on wells and cisterns for their supply of water. The rocks abound in

caves, some natural, but many excavated in prehistoric times. There is

one vast stalactitic cave near the western coast, with smaller branch

caverns, and several other caves of the same kind on a smaller scale.

One of the principal features of interest in Minorca is the number of

prehistoric remains scattered over the southern region. There are a few

similar remains in Majorca, but they have been used almost entirely for

building materials; and in Minorca they are far more numerous and less

injured.

The primitive inhabitants appear to have been cave-dwellers. The

buildings may have belonged to a later period. They have been described

by several observers, notably by M. Emile Cartailhac in his ‘Monuments

primitifs des Iles Baléares’;[31] but never more clearly, and with

more competent knowledge of similar monuments in other parts of the

world, than by Dr. Guillemard in his very able paper read before the

Cambridge Antiquarian Society. Dr. Guillemard divides the Minorcan

prehistoric buildings into four classes: (1) the so-called towns, (2)

the _Naus_ or ship-like edifices, (3) the _Taulas_ or _Bilithons_, (4)

the _Talayuts_.

The towns, really the size of small hamlets, are surrounded by a wall

with a megalithic gateway, and sometimes with small towers on the

walls, which consist of large blocks of limestone. Inside there are

the remains of small square buildings, with underground low and narrow

passages or caves.

The _Naus_ is a building with a supposed resemblance to a ship, one end

being pointed and the other square. There are only a few on the island.

Cartailhac mentions nine. Their length is from twenty-five to forty

feet, height fifteen to eighteen. The finest, called ‘Nau d’Es Tudons,’

is near Ciudadela. It consists of large blocks of stone dressed with

a hammer. The entrance is three feet square, leading to a sort of

vestibule, whence another door opens into the main chamber, which is

supported by pillars down the middle. These edifices are carefully

built, and were evidently the tombs of great men.

The _Taulas_ are two massive stones joined by a deep tenon and mortise

and cut with remarkable care. The lower one is upright, and bears

the upper one horizontally, like a table. They are in the centre of

a building in the form of a semicircle forty feet across, the two

ends being joined by a wall. Some twelve or fourteen _taulas_ remain.

They must almost certainly have been altars, or the main features of

temples. These _taulas_ appear to be closely allied to such edifices as

Stonehenge or those at Avebury. In that case, they may be considered

to date from about the same period, a date which has been ascertained

astronomically by Sir Norman Lockyer--2000 B.C. The race of men who

built them extended over Europe. They had dolichocephalic heads of

average capacity, oval faces, aquiline noses, low foreheads, exactly

like the skulls from the Basque provinces. They were not only spread

over Europe, but established themselves in Mauritania (Morocco) and

were probably the ancestors alike of the Guanches of Tenerife and the

Baleares of these islands.

The fourth class of prehistoric edifices consists of the _Talayuts_,

so called from the Arabic ‘Atalaya’ or scout, hence watch-tower. Their

height is usually not more than twenty feet. The largest, called ‘Torre

Llafuda,’ is forty feet high. They are often forty feet in diameter

at the base and six or seven feet less at the top. In 1818 Ramis gave

a list of 195 of them, of which 142 were in fair condition. Since

that time many have been used for limekilns or as quarries in building

houses. They are all built of the rough vesicular limestone of the

surrounding land, and the stones are generally roughly dressed and

laid in courses. The walls are of enormous thickness, with a circular

chamber in the centre, supported by a pillar of massive stones. There

is usually a doorway on the south side.

Their object has been a puzzle. They were not watch-towers from the

positions of many of them; not fortresses, not dwellings, not temples,

not tombs, for no bones are found. I believe that Dr. Guillemard, whose

excellent descriptions of the Minorcan prehistoric remains I have been

quoting, has hit upon the right solution. The fields are covered with

stones, and one of the principal occupations of the husbandman is to

clear the stones off the cultivable land. In modern times they make

stone walls, for something has to be done with them. Dr. Guillemard

holds that the _talayuts_ are the stones cleared from the fields by the

ancient people. They built these very solid towers with them, which

served to house pigs and sheep at night; perhaps also as a look-out

place, where their positions would serve such a purpose. But clearing

the fields of stones was the primary object.

The Minorcan builders of stone temples, tombs, and dwellings, and

pilers up of stones were prehistoric beyond any doubt, and may have

worked and worshipped them four thousand years ago. The Phœnicians

probably found their descendants on the island, and they became subject

to the Semitic traders and their Carthaginian offshoots, who held

the Balearic Islands while they were dominant in Spain. Minorca was

best known as possessing the most capacious and safest harbour in the

Mediterranean, and its name of Port Mahon makes the giver of that name

an important factor in the story of the island.

Mago was the youngest son of Hamilcar Barca, and when he first began to

serve under his brother Hannibal in Italy, in B.C. 218, he must have

been very young; but his capacity and fitness for command were soon

realised by the great general. Mago was given command of the cavalry,

and led his troops across the river Po, each man swimming by the side

of his horse. Mago did distinguished service at the battle of Trebia,

and was by his brother’s side at Cannæ. He was then detached to reduce

Samnium and the Bruttii. In about B.C. 212 he was sent to reinforce

his other brother, Hasdrubal, in Spain. It was a losing cause, for

the Carthaginians vainly opposed the victorious career of Scipio. The

brothers resisted long. At last they were hopelessly defeated by Scipio

at a place called Silpia, apparently in the Sierra Morena. Mago long

held out at Gades. Here he received orders to collect troops and ships,

and to make a diversion by landing at Genoa and transferring the seat

of war to Italy. Having diligently assembled troops and the means of

transport, he left Spain for ever and made sail, shaping a course, in

compliance with his instructions, from Carthage. Mago wintered in the

splendid harbour at the eastern end of Minorca, which has ever since

borne his name--Portus Magonis, corrupted into Port Mahon.

Eventually he landed his army at Genoa, but was defeated by Quinctilius

Varro in a battle in Liguria, when he was severely wounded. Hannibal

and Mago were recalled from Italy B.C. 203, and the younger brother

died of his wounds on the voyage to Carthage, according to Livy. He

was probably not more than thirty-two years of age. The name of this

enterprising Carthaginian is immortalised in that of the harbour where

he wintered, and in those of an English earl’s second title and of a

Spanish dukedom.

During their occupation the Carthaginians had built three towns: the

Portus Magonis; the town at the west end of the island, called Jamno,

the modern Ciudadela; and one in the interior. In B.C. 121 Metellus

arrived with his fleet, and the Balearic Islands passed under the

dominion of Rome. For more than five hundred years the islands formed

part of the Roman Empire, Minorca always sharing the fate of her larger

and more important sister. These huge gaps in history leave everything

to conjecture. They may have been a time of peace and prosperity, or

they may have been a period of grinding oppression. The people were

probably still the descendants of the prehistoric builders. Certainly

no great event happened, or it would have been recorded. On the decay

of Roman power, in the days of Honorius, the Balearic Islands are said

to have been occupied for a time by the Vandals, from A.D. 426. It is

assumed that the islands formed part of the kingdom of the Spanish

Visigoths; but all that may have happened in that long period is buried

in oblivion. We only know that Christianity had been introduced, and

that at the Council of Toledo, celebrated in the year 675 A.D., there

were bishops of the Balearic Isles, dating for at least two hundred

years back, for Severo was Bishop of Minorca in 423.

Before the commencement of the ninth century the islands had fallen

entirely into the hands of the Moors, and formed part of the empire

of the Omeyad Khâlifas of Cordova, Minorca continuing through all the

long period of Moorish domination to share the fate of the larger

island. The aboriginal inhabitants must have entirely disappeared,

giving place to immigrants from Africa and Muhammadan Spain, chiefly

Arabs and Berbers. Minorca seems to have been ruled during a long

period by a Moorish family, son succeeding father, with a title which

the Spaniards called Almojarife. We have already seen how, after the

conquest of Majorca, King Jayme secured the submission of the Minorcan

Moors by a stratagem.[32] The great king, however, dealt very leniently

with the smaller island. The government of Minorca was confirmed to

the Almojarife and his family on condition of loyalty to the Aragonese

overlord and payment of tribute. This arrangement continued until

the usurpation of young Alfonso III., a very different man from his

illustrious grandfather. The Moors were established in Minorca for

nearly four centuries; but, by the use of ruthless methods, it is not

difficult to extirpate a whole population and to substitute another in

so small an island.

CHAPTER II

Conquest of Minorca by Alfonso III.--The Barbary pirates

The young King Alfonso III. of Aragon, having usurped the government

of Majorca, as has been related in the story of that island,[33] came

to a sudden determination to drive the Moors out of Minorca. He made a

pretext that the Almojarife had thwarted his father’s designs on the

coast of Barbary by giving early information to his co-religionists.

Alfonso also said that when his uncle’s dominions were restored to him,

the acquisition of Minorca would make up for the temporary deprivation.

This hopeful young king had not begun well. He was unjust, wayward,

and sometimes cruel. He acted on the spur of the moment. Had he lived,

the promised son-in-law of the great King Edward of England might have

become a more stable and right-minded prince. At this time he cared

very little for a pretext in making war, and his resolutions were very

hastily formed.

The consequence was that he chose the stormiest period of the winter

for his expedition, sending to his brother Fadrique, in Sicily, to

supply him with forty well-armed galleys. He then assembled the nobles

of his kingdom at Tarragona, and was granted five hundred cavalry

and a large army of _almogavares_.[34] The fleet of armed ships and

transports numbered 120 sail. En Pedro Cornel was appointed general of

the forces, and knights of the families of Luna, Entenza, Anglesola

accompanied the King. Garcia Gorcas de Aracuri of Aragon and Acart de

Mur of Catalonia were masters of the camp.

The terrible news reached the Almojarife[35] of Minorca. His

consternation was great, for the danger was imminent. The impulsive

young king cared less than nothing for the written grant given by En

Jayme to the Moorish chief. The Almojarife sent to Barbary to entreat

for help from the chiefs of Bugia, Bona, Tremecen, and Constantia. In

a short time 900 cavalry and 5,000 foot soldiers arrived from Africa,

which would enable the Moors to face their enemies with a respectable

force.

The King of Aragon left Salou with his fleet, arriving at Majorca on

December 2, 1285, where he passed Christmas. Muntaner tells us that the

cold of that winter was intense, and that a man might as well have been

in the frozen steppes of the Don. The hands of some of the oarsmen were

frostbitten, and the troops suffered from the severity of the winter.

After the Christmas festivities were over, the King ordered the fleet

to make sail in the worst possible weather. The ships were scarcely

clear of the land when a furious gale sprang up and scattered the

fleet. Alfonso arrived at Port Mahon with only twenty galleys, and

occupied one of the rocky islands in the harbour, waiting for the rest

of his forces.

The Moors were ready to receive him. They had a large army, composed

partly of the auxiliaries sent from Africa and partly of natives of

the island. Seeing them drawn up in battle array, the impetuous young

King resolved to attack them without waiting for reinforcements. He

had a few companies of _almogavares_ and four hundred horse. A very

desperate and well-contested battle was the result. Alfonso was in the

thick of the fight, giving many proofs of valour and dexterity as a

swordsman. In spite of the great inferiority in numbers, the Catalans

were victorious, the Moors retreating in confusion to a hill which,

owing to the great slaughter, received the name of ‘El Degollador.’ The

battlefield was situated on a plain a little to the westward of the

present castle of San Felipe.

A day or two afterwards there was another fight, owing to the conduct

of a young knight named Berenguer de Tornamira, who, to show his own

valour, attacked the Moors without orders with a small force. If

succour had not been promptly despatched he would certainly have been

overwhelmed. As it was, the Moors were driven back. The Almojarife then

took refuge, with the remnant of his forces, in the castle on Mount

Santa Agueda. Alfonso, always hasty and violent, ordered Tornamira’s

head to be cut off; but he afterwards yielded to the prayers and

remonstrances of his nobles and consented to spare the young knight’s

life. The losses in these two battles were very heavy, especially on

the side of the Moors. By this time the rest of the fleet, with troops

on board, had arrived at Port Mahon.

Alfonso then advanced to the castle of Santa Agueda, and made

preparations for a siege; but the Almojarife saw that all hope

was gone, and sent four of his principal ministers to ask for the

acceptance of the terms he offered. They were that he would surrender

the castle and the whole island if he and his people were provided with

shipping to proceed to Barbary, paying 7-1/2 _doblas_ a head for every

Moorish man or woman that embarked. The Almojarife also asked to be

allowed to take his books, clothes, and fifty swords. The ship was to

take him to Ceuta or some other port in Africa. The King consented to

the terms, and his favourite, Blasco Jimenes de Ayerba, was instructed

to make the necessary arrangement. There was a Genoese vessel at

Port Mahon, which was hired and supplied with provisions, and the

unfortunate chief, with his family and about a hundred other people who

were able to pay the ransom, embarked. Whether the ship went down in a

gale of wind, or whether there was foul play, no one will ever know. It

is certain that she never was heard of again. The story of Carbonell

that the unfortunate fugitives were thrown overboard by order of the

King, after paying their ransoms, need not be believed.

The rest of the population was at the mercy of the conquerors, to the

number of about twenty thousand. They were either forced to work at the

new buildings ordered to be erected, or sent to Sicily and Barcelona to

be sold as slaves.

The date of the capitulation was January 17, 1288, St. Anthony’s Day,

which was ever afterwards kept as a holiday, with processions and other

festivities. Alfonso remained in Minorca until the following March,

leaving orders for a town to be built, with a fortified wall, at Port

Mahon. He died three years afterwards at Barcelona, aged twenty-seven.

Don Juan Ramis y Ramis, the chronicler of Minorca, recorded the prowess

of the young King and the conquest of the island in a poem entitled

‘Alonsiada.’

Pedro de Lesbia, a native of Valencia, was left as the first Christian

Procurator-General of Minorca. The whole Moorish population appears to

have been rooted out of the island and replaced by Catalan settlers.

Ciudadela, at the western end, became the capital, as it was in Moorish

times; while Port Mahon was the principal commercial port.

In a small island like Minorca a population could soon be extirpated by

ruthless invaders without pity or remorse and actuated by unreasoning

bigotry. Their cruelties were not only condoned but encouraged by their

priests. It is a revolting picture. There was an industrious and happy

people, engaged in cultivating a not very grateful soil, which needed

much toil and no little skill to induce it to yield harvests sufficient

for the wants of a frugal population. In homes endeared to them by

centuries of occupation, and surrounded by their wives and children,

they were living in peace and comparative prosperity, and enjoying the

hard-earned fruits of their toil. The land tax, paid in kind, was the

regular source of revenue in all Muhammadan countries. In Minorca the

Almojarife, or collector, appears to have been the hereditary chief of

the island. Suddenly, like a bolt from the blue, in a few days total

destruction came upon them. Thousands were killed, all their chief men

with their families disappeared, all their property was seized, wives

were torn from husbands, children from parents, and sold into slavery.

Turning away from the horrors of this scene of cruelty and wrong, we

may assume an interval of confusion, and then the farms and villages

of the Moors are occupied by Catalan families equally industrious and

hard-working. The Christians were exposed to heavier exactions and

suffered under a less enlightened rule, so that perhaps we should give

them even greater credit than their predecessors for the way in which

they extracted the means of supporting themselves and their families

from the stony fields.

Minorca continued to share the fortunes of the larger island under her

own kings, under the Kings of Aragon, and under the Austrian dynasty of

Spain. The form of government was the same as that granted to Majorca

by En Jayme.

The smaller island suffered equally with Majorca from the raids of

Barbary pirates, who carried off many unfortunate people into slavery.

All the islanders rejoiced at the campaign against Tunis, led by the

Emperor Charles V. in person, who liberated several thousands of

Christian slaves in 1535. Yet the piracies did not cease, or only

for a time. Barbarossa, the piratical leader, undeterred by the fall

of Tunis, fitted out a fleet of eleven galleys and made sail for the

Balearic Islands. His fleet entered Port Mahon with Christian banners

flying, to deceive the soldiers in the fort and the inhabitants, who

were completely taken in. Bells were rung and guns fired in honour of

what was supposed to be a part of the Emperor’s fleet. A boat with some

Franciscan friars approached the galleys and discovered the mistake.

They pulled back to the shore, raised a warning, and the gates of the

town were closed.

Barbarossa landed 2,500 Moors and some guns, with which he battered

the walls of the town and made a breach. His assault was, however,

repulsed. The people of Ciudadela assembled three hundred men, but

seeing that the enemy was so powerful they did not venture upon an

attack at first. They sent a messenger to warn the besieged that they

should be ready to make a sortie when the relief approached. Then most

of the three hundred advanced, and occupied the attention of the enemy

while the besieged hastily repaired the breaches in the walls. A second

assault was gallantly repulsed, and the pirate chief began to feel

rather insecure at Port Mahon, expecting the return of the Emperor’s

fleet from Tunis.

Fortunately for Barbarossa, the besieged lost heart and surrendered the

town to him on terms which he never dreamt of keeping. He made slaves

of eight hundred of the inhabitants. The churches were pillaged and

profaned. The Guardian of San Francisco had partaken of the Sacrament

to save the Host from profanation. The Moors entered and seized all

the valuables, but did not find the Host in the pyx. Barbarossa asked

where it was, and when the Franciscan replied that he had eaten it to

preserve it from profanation, he was ordered out for execution and

suffered death with two other friars.

This was in the year 1536. The Governor of the island had remained at

Ciudadela, and when six citizens arrived from Port Mahon, who had been

released by Barbarossa because they advised the surrender, the Governor

ordered them to be put to death. Barbarossa and his Moors evacuated

Port Mahon and departed with his plunder and with many wretched people

to be sold into slavery. The Emperor was greatly distressed at these

repeated acts of piracy, and in 1541 he fitted out a second expedition,

this time against Algiers. Again he led the expedition in person; but

it was a failure owing to the furious gales and deluges of rain.

The islands were kept in a constant state of alarm. In 1558 a Turkish

fleet of 140 vessels hove in sight. Ciudadela and Port Mahon had been

put in the best possible posture of defence, when fifteen thousand

Turks were landed, under a leader named Mustapha. Having occupied

the open country, they laid siege to Ciudadela, which was held by a

garrison of seven hundred men. A battery of artillery was planted

against the walls, and, after making a breach, three assaults were

delivered and gallantly repulsed. The besieged Minorcans were resolved

to defend the place to the death, and they would have done so if it

had not been for a disastrous accident. The magazine caught fire and

all their powder was destroyed. The men proposed to their leaders,

Arquimbau, the Lieutenant-Governor, and Captain Noyet, to attempt to

fight their way to Port Mahon. They came out, the men of Alayor and

Mercadal leading, women and children in the centre, and the rest of

the garrison bringing up the rear, under Arquimbau. The Turks attacked

them furiously, and only 150 got back into the town. On July 10 another

assault was delivered, and at last the place was taken. Many of the

besieged were killed in cold blood, and the rest were carried off to be

sold as slaves. On the same day the Turks embarked and made sail.

The Viceroy, Don Guillermo Rocafull, was not in the island. He returned

at once and proceeded to repair the fortifications of Ciudadela,

bringing several families to re-people the place from Majorca and

Valencia. The castle of San Felipe at Port Mahon was also repaired and

strengthened.

The piracies continued until well into the eighteenth century, and kept

the people in a constant state of terror and alarm; but confidence

slowly returned, and Minorca had long been free from actual invasion

when the War of the Succession broke out, after the death of Charles

II., the last of the Austrian Kings of Spain.

CHAPTER III

British occupation of Minorca.

The people of Spain had long been misgoverned, impoverished, and

oppressed when the last king of the House of Austria died and left the

War of Succession as a legacy to his subjects.

The descendant of Maria Teresa, sister of Charles II. and wife of Louis

XIV. of France, would have had the best right if her marriage had

not been allowed on condition of the most solemn renunciation of the

crown of Spain for the offspring of it. The next heir was the Emperor

Leopold I., descended from a sister of Philip IV. of Spain, the father

of Charles II. He resigned his claim to his second son, the Archduke

Charles. Strongly in favour of the Austrian claim, the unhappy King was

forced by priestly threats on his deathbed to sign a will declaring

Philip, Duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV. and Maria Teresa, to be

heir to the Spanish monarchy. Philip was then seventeen. The Archduke

Charles was fifteen.

Louis XIV. was strictly pledged to the Governments of England and

Holland not to allow his grandson to succeed. In February 1701,

in defiance of this solemn compact, Philip was sent to Madrid and

proclaimed as Philip V. Castille acknowledged him. Aragon, Catalonia,

and the Balearic Islands declared for the Archduke Charles as Charles

III. He was supported by England, Holland, Portugal, Savoy, and the

Empire. War was declared on May 15, 1702, and the War of the Spanish

Succession commenced. In March 1704 Charles III. arrived at Lisbon with

four thousand Dutch and eight thousand English troops, where he was

joined by Don Juan Henriquez, Admiral of Castille, one of the greatest

of the Spanish nobles. On August 3 Gibraltar was taken, and garrisoned

with two thousand men, the Prince of Hesse Darmstadt being the first

Governor. Charles III. then proceeded to Barcelona, the almost

impregnable castle of Monjuich having previously been captured by the

Earl of Peterborough. Amidst great rejoicings Charles made his public

entry on October 23, 1705. Peterborough entered Valencia in triumph on

February 4, 1706, and Majorca declared for King Charles.

General Stanhope was appointed Envoy Extraordinary to King Charles

and sent out in command of reinforcements. He was a grandson of the

first Earl of Chesterfield and son of Alexander Stanhope, who was

Ambassador at Madrid in the time of Charles II. Having passed his youth

in his father’s house, he was well acquainted with Spanish and with the

feelings of the people. He learnt the art of war under Marlborough.

The disastrous battle of Almanza was fought in April 1707, and for

some time the cause of King Charles seemed almost hopeless. The Duke

of Berwick entered Valencia and conquered Aragon, the French claimant,

Philip, abolishing all its provincial privileges; while General

Stanhope was reduced to a strictly defensive system. King Charles’s

base was the east coast of Spain and the Mediterranean Sea. The English

fleet was therefore of the utmost importance, and it became very urgent

that the ships should remain out, instead of returning home for the

winter. But, although Majorca was for Charles, the harbour of Port

Mahon was still occupied by French and Spanish troops for Philip.

Stanhope, with his German colleague Staremburg, after several weeks of

skilful but desultory manœuvres, obliged the French army to retreat

from Tortosa, to which place the enemy had advanced. In August of the

same year, 1707, Admiral Leake with the British fleet took Cagliari and

secured the island of Sardinia for King Charles. But the most important

enterprise was the capture of Minorca with its excellent harbour.

The Duke of Marlborough wrote to General Stanhope saying: ‘I am so

entirely convinced that nothing can be done effectually without the

fleet, that I conjure you, if possible, to take Port Mahon.’ Lord

Godolphin sent out instructions to the same effect, which reached

Stanhope when he was encamped at Cervera with Marshal Staremburg, at

the close of the campaign against the French.

Stanhope immediately set out for Barcelona in pursuance of his

instructions, but few men could be spared for the enterprise.

Fortunately, Charles was fully alive to its great importance. Admiral

Sir John Leake was still off Sardinia with the bulk of the fleet. There

were, however, six men-of-war at Barcelona; but some of the captains

hesitated to take any responsibility. The two who supported the General

were his brother Philip of the _Milford_, and Trevanion of the _York_.

Stanhope forced their hands by actually embarking in some transports

the troops he had been able to collect, and announcing his intention

of proceeding at once to Majorca, there to await reinforcements. This

made all the captains resolve to accompany him. One of the ships (the

_Milford_) was commanded by the General’s brother, Captain Philip

Stanhope, and the two brothers sailed together. The force consisted of

1,200 British troops, including marines, 600 Portuguese, and the rest

Spanish. The General wrote to Sir John Leake, who had just reduced

Sardinia to obedience to Charles, sending a copy of the letter from

Lord Godolphin, and entreating him to co-operate.

Sir John Leake was about to return with the Beet to England for the

winter, leaving a squadron to guard the Portuguese coast. He, however,

left Pula, near Cagliari, with the fleet on August 18, in compliance

with General Stanhope’s request, and arrived off Port Mahon on the

25th. He cruised off the island until September 14, when Stanhope

arrived on board the _Milford_, the transports following on October 3.

Stanhope’s plan was to land at once and lay siege to the castle of San

Felipe. Measures were accordingly arranged with the Admiral, who lent

all the marines and guns that could be spared. There were forty-two

guns and thirteen mortars. A spot was selected about two miles from

the castle to the south-west, and the troops were landed. All the

inhabitants received them joyfully, declaring for King Charles; and the

magistrates of Mahon came and delivered up the keys of their city. On

the 7th the _Dunkirk_, _Centurion_, and _York_ were anchored near the

south-east point of the island, to cover the landing of the heavy guns.

This was a service of great difficulty, for the only place for landing

them was in a creek within half gunshot of the enemy’s batteries.

Nevertheless it was attempted that very evening, and effected with

little loss. The country was found to be rocky and without roads,

and the beasts of burden that could be obtained were so few that it

was twelve days before the guns could be got into position ready to

commence the attack.

On the 8th the fleet, consisting of fifteen sail of the line, under the

command of Sir John Leake, sailed for England. The Admiral had lent the

General as many marines as could possibly be spared, and supplied him

with ammunition and some provisions. A squadron of seventeen sail was

left off Port Mahon, under the command of Sir Edward Whitaker, the hero

of Gibraltar, to assist in the reduction of the castle of San Felipe.

Two ships, the _Dunkirk_ (Captain Butler) and _Centurion_ (Captain

Fairborn), were detached to take possession of the castle and harbour

of Fornelle, on the north coast of the island. The _Dunkirk_ arrived

two hours before the _Centurion_, and opened a heavy fire, which was

returned with some effect; but when the _Centurion_ also hove in sight,

the garrison surrendered as prisoners of war. All the transports and

bomb-vessels were then sent to Fornelle creek, having previously had no

secure place to ride in.

On the 28th General Stanhope opened a battery of nine guns on two

towers flanking an outer line, which the garrison of San Felipe had

lately thrown up, beating them down and making some breaches in the

connecting walls. This was not difficult, as the works had been hastily

run up with loose stones. Brigadier Lane was stationed on the right

with two battalions. Captain Philip Stanhope commanded the marines.

Some of Wade’s men entered a breach in the wall without orders, and

as soon as he saw their advance he followed with all his men. Philip

Stanhope led on his marines, and there was a general advance, the

garrison, after a short resistance, abandoning all the outworks and

retreating into the castle. Next morning the enemy commenced a parley,

which was followed by their capitulation in the afternoon. They could

have held out for a long time. A hundred pieces of ordnance were

found in the castle, three thousand barrels of powder, and all things

necessary for a long defence. The victory was dearly bought with the

death of Captain Philip Stanhope, who fell mortally wounded. He was

struck by a ball on the forehead as he was held up by two sailors to

look over a wall seven feet high. He was interred in one of the vaults

of the castle. The General wrote: ‘The conquest has cost me very dear,

but since Philip died in doing service to Her Majesty and his country,

I shall think his life well bestowed, as I should my own.’

Ciudadela at once surrendered, and its garrison of a hundred men became

prisoners of war. There was no resistance in any other part of the

island. Stanhope wrote: ‘A great part of our success in reducing this

island is owing to the zeal and affection the people have for us, which

is beyond expression.’ Port Mahon was garrisoned by British marines,

and the fortifications were strengthened by new works at a cost of

about 60,000_l._ It was General Stanhope’s idea that Minorca should be

held as a sort of mortgage for the large sums advanced to King Charles.

A medal was struck at the Tower to commemorate the conquests of

Sardinia and Minorca.

_Obv._: Bust of Queen Anne.

_Rev._: Victory holding a palm-branch in one hand, and the

Union Jack in the other. Two islands appearing in the distance,

‘SARDINIA ET BALEARIS MINOR CAPTÆ.’

_Exergue_: MDCCVII.

Stanhope returned to his military duties in Spain. He was at Barcelona

again on November 9. It is not necessary to follow the course of

events. The death of the Emperor Joseph I. in 1711 opened the

succession to his brother Charles; while his want of success and the

animosity of the Castilians destroyed all chance of his succeeding to

the crown of Spain. In fact, he became Emperor of Germany as Charles VI.

The Ministry of Harley and St. John opened negotiations for peace.

The abandonment of the Catalans and Majorcans to their fate cast an

indelible stain of infamy on the British Government. Queen Anne had

several times pledged her royal word for the preservation of the lives

and liberties of the Catalans. In consequence of those promises the

Catalans had begun and maintained an insurrection. Yet no stipulation

was made in the treaty, and St. John had the effrontery to announce

that ‘it is not for the interests of England to preserve the Catalan

liberties.’

On April 11, 1713, the Peace of Utrecht was signed, the Emperor Charles

refusing to be a party to it. The French Prince was acknowledged

as King of Spain, being Philip V. of that country, but resigning

any right of succession to the French crown. The Duke of Savoy was

to have Sicily; Gibraltar and Minorca were ceded to England; the

Netherlands, Naples, Milan, and Sardinia to the Emperor. Lord Stanhope,

the descendant of the conqueror of Minorca, has pleaded with some

truth that, whilst the glories of the war belong to the whole British

people, the disgrace of the peace, the unworthy result of such great

achievements, rests on a small knot of factious politicians.

Their beloved King Charles, now Emperor of Germany, must be acquitted

of blame as regards the Catalans and Majorcans. He was powerless.

Writing to General Stanhope, he said: ‘Knowing as I do your goodness

of heart, I am persuaded that you and your friends will compassionate

the fidelity, firmness, and misfortune of my poor Catalans. No

difficulties, no dangers, no temptations could shake their generous

loyalty. All this pierces my heart. I leave you to judge whether it is

in my power to aid them without a naval force. I doubt not that you

will consider the dreadful state to which they have been reduced by

the evil-minded men of your country, contrary to the most solemn and

repeated engagements.’

Catalonia and Majorca were abandoned to the mean vengeance of Philip.

Minorca was more fortunate in becoming a British possession. In 1717

the conqueror of Minorca was created Viscount Stanhope of Mahon.

CHAPTER IV

Minorca as a base

Minorca was the chief gainer by the Peace of Utrecht. She secured many

years of good government and freedom from oppression by her connection

with her English friends. But England herself derived almost equal

advantage. She had become a Mediterranean Power. She had Gibraltar, but

it was necessary that she should also have a base within the inland sea

where her ships could refit and her sailors could be refreshed; and

this need was supplied in full measure by the splendid harbour of Port

Mahon. The value of such a possession was experienced a very few years

after the peace.

The Emperor had sent an army into Hungary against the Turks, and Philip

V. gave a solemn promise to the Pope that he would not undertake

anything against the interests of the Emperor while he was engaged

in so religious a cause. Yet, without regard to this promise and in

defiance of the duties imposed upon him by the treaty of peace, he

sent a fleet, with a land force of nine thousand men, from Barcelona,

which seized upon the island of Sardinia in July 1717. His excuse was

that King Charles had delivered up the towns in Catalonia and Majorca

to the inhabitants, thus putting Philip to the trouble and expense of

reducing those people to obedience.

In consequence of this aggression, the Powers made a treaty, called the

Quadruple Alliance, by which the Emperor was to give up his claim to

the crown of Spain, to receive Sicily from the Duke of Savoy, and to

give him Sardinia in its place, with the title of King. Philip would

not agree to this arrangement and continued his preparations for war,

without any regard to the remonstrances of England and even of France.

In this he was strongly influenced by his second wife and by his

Minister, Cardinal Alberoni.

In order to prevent farther mischief in the Mediterranean a formidable

fleet was got ready at Spithead, under the command of Admiral Sir

George Byng, with orders to hinder and resist all attempts of Spain

against Italy or Sicily. Byng sailed on June 25, 1718, with twenty

ships of the line, two fire-ships, two bomb-ships, a hospital-ship,

and a store-ship. Off Cape St. Vincent he sent a messenger, by way of

Cadiz, to convey a letter to Lord Harrington, the British Envoy at

Madrid, that the Spanish Government might be informed of the approach

of the British fleet and of Byng’s instructions.

The Envoy showed the letter to Cardinal Alberoni, who declared that his

master would run all hazards rather than recall his fleet and troops,

that the Spaniards would not be frightened, and that he had no fear of

the result if Admiral Byng attacked them. The Envoy then requested his

Eminence to look over a list of the British ships which he held in his

hand. Alberoni snatched it and threw it on the ground, trampling on it

in a great passion.

There was nothing more to be done with such a violent diplomatist. The

British fleet entered the Mediterranean, and arrived at Port Mahon on

July 23. Here the Admiral landed four regiments, and took the marines

forming the old garrison to serve in the fleet. On August 1 the Admiral

arrived at Naples, and conferred with Count Daun, the very popular

Viceroy for the Emperor Charles VI. It was found that the Spaniards had

landed an army in Sicily and were besieging Messina, and that there

was a large Spanish fleet there, consisting of twenty-nine ships of

the line and frigates, two being seventy-four-gun ships and eight with

sixty guns.

On August 9 Sir George Byng with his formidable fleet arrived off

Messina, and sent a letter to the Spanish General proposing to him that

he should grant a cessation of hostilities for two months, to give

time for the Powers to agree to a lasting peace, apprising him of his

instructions in case of refusal. The Spaniard replied that he had no

powers to treat, and that he would obey his orders, which were to seize

Sicily for the King of Spain.

The Spanish fleet had weighed the day before, and was out of sight

to the south. Byng went in chase, and before noon of the next day he

came in sight of their twenty-seven men-of-war in order of battle. Don

Antonio de Castaneta was the Admiral in command, and there were four

rear-admirals, one of them an Irish renegade named Cammock. On sighting

the English fleet they stood away, but still in order of battle. All

that day and the succeeding night the English Admiral followed them.

Early in the morning of the 11th one of the Spanish rear-admirals

parted company with six frigates and all the galleys, bomb-vessels,

and store-ships, standing for the Sicilian coast near Syracuse. Captain

Walton of the _Canterbury_, with five vessels under his command, was

detached in pursuit. Walton’s report of his proceedings is a model of

business-like brevity:

‘SIR,--We have taken and destroyed all the Spanish ships and

vessels which were upon the coast, the number as per margin.’

Admiral Byng continued the pursuit of the main fleet and came up with

it off Cape Passaro. The _Orford_ and _Grafton_ were the foremost

ships, and the Spaniards fired their stern chase guns. The order was

given not to return the fire unless it was repeated. It was repeated,

and the _Orford_ promptly engaged the _Santa Rosa_, of sixty-four

guns, and took her. Next the _San Carlos_, of sixty guns, struck to

the _Kent_. The _Principe de Asturias_, with the flag of Rear-Admiral

Chacon, was dealt with by the _Breda_ and _Captain_. The Spanish

Admiral’s flagship, of seventy-four guns, made a running fight until 3

P.M., and then struck to the _Superbe_. Three other ships were taken.

Sir George Byng employed the next few days refitting and repairing

damages in the prizes. Nine of the Spanish ships escaped, thirteen

were taken and became prizes, three were burnt, three sunk. Practically

the Spanish fleet ceased to exist.

The value of Minorca as a base then became apparent. Rear-Admiral

Cornwall was sent to Port Mahon with the ships that required repairs

and all the prizes. On February 3, 1719, Sir George Byng went with

the rest of the fleet to Port Mahon, to refresh the men and refit the

ships. Returning to Naples in April, he found that Count Mercy had

been appointed to the command of a German army to expel the Spaniards

from Sicily. Mercy was a tall, soldier-like man, but excessively

short-sighted. He had great strength of mind and body, was very

ambitious, with an insatiable thirst for glory. He would have been a

greater general if he had been endowed with a cooler temper. The task

before him was a difficult one, although the English fleet gave him

command of the sea. All things being ready, Sir George Byng sailed from

Baia with eight men-of-war, escorting two hundred transports having on

board 10,000 infantry and 3,500 horse. By the advice of the Savoyard

Governor of Melazzo, the landing was effected on the coast about

twenty miles to the westward of that fortress. Count Seckendorf was

detached to reduce the Lipari Islands to the Emperor’s obedience--an

important matter, so as to keep the communications open between Naples

and Sicily.

The Sicilian campaign commenced in May 1719, and there was some very

severe fighting. Count Mercy found himself in considerable difficulties

in the interior; for the natives were on the side of the Spaniards.

He sent a message with an urgent request that Sir George Byng would

come to him for a consultation. The Admiral did not hesitate. He set

out with a strong escort, accompanied by his eldest son and Captain

Matthews of the _Kent_. The road was strewn with the dead bodies of

men and horses, and was very rugged, but they reached the Count’s

tent in the evening. A guard of honour was drawn up for the Admiral’s

reception, and one of the men was shot through the head at the door

of the tent by a musket-ball from the enemy’s camp. He fell dead at

the Admiral’s feet as he dismounted. Sir George found the Count very

weak from a wound, the ball not having yet been extracted. But he was

full of pluck, and desirous of again attacking the Spaniards in their

strong position, though his officers advised a retreat to the coast.

A council next day confirmed this opinion, and dwelt on the urgency of

receiving reinforcements. Sir George therefore returned to the coast

and immediately proceeded with two ships to Naples to represent the

state of things to the Viceroy. He then returned to Sicily, where he

found that Count Mercy had been disabled by an apoplectic seizure;

but that his second in command had taken Taormina by surprise and

advanced to Messina, where the siege was commenced on July 20. The town

surrendered and Sir George Byng took his fleet into the harbour, but

the citadel held out.

The Emperor had resolved to send troops from Milan, by way of Genoa,

to reinforce Count Mercy, and, knowing the extreme slowness of the

Germans, the Admiral resolved to superintend the business personally.

On August 23 he returned to Naples, arriving at Genoa on September 7.

He found everything extremely backward. After much worry and almost

incredible trouble, what with persuasion and threats, he got seven

thousand men on board the transports and brought them to Messina.

The whole army was overjoyed to see a man who always brought them

relief and succour. Count Mercy had returned from Reggio, but with

the ball not yet extracted. He was delighted at the Admiral’s success

in bringing him help. It decided the fate of the citadel, which

surrendered after a siege of ninety-one days. The Spanish General then

fortified the almost impregnable position at Castro Giovanni; but Count

Mercy and the Admiral thought it more important to occupy Palermo,

and while operations for that purpose were being pushed forward the

Spaniards offered to evacuate Sicily on terms.

Early in 1720 the news arrived that Philip V. had given up his

ambitious projects and joined the Quadruple Alliance. Sicily and

Sardinia were to be evacuated by the Spaniards within two months.

During May and June the Spanish troops were embarked in transports at

Termini and sent to Barcelona. The Duke of Savoy was then put into

quiet possession of Sardinia. Thus the work was completed for the

execution of which the British fleet under Sir George Byng had been

sent to the Mediterranean. The English Admiral certainly deserves the

highest credit. He was diligent in preparing his measures, attending

to every detail himself. In action he was alike careful and energetic.

His patience under the most trying circumstances was inexhaustible.

He was most successful as a diplomatist, and at length he acquired

such influence that he was looked to as an umpire in the numerous

misunderstandings and disputes of rival commanders. Thus the service

that was entrusted to him, a most harassing and difficult service, was

performed with remarkable ability and complete success. On his return

he was created Viscount Torrington, and in 1733 he died in harness as

First Lord of the Admiralty.

Minorca played an unostentatious but very important part in this

campaign. Without that base for refitting the ships and refreshing the

men the difficulties of Admiral Byng would have been increased tenfold.

CHAPTER V

Minorca under British rule

If the occupation of Minorca was very important to the British as

a base for their fleet, it was an even greater blessing to the

inhabitants. While the ancient rights and liberties of the Catalans and

Majorcans were ruthlessly destroyed by their Bourbon conqueror, the

Minorcans were treated very differently. Their religion, their form

of civil government, their customs and traditions were all respected

by the English, who came as friends rather than as masters. It will

be interesting to glance over the condition of the island during the

earlier years of British occupation.

Minorca was divided into five provinces, called _terminos_. At the

eastern end was the _termino_ of Mahon with the capital under British

rule, and at the western the _termino_ of Ciudadela, the ancient

capital. Between them were the _terminos_ of Alaior, Mercadal, and

Fererias, each with its chief village of the same name. Mercadal

included the greater part of the northern coast.

The principal feature of the island is the splendid harbour of Port

Mahon, with deep water, and capable in former days of sheltering

all the fleets of Europe. There are several small islands in the

harbour, and on one the hospital was built when Sir John Jennings

was Commander-in-Chief in the Mediterranean, 1711-13. The quarantine

station was on another island. The picturesque town of Mahon, built

entirely of freestone, rose up the side of a hill, with its great

church and monasteries showing above the roofs of the houses. The

streets were rocky and narrow, but the site was fresh and healthy.

Along the waterside there was a long quay, one end being reserved

for the navy and naval stores, and the other for trading vessels and

merchandise.

At the entrance of the harbour is the castle of San Felipe, on a neck

of land between Port Mahon and St. Stephen’s Cove. The main fort

consisted of four bastions connected by curtains, with a deep ditch

hewn out of the solid rocks. Within the area there were the Governor’s

house, barracks, guard-room, and chapel. In the centre there was a

pump to supply the troops with rain water from a large cistern. The

whole rock is undermined with subterranean passages and chambers. A

considerable suburb, including barracks and officers’ quarters, rose up

outside the castle. The plain beyond is stony and barren, but at the

head of St. Stephen’s Cove there is a _barranco_ or ravine, bounded by

rocks on either side, where there are fruit trees and garden vegetables

of all kinds. These _barrancos_ are the fertile and fruit-yielding

parts of the island. Originally long creeks penetrating into the land

from the sea, they have been gradually filled with rich soil by floods

from the hills on the north side, until they were raised above the sea

level. There is no tide to carry off the deposits brought down from

the hills. At the upper end of the harbour there is another extensive

_barranco_, known as the gardens of San Juan, which was the principal

source of supply of vegetables for Mahon. A few miles farther north is

the _albufera_, or salt lake, separated from the sea by a sand-spit,

and abounding in fish; and still farther to the north are the harbour

and beautiful valley of Adaia. Wild pigeons and rabbits frequent the

rocky cliffs and islands on the coast.

The interior of the island is barren and stony, except for the

_barrancos_. Alaior was a tolerably well-built town on an eminence; but

Mercadal and Fererias are only wretched villages. The north coast is

deeply indented, and Port Fornelle is a large harbour.

Ciudadela, at the head of an inlet on the western coast, was the

capital in the time of the Moors, and continued to be so during the

Aragonese and Austrian rule. It was then the place of residence of

the Governor, and was a flourishing and well-built town. Vessels of

small draft, trading with Majorca and Barcelona, came up the inlet

and supplied the island with foreign goods. The wall which encircled

Ciudadela dates from the time of the Moors, to which more modern

fortifications had been added. In the _plaza_ was the Government

House and the _Lonja_, or exchange, an ancient building raised on

lofty Gothic arches. Thence a passage led to a postern and, by a long

flight of stone steps, to the quay. The cathedral is in the centre

of the town, and the largest religious edifice in the island, with a

square tower and spire, all of freestone. It probably dates from the

thirteenth century. Near the Mahon gate was a large convent of Austin

friars, where there used to be public arguments on the philosophy of

the schools. There was an extensive Franciscan convent, and a nunnery

of Santa Clara. A fine _barranco_ to the north supplied Ciudadela with

fruit and vegetables.

The people of the island were well housed in solid stone buildings, the

farmhouses being generally of two storeys, with the granary under the

roof. The farmers have to contend against frequent and violent gales,

a very stony and shallow soil, and scarcity of water. They are very

laborious, and work under a system of partnership. There is an equal

division of produce between landlord and tenant, the landlord finding

buildings, implements, and cattle, the tenant seeds and labour. Very

few landlords cultivate their own land.

The government of the island was on the model of that of Majorca, as

established by En Jayme I. The Courts of Justice were removed from

Ciudadela to Port Mahon by the English; otherwise no change was made

in the civil government, which was left in the hands of the natives.

The magistrates were called Jurats, so many in each Termino; and

their duties were to impose taxes, see that the markets were properly

supplied, and lay the hardships or grievances of the people before the

Governor. These Jurats were chosen from all ranks. The Jurat-Major was

a gentleman, his colleagues being chosen from merchants, artisans, and

peasants--one from each class. They were elected for a year. The Jurats

of the island, with the consent of the Governor, could call a General

Council of their body, consisting of twenty-four members, which met at

Ciudadela. Their business was to settle the taxes and decide upon the

incidence of taxation, as well as to provide for special contingencies

and to represent grievances. Besides the Jurats, there was a Bayle or

Judge, who held a court and decided cases, there being an appeal to the

supreme court at Port Mahon. The ecclesiastical court was held by the

Vicar-General at Ciudadela. There were five parishes, and the Curas

received tithes, the other clergy being supported by Masses, fees, and

collections. In 1713 there were on the island 75 secular clergy, 140

friars, and 85 nuns--in all 300; a tolerably large proportion for a

population of 27,000.

Under British rule there was an end to the oppression and peculation

of Governors sent to the island to mend their broken fortunes; justice

was properly administered, and trade flourished. The condition of the

people visibly improved during Sir Robert Walpole’s long peace. The

island depended on foreign trade for a third of the corn that was

required, and all the oil and spirits, besides other things. It was the

English money circulated by the troops that preserved the islanders

from bankruptcy, and indeed enabled them to live in prosperity as

compared with their former lot.

The English garrison used to consist of five infantry regiments and a

company of artillery, in all 2,400 effective men. They were quartered

at San Felipe, Alaior, with a detachment at Fornelle, and Ciudadela,

the favourite quarters. The successive Governors took an almost

fatherly interest in the island, and British rule continued to be very

popular.

One of the best Governors was Brigadier Kane, who was many years

ruling in Minorca, and who died there. Soon after his arrival there

was a great scarcity of fresh provisions: the numbers of sheep and

bullocks had dwindled almost to nothing, and chickens had also become

scarce. Kane set to work to remedy the evil with great energy. He

procured and imported herds of cattle and flocks of sheep. He also got

large supplies of poultry from France, Italy, and the Barbary coast,

distributing them among the farmers and peasants; and he encouraged

the people to set to work improving their breeds. Kane also made an

excellent road for the whole length of the island, from Ciudadela to

Port Mahon.

The British occupation was not wholly without permanent record, both

as regards general history and some scientific results. Mr. John

Armstrong, the Government Engineer, described the island, its physical

aspects, antiquities, people, and institutions in a series of letters

which were published as ‘The History of the Island of Minorca’ in

1752. Dr. George Cleghorn resided for many years on the island as

Surgeon-Major to the garrison. In 1751 he published his ‘Observations

on the Epidemical Diseases in Minorca,’ a work which contains a list of

180 species of plants of the island, with Latin, English, and Minorcan

names.[36]

The first period of British rule lasted for nearly half a century, from

1708 to 1757, when there was a catastrophe.

CHAPTER VI

Minorca twice lost

The Seven Years’ War commenced in March 1756, and the first enterprise

of the French was designed against Minorca. The preparations at Toulon

were, however, concealed from a dull and apathetic English Ministry

by pretended activity in the ports of the Channel, to instil a belief

that an invasion of England was intended. Newcastle was Prime Minister,

Anson at the Admiralty, and Henry Fox Secretary of State. Pitt did

not take office until the following year. The English Ministers were

completely duped. Meanwhile the French had got ready thirteen sail of

the line and fifteen thousand troops; and at last, when the danger of

losing Minorca became apparent, hurry and confusion took the place of

sloth and apathy.

Even then only ten ships were ordered to the Mediterranean,

incompletely manned and without hospital or fire ships. The command

was given to Admiral John Byng, fourth son of Lord Torrington, who

had served under his father on board the _Superbe_ at the defeat of

the Spanish fleet off Cape Passaro. Byng sailed from Spithead on April

7, 1756, arriving at Gibraltar on May 2. Here he found the _Louisa_,

Captain Edgcombe, who reported that he had been driven from Minorca

by a French fleet of thirteen sail of the line, commanded by Admiral

Galissonière, who had landed the Duc de Richelieu on the island with

fifteen thousand men. Byng demanded a battalion of infantry from

General Fowke, the Governor of Gibraltar, to reinforce the Minorca

garrison. After consulting a council of war, this demand was refused

by the Governor. There was one regiment, commanded by Lord Robert

Bertie, in the fleet, and about thirty officers who had been on leave,

including General Stuart, Lord Effingham, and Colonel Cornwallis,

coming out to rejoin their regiments at Minorca.

While Byng was on his way, General Blakeney, the Governor of the

island, was besieged by the Due de Richelieu in the castle of San

Felipe. Byng sailed on May 8, and was off Majorca on the 10th, where

he was joined by the _Phœnix_ (Captain Hervey), who confirmed the news

brought by Captain Edgcomb to Gibraltar. Byng’s fleet consisted of

the--

_Ramillies_ (90) _Kingston_ (60)

_Culloden_ (74) _Defiance_ (60)

_Buckingham_ (68) _Louisa_ (56)

_Lancaster_ (66) _Portland_ (48)

_Trident_ (64) _Deptford_ (48)

_Intrepid_ (64) _Chesterfield_ (40)

_Captain_ (64) _Phœnix_ (22)

_Revenge_ (64) _Dolphin_ (22)

_Experiment_ (22)

On the 19th the British fleet was off Port Mahon. Byng saw the Union

Jack still flying on the castle of San Felipe, but several French

batteries were bombarding the walls. His orders were to save Minorca

at all hazards. These orders were positive and explicit, and it was

his duty to carry them out at whatever sacrifice. The sight of General

Blakeney still holding out and hoping for relief would have aroused

the ardour of most men. The French fleet came in sight, and Byng

stood towards it, making the signal for line of battle ahead at 2

P.M. The French, being about two leagues distant, tacked to gain the

weather-gage, and Byng did the same. Next morning was the 20th. It was

hazy in the forenoon, but at noon it cleared, and Byng made a signal to

bear away two points from the wind and engage the enemy.

Rear-Admiral West, with his division, bore away seven points, and

attacked the French fleet with such impetuosity that several of their

ships were put out of action. The French centre kept its position,

and Byng did not advance. This prevented West from following up his

advantage. If the Commander-in-Chief had shown equal zeal, the French

fleet would have been defeated and Minorca saved. As it was, by holding

back he gave Admiral Galissonière time to retreat out of danger. The

wind enabled Byng to fight if he would, when a complete victory would

have been the result. But he would not.

On the absurd plea that Gibraltar might be in danger, Admiral Byng

returned to that fortress, and Galissonière took up his former station

off the entrance to Port Mahon. Blakeney and his gallant companions

were abandoned to their fate. Nevertheless, they held out until June

28, after a brave defence of ten weeks, when the Governor surrendered

to the Duc de Richelieu on very honourable terms.

Admiral Byng arrived at Gibraltar on June 19, where he found

Commodore Broderick with a reinforcement of five ships of the line.

The Commander-in-Chief therefore resolved to return to Minorca, and

was making preparations for a second attempt. In the midst of this

tardy activity the _Antelope_ frigate arrived with Admirals Hawke and

Saunders and Lord Tyrawly on board. Their orders were to supersede

Admirals Byng and West and Governor Fowke, and to send them home under

arrest. Sir Edward Hawke at once sailed for Minorca, but found the

French flag flying over the castle of San Felipe. Admiral Galissonière

had retired to Toulon, and there was nothing left to be done.

The people of England were furious at the loss of Minorca, venting

all their rage on the unfortunate Admiral and none on the incapable

Ministry which had shown apathy and want of foresight and capacity, and

had neglected measures which, if taken in time, would have made Port

Mahon safe from attack.

The prisoners arrived at Portsmouth in July. Admiral West was

graciously received by the King and made a Lord of the Admiralty.

General Fowke was dismissed the service. Byng was taken to Greenwich,

where he remained a close prisoner until December. He was then brought

back to Portsmouth, to be tried by court-martial. The Court sat for a

month. Admiral West deposed that there was no reason why the rest of

the fleet should not have engaged the enemy as closely as he did; also

that there was no signal for giving chase when the enemy retreated.

General Blakeney said that boats might have passed between the garrison

and the fleet, and that if the troops ordered for his relief had been

landed he could have held out until the arrival of Sir Edward Hawke.

Captain Gardiner, of the flagship, deposed that he advised the Admiral

to bear down on the enemy, but without effect, and that the Admiral

took command of the _Ramillies_ entirely upon himself on the day of the

action. The court found that he had not done his utmost to destroy the

ships of the enemy that it was his duty to engage, but that this did

not proceed from want of courage or disaffection.

Lord Anson, the First Lord of the Admiralty, resigned, and was

succeeded by Lord Temple, who had to discuss the sentence with George

II. He drew a parallel between Byng’s conduct at Minorca and George’s

own conduct at Oudenarde in 1708; leaving the King to draw the

necessary inference that if Byng deserved to be shot, George deserved

to be hanged. The King said afterwards: ‘Temple is so disagreeable a

fellow that there is no bearing him.’

Admiral West, when he found that it was in tended to shoot Byng,

resigned his seat at the Admiralty. His evidence against Byng had been

damning, but he would not be a party to his execution. Nor would he

serve afloat under such a Ministry, saying that ‘he was determined to

forego anything rather than serve on terms which subject an officer to

the treatment shown Admiral Byng. He was not convicted of cowardice nor

of disaffection, but of misconduct, an offence never till now thought

capital.’ Admiral West was of opinion that the word ‘negligence’ in the

Article of War was only intended to refer to one of those two crimes,

cowardice or disaffection--‘that is, _negligence proceeding from

cowardice or disaffection_.’ He said that was the opinion of the House

of Commons when the Bill was before them. Admiral Forbes, another Lord

of the Admiralty, who held similar views, resigned at the same time.

Admiral Byng certainly deserved to be dismissed from the service;

but his execution was a political murder. He was shot on March 14,

1758, after eight months of close arrest. He had forty years of naval

service. George II. would show no mercy, and there was a malignant

political clique whose neglect of duty would be lost sight of through

this persecution of a scape-goat even unto death. The mistaken

resentment of a deluded populace was stimulated to the utmost. The loss

of Minorca was due quite as much to the neglect of Ministers in not

taking earlier steps for its defence as to the misconduct of Admiral

Byng.

At the peace in 1763 Minorca was restored to England, and enjoyed

another nineteen years of good government and prosperity, making

altogether sixty-seven years.

But when the American colonies broke out in rebellion and the chief

Powers of Europe seized the opportunity to attack our country in its

great difficulty--first France, then Spain, then Holland, England’s

enemies, thought their opportunity had come. They were mistaken,

for England is never greater than when surrounded by enemies. She

gave France her answer off Martinique; France and Spain together in

Gibraltar Bay. But she could not be everywhere, and poor little

Minorca was lost. While England was dealing back such telling blows

elsewhere, the French and Spaniards landed, and laid siege to the

castle of San Felipe. Their leader, De Crillon, pushed on the attack,

but the English Governor, General Murray, made a most gallant defence.

It was in 1782. Murray did not surrender until his garrison was reduced

to six hundred men, while the besiegers had twelve thousand. It was

typical of the whole war--England standing proudly at bay and dealing

out far more than she got, with rebels, French, Spaniards, Dutch, all

yelping round her. Peace was signed in 1783, but Minorca was lost.

Don Luis Berton de los Balbs, Duke of Crillon, Marquis of Valleron, and

Count of St. Pol, was made a Grandee of Spain and Duke of Mahon in 1790

for subduing six hundred English soldiers by starvation with an army

of twelve thousand men. He died in 1796. The second Duke of Mahon was

Viceroy of Navarre for Joseph Bonaparte, and a traitor to his country.

His niece Victoriana, Duchess of Mahon, succeeded to all the titles,

and was living in 1870.

Thus was Minorca twice lost, after most gallant defences against

tremendous odds by Generals Blakeney and Murray. The little island was

destined once more to become a British possession for a few years, and

then to be separated from her truest and best friends for ever.

CHAPTER VII

The third occupation of Minorca--Loss of British rule

When the War of the French Revolution broke out England had no base

within the Mediterranean. The necessity for such a base was very much

increased when Napoleon got possession of Malta. Lord St. Vincent had

taken the command of the Mediterranean station in December 1795; on

February 14, 1797, he fought the great battle which gave him his title,

and afterwards kept up the blockade of Cadiz. He knew that Napoleon was

meditating the Egyptian expedition, and detached Nelson with thirteen

sail of the line to watch and, if possible, to intercept the enemy. At

the same time he sent home an urgent appeal for reinforcements, and Sir

Roger Curtis was sent to him with eight sail of the line.

Lord St. Vincent came to the conclusion that the possession of a base

within the Mediterranean for the English fleet was of such importance

that it was necessary to occupy Minorca once more. He was not a man

to let the grass grow under his feet. He had no sooner come to this

conclusion than he proceeded to act upon it. He organised a squadron of

six ships, to be led by Commodore Duckworth:

_Leviathan_ (74), Commodore Duckworth.

_Centaur_ (74), Captain John Markham.

_Argo_ (44), Captain J. Bowen.

_Aurora_ (28), Captain Caulfield.

_Cormorant_ (20), Captain Lord Mark Kerr.

_Peterel_ (16), Captain Charles Long.

The squadron convoyed several transports with troops under the command

of General the Hon. Charles Stuart, a younger son of the Earl of Bute,

the Prime Minister. After a tedious passage, owing to contrary winds,

the squadron brought to within five miles of the port of Fornelle,

on the north coast of Minorca, on November 7, 1798. Fornelle is a

very large and spacious harbour, but it contains many shoals and much

foul ground. On the west side of the entrance there is an old fort,

consisting of four bastions connected by curtains. On the other side

there is an _atalaya_ or signal station. After a reconnaissance, it

was decided that Fornelle was not a desirable place for landing the

troops. It was decided to send the smaller ships and transports to

Addaya Creek, while the two line-of-battle ships stood off and on

outside.

Addaya forms a large harbour on the north-east coast of the island,

with a valley surrounded by lofty bare hills, which shelter it from

the bleak north-westerly winds. The valley produces every kind of

vegetable in abundance, while the vineyards and fruit gardens yield

grapes, oranges, and pomegranates in profusion. One of the very few

springs in the island sends down a stream, whence irrigating channels

were conducted to every part of the valley. This is one of the most

delightful spots in Minorca; but the harbour is full of rocks, and is

only safe for small vessels.

Here General Stuart landed his troops and immediately occupied the

surrounding heights, the Spaniards retreating to Ciudadela and Port

Mahon. There was no fighting, and the whole island surrendered to

General Stuart, including the castle of San Felipe, on November 15.

The Commodore, hearing a report of strange sail being in sight,

proceeded to Ciudadela with the _Leviathan_ and _Centaur_, and at

daybreak on the 13th five sail were reported from the _Centaur’s_

masthead. An exciting chase was at once commenced. The strangers were

large Spanish frigates, and they hauled their winds for Majorca. The

_Leviathan_ returned to Ciudadela that evening. Captain Markham of the

_Centaur_ set every stitch of canvas and continued the chase until the

14th, but he was completely outsailed by the Spaniards. He returned to

Port Mahon on the day of the surrender, writing home that ‘the whole

island is now in our possession, without loss of any kind.’ He received

884_l._ 6_s._ 8_d._ as his share of the capture of Minorca.

The possession of Port Mahon, in a war with France and Spain combined,

provided a base for the fleet whence the Spanish coast could be

harassed and the approaches to Toulon watched and hindered.

The _Centaur_ (Captain Markham) and _Cormorant_ (Captain Lord Mark

Kerr) cruised along the coast of Catalonia, doing some damage to the

enemy in February 1799. The ports of Cambrils and Salou, memorable as

the places of embarkation of En Jayme I. and his successors, received

unpleasant visits: the guns on the fort at Cambrils were dismounted,

and a large Spanish frigate was driven on shore and became a wreck. The

_Centaur_ and _Cormorant_ passed April at Port Mahon, and in May Lord

Mark Kerr received orders to take home General Stuart and his staff.

In the end of the year Lord Keith had arrived with eleven ships of

the line, as second in command to Lord St. Vincent, and continued the

blockade of Cadiz. The Commander-in-Chief, owing to ill-health, was

living on shore at Gibraltar. Suddenly the news arrived that Lord

Bridport had allowed the French fleet of twenty-five sail of the line,

commanded by Admiral Bruix, to give him the slip from Brest. On May 4

the French fleet came in sight of Lord Keith, who formed in line and

offered battle. But a gale of wind was blowing, and Bruix bore up for

the Mediterranean. Keith came to Gibraltar to report the great event to

Lord St. Vincent, and the old veteran at once hoisted his flag on board

the _Ville de Paris_ and took command, ill as he was. Taking Lord Keith

under his orders, he proceeded with the fleet to Port Mahon, the object

being to engage the enemy and prevent him from getting into Toulon.

At midnight on May 21 Lord St. Vincent made sail towards Toulon; but on

June 2 he became so ill that he was obliged to return to Port Mahon,

and on the 18th he resigned the command to Lord Keith and went home.

On July 3 the fleet came in sight of Toulon, the _Centaur_ (Captain

Markham) being ahead. Owing to some news he received, Lord Keith then

crowded all sail for the Bay of Rosas, in hopes of intercepting the

French fleet. But there was disappointment, and once more he shaped a

course for Toulon. The _Centaur_ was always the advanced ship, well

ahead, the frigate _Bellona_ being five miles astern, and the rest of

the fleet out of sight. At 9 A.M. on June 18 five strange sail were

reported from the masthead. A very exciting chase immediately began at

a distance of about sixty miles from Cape Sicie on the French coast.

The strangers proved to be three French frigates and two brigs. After

nine hours the _Centaur_ came up with the sternmost frigate, and

fired into her. She struck, and Captain Markham made a signal to the

_Bellona_ to take possession. Again making all sail, he came up first

with the second and then with the third frigate, which both struck, as

well as the brigs. The prizes were brought to Port Mahon, and all were

taken into the British Navy.

Lord Keith cruised off Toulon for some days and then went to Genoa; but

still there were no authentic tidings of the French fleet. Once more

he stood towards Minorca, and received a reinforcement of twelve sail

of the line under Admiral Collingwood. But on June 24 the French fleet

left the Mediterranean, and on July 12 it was at Cadiz. Lord Keith

determined to try for news at Gibraltar, arriving on the 14th, only to

receive the maddening intelligence that the enemy was just two days

ahead of him. Then began a desperate chase; for if the French fleet

could be forced to give battle, it would be the most momentous event in

the war. On the 30th Lord Keith left Gibraltar with thirty-one sail of

the line. He was just too late. The _Centaur_ looked into Brest and saw

forty sail of the line safely anchored there, being the French fleet

under Admiral Bruix and the Spanish fleet under Admiral Mazaredo. They

had got in only six hours before, and Keith was gaining on them fast.

Lord Keith, stung with anguish at the disappointment, sadly returned to

Port Mahon.

Minorca continued to be a very important base for the operations of the

British fleet, whence Lord Keith obtained his memorable successes on

the coast of Egypt. But when the Peace of Amiens was signed on March

26, 1802, Minorca was ceded to Spain. The long connection of the little

island with England was thus severed for ever, and to the Minorcans

was only left a tradition and a memory of happier and more prosperous

times.

Such prosperity as Minorca has since enjoyed has been due to her

excellent harbour, the fame of which as a safe place of refuge gave

rise to Andrea Doria’s well-known proverb:

Los puertos del Mediterraneo son.

Junio, Julio, Agosto y Puerto Mahon.

So long as sailing ships were the means of locomotion at sea, crowds

of merchant vessels frequented the port. It was also visited by the

British fleet in the Mediterranean, which always received a cordial

welcome in memory of the good old times. The Spanish Government

undertook stupendous works of fortification at Cape Mola, on the

eastern side of the entrance of Port Mahon. The introduction of steam

reduced the importance of the harbour, which became less and less

frequented. The garrison was withdrawn and the works at Cape Mola were

abandoned, all sources of wealth to the islanders. Minorca has indeed

fallen from its high estate. There is stagnation and poverty. A former

Consul,[37] in lamenting this decadence, truly said that ‘those who do

visit Minorca will find a bright little town and friendly inhabitants,

some of whom yet express in broken English their love for England,

while they speak joyously and feelingly of the good and flourishing

times when Minorca was under British rule.’

[Illustration: MINORCA]

INDEX

Abdalla, son of Musa, conquered the Balearic Isles, 10

Abu Yahye, Amír of Majorca, 11

Acart de Mur, master of the camp in the Minorca conquest, 231

Aci Reale, 66

Adaia valley in Minorca, 265, 284

Adrianople, 105

Agnani, Treaty of, 98

Alagon, Blasco de, Federigo’s general, 99, 103

Alaro, 34

Alayor in Minorca, 240, 263

Albareda, Señor, Grand Hotel, Palma, and hotel at Porto Pi, 218

Alberoni, Cardinal, his violence, 255

Albufera in Minorca, 265

Alcudia, 8;

Charles V. landed at, 176;

Majorcan nobles escape to, 182;

Pedro Paz in command at, 183;

siege, 183, 184;

relieved, 185, 186;

honoured, 189

Aldonza, queen of Portugal, 40

Alemany, Geronimo, historian of Majorca, 191, 198

Alençon, Count of, slain, 63

Aleppo pines, 9, 213, 220

Alfavia, country seat of Benahabet, 28, 41;

inherited by the Santa Cilia family, 156;

passed to the Bergas and Zafortezas, 156;

position and description, 156, 157;

the memorial chair at, 157

Alfonso I., El Batallador, took Zaragoza, 2

Alfonso II., 40

Alfonso III., 77;

occupation of Majorca, 93, 94;

accession, 96;

to marry daughter of Edward I. of England, death, 97, 235;

invaded Minorca, 230, 231, 232;

victory over Moors, 233, 234;

ordered Port Mahon to be built 235

Alfonso IV., 142

Alfonso V., conquered Naples, 163;

duel before, at Naples, 164, 166

Alfonso of Naples, grandson of Alfonso V., 167

Alfonso, Duke of Gandia, 163

Alfonso X. of Castille:

married Violante of Aragon, 49;

Murcia conquered for, by Jayme I., 49;

Fernando, his eldest son, 93

Algiers, expedition of Charles V., 176, 237, 239

Ali al Muhtadi, 10

Almanza, battle of, 244

Almeria, siege of, 124

Almogavares, light infantry, account of, 61, 62, 91, 93, 99, 128, 231,

233

Almojarife, title of the Moorish chief of Minorca, 228, 231 (_n_);

sent to Barbary for help, 231;

defeated, 233;

surrender, 234, 236

Almonds in Majorca, 9;

extent of cultivation, 213

Almudaina of Palma, 22;

Jayme I. at, 32;

restored as a palace, 111;

Jayme IV. born at, 144

Alonsiada, written by Ramis, 235

Ampudia, Count of, 97

Ampurdan, 132, 154

Ampurias, Ponce Hugo, Count of, 12;

advanced with his men, 18;

conducted mining operations at the siege of Palma, 30;

death, 33;

one of the great feudatory families of Majorca, 45, 103, 195

Andraix attacked by the Moors, 177

Andrew, King of Hungary, 8

Andria, Count of, married to an heiress of the Morea, 129;

Isabel of, 130

Andronicus, Emperor of the East, welcomed the Catalan Company, 104

Angelats, Miguel, defended Soller against the pirates, 178

Anglesola, serving in the Minorca conquest, 231

Anjou. _See_ Charles of.

Anson, Lord, 277

_Antelope_, H.M.S., 276

Antequera. _See_ Fernando of.

Apricots in Majorca, 9, 109, 213

Apulia, 63, 64

Aracuri, Garcia Garces de, 231

Aragon, ancestry of nobles, 2;

kingdom, first king, 2;

marriage of the heiress, 2;

arms of, 3;

constitution, titles, 4, 47;

ancient families 4 (_n_);

division by Jayme I., 50;

interdict, 52, 65;

kings compared with Plantagenets, 5;

question of succession, 162, 163.

_See_ Alfonso, Jayme, Juan, Martin Fernando, Pedro, Fueros.

Archduke Luis Salvator at Miramar, 215;

his work on the Balearic Isles, 215

_Argo_, H.M.S., 283

Ariañy. _See_ Cotoner.

Armstrong, J., ‘History of Minorca,’ 270

Arquimbau, Governor of Ciudadela when besieged by the Turks, 240

Arta, cave of, attacked, 36

Ash-shakandi, Moorish chronicler, 9

Asturias, 1;

Romana in, 206;

Jovellanos born in, 209, 210, 211

_Asturias, Principe de_, flagship of Chacon off Cape Passaro, 257

Atalayas, or look-out towers, 137, 223

Ataranza at Palma, 22

Athens, Duke of, 123;

dukedom, 128

Augusta, 79, 101

_Aurora_, H.M.S., 283

Aversa, Castle of, 123

Avignon, 137, 143, 153

Ayamans. _See_ Togores.

Ayerba, Blasco Jimenes de, arranged for the deportation of Moors of

Minorca, 234

Aygua Freda, 38

Badajos, 297

Balearic Isles overrun by the Moors, 10;

Archduke Luis Salvator’s monograph, 215;

Bidwell’s work on, 217, 289 (_n_);

Phœnicians and Carthaginians, 225;

Roman occupation, 229;

Bishop of, at a Council of Toledo, 228.

_See_ Majorca, Minorca.

Barbarossa, pirate, 176, 188, 237

Barbary, Pedro III. on coast of, 60;

pirates, precautions against, 137, 163;

incursions in Majorca, 177, 179;

help to Moors in Minorca, 231, 232, 234;

attacks on Minorca, 237

Barcelo y Combis, work on Balearic flora, 214, 271 (_n_)

Barcelona, conquered by Louis, son of Charlemagne, 2;

marriage of Count with heiress of Aragon, 2;

attack by the Moors, 11;

Counts of, their coat of arms, 3;

laws, 4;

palace of Counts, 12;

dockyard, 59;

Queen Constance sailed from, 77, 78;

Charles of Anjou in prison at, 81, 96;

Jayme II. landed at, 77;

sons of King of Majorca in prison at, 136, 147;

rescue of Majorcan princes, 147;

Jayme IV. in prison at, 151;

measures against Barbary pirates, 163;

death of the Prince of Viana at, 168;

sailors of, 170, 171;

fall of, 192;

for the Archduke Charles, 243

Barcelona, Bishop of:

the Moorish chief placed the Balearic Isles under his jurisdiction, 10;

joins in the invasion of Majorca, 12;

Mass before the battle, 17;

announced heavy losses, 19;

with Jayme I. at the caves, 35;

one of the great Minorca feudatories, 45

Barrancas in Minorca, 265, 267

Basque provinces, 1

Bearne, Viscount de. _See_ Moncada.

_Bellona_, H.M.S., 287

Bellpuig. _See_ Dameto.

Belver Castle, 113, 115;

Jayme II. imprisoned at, 151;

Juan I. at, 160;

besieged and taken by Comuneros, 82;

Order of Juan II., 168;

Jovellanos imprisoned in, 210, 211;

work of Jovellanos on, 210;

declared a Patrimonio Real, 211, 212

Benahabet, Moorish chief of Majorca, went over to King Jayme I., 28, 34,

41;

his heiress married Santa Cilia, 142;

arms of Leonor Ben-nassar his daughter, 157.

_See_ Alfavia

Bendinat, 20; castle, 21, 208

Beni Umiyyah dynasty, 10, 228

Berga, 147

Berga, noble family of Majorca, 108;

inherited Alfavia, 156;

arms, 157

Bertie, Lord Robert, 173

Berwick, Duke of, 244

Bidwell’s ‘Balearic Islands,’ 217, 289 (_n_)

Bilithon. _See_ Prehistoric Remains.

Binisalem, 109

Blakeney, General, gallant defence of Minorca, 273, 274;

surrender, 275;

evidence on Byng’s court martial, 277

Blanche of Anjou to marry Jayme II. of Aragon, 98

Bofarull, Antonio de, edition of Muntaner, 55 (_n_)

Bona sent help to the Minorca Moors, 231

Bonet, Nicolas, his ship to lead the fleet of Jayme I., 13

Boniface VIII., Pope, gained over King Jayme II. of Aragon, 98;

negotiated the treaty of Agnani, 98;

ceded Corsica and Sardinia to Aragon, 98, 103

Bordeaux, 64, 67, 71, 72, 73, 97

Bosch, family of, 165

Bosch y Cerda, Don Bartolomé, British consul, 215

Botany of Majorca, 214;

Minorca, 270 (_n_)

Bover, his account of the coinage of Majorca, 110;

edited the Majorca historians, 191;

his ‘Nobiliario,’ 193 (_n_)

Bowen, Captain, H.M.S. _Argo_, 283

_Breda_, H.M.S., in battle of Cape Passaro, 257

Brienne, Comte de, Duke of Athens, slain, 128

Broderick, Commodore, arrived at Gibraltar, 276

_Buckingham_, H.M.S., 274

Buesca, first capital of Aragon, 2

Bugia, Lulio martyred at, 231

Burgos, 153

Burgues, noble family of Majorca, 108;

arms, 157;

title given, 193

Burgundy, Duke of, founded a principality in the Morea, 128, 129

Butler, Captain H.M.S. _Dunkirk_, sent to capture Fornells, 248

Byng, Admiral Sir George, sent to the Mediterranean to hinder Spanish

designs on Sicily, 254;

at Port Mahon and Naples, 255;

chased the Spanish fleet, 256;

victory off Cape Passaro, 257;

visited Count Mercy, 258, 259;

at Genoa, 260;

success of all his measures, 262;

created Viscount Torrington, 262

Byng, Admiral John, sent to relieve Minorca, 273;

with his father off Cape Passaro, 273;

at Gibraltar, 273;

off Minorca, 274;

his fleet, 274;

evaded an action, 275;

his court martial, 277;

executed, 279

Cabrera, Isle, 88

Calabria, 96, 103

Calatabellota, 103

Calatayud, 74

Cambrils, Jayme’s fleet assembled at, 13, 285

Cammock, Irish renegade, Spanish rear-admiral, 256

Camprodon, François, architect of the Almudaina at Palma, 111

Canet, fight for the water-supply, 27, 29;

country house of the Torrellas, 27, 28;

fayence factory at, 200;

noble family of Majorca, viscounts, 108

Cannæ, 225

_Canterbury_, H.M.S., 257

_Captain_, H.M.S., in Sir G. Byng’s action, 257;

in Byng’s fleet off Minorca, 274

Carbonell, his story not to be believed, 234, 235

Carcassonne, 6

Carlists imprisoned at Belver, 211

Carlos (_see_ Viana, Prince of; _see_ Charles), 167

Caro, noble family of Majorca, 108, 201.

_See_ Romana.

Carob-trees, area covered by, in Majorca, 213

Carroz, Don Francisco, in command of the expedition to restore order in

Majorca, 184

Carroz, a German knight, 13

Cartailhac, M., on prehistoric remains in Minorca, 221

Carthaginians in Minorca (_see_ Mago), 225;

founded Port Mahon, 227

Cartuja at Valdemosa, 161, 162

Castro Giovanni, 261

Catalan language, 4;

King Jayme’s Journal written in, 11;

Chronicle of Muntaner, 55;

dialect in Majorca, 214

Catalans army, conquest of Majorca by, 26;

naval power, 59;

victory, 66;

crossbowmen, 86, 87;

naval victories, 85, 86;

Company in the east (_see_ Company);

as navigators, 170, 172;

Portolani, 172;

abandoned by Treaty of Utrecht, 251;

grief of the Archduke Charles at their treatment, 252

Catalonia, 1;

French invasion, 84

Catania, granted to Prince Fernando, 128, 129;

death of Isabel of Andria at, 130

Catona, 63

Caulfield, Captain H.M.S. _Aurora_, 283

Caves, description of the Cueva del Drachs, 35, 36;

Cueva de Arta, fugitives in, 37;

in Minorca, 221

Cefalu, 79, 81, 100

_Centaur_, H.M.S., Captain Markham, 283;

chases Spanish frigates, 285;

on coast of Catalonia, 285, 286;

capture of French frigates, 287;

off Brest, 288

Centelles, Gilabert de, Governor of Majorca for Pedro IV., 148

_Centurion_, H.M.S., off Minorca, 247;

sent to Fornells, 248

Cerdaña, 6, 49;

Jayme I. succeeded to, 50, 56;

King Sancho of Majorca died in, 139;

Jayme IV. of Majorca died in, 155

Cette, 85

Ceuta, 234

Chair of Alfavia, memorial to Jayme IV. and Isabel, 157;

description, 155, 159

Champans, Bernardo de. _See_ Templars

Charles of Anjou:

carried out the Pope’s designs against Sicily, 57;

conquered Naples and Sicily, 58;

cruelty to Manfred’s family, 58;

driven out of Sicily by the King of Aragon, 60, 63;

challenged Pedro of Aragon, 64;

his appeal to the Pope against Aragon, 65;

dispossessed of Malta, 66;

came to Bordeaux, 67, 71;

discomfited, returned to Toulouse, 74;

Sicily delivered from, 76;

intriguing at Rome, 79;

death, 82

Charles II. of Anjou taken prisoner, 79, 80;

forced to liberate King Manfred’s daughter, 80;

his life saved by Prince Jayme, in prison at Barcelona, 81, 90;

released, 98;

treaty with Federigo, 103

Charles II. of Spain, 191;

death, 241

Charles III. of Spain, his monument to Jayme II., 118

Charles IV. of Spain, 210, 211

Charles V., expedition to Algiers, 176, 237;

landed at Alcudia, 175;

at Palma, 176;

steps to restore order in Majorca, 184

Charles of Valois, the Pope’s ‘King of Aragon,’ 82;

mocked by his elder brother, 83, 84, 90;

sent against Sicily, failure, 100

_Chesterfield_, H.M.S., 274

Chopin, 162

Cienfuegos, 206

Ciudadela, 222, 227, 235, 239;

besieged by the Turks, 240;

defences repaired, 241;

under British rule, 263, 266, 284

Clarenza, taken by Prince Fernando of Majorca, 131;

Jayme III. of Majorca, Lord of, 141

Cleghorn, Dr., on the botany of Minorca, 270

Coinage of Majorca, 110;

of King Sancho, 140

Columbus centenary, copy of Valseca Portolano for, 172

Company of Catalans under Roger de Flor, 103;

massacre by Greeks, repulse Greeks at Gallipoli, 105;

Prince Fernando arrived to take command, 120, 121;

abandon Gallipoli, march on Salonica, 122;

take service under the Duke of Athens, 123, 128;

kill the Duke of Athens and his nobles, 128

Compasses, early use of, 77, 171

Comuneros of Majorca, 182;

atrocities, 183;

besiege Alcudia, 183, 184;

defence of Pollenza, 185;

vengeance on, 188

Comunidades in Spain, 180;

in Majorca, 180

Conflent, 49;

Jayme II. to succeed to, 50, 55, 56

Conradin, beheaded by Charles of Anjou, appeals to the King of Aragon

to avenge his death, 58, 59, 81

Constance, daughter of Manfred of Sicily, wife of Pedro III. of

Aragon, 48;

rightful Queen of Sicily, 64;

went to Sicily with two sons, 76;

arrival at Palermo, 78;

Sicilian Parliament swore allegiance to, 79;

at Messina, meeting with her sister, 81;

children, 94

Constance of Aragon married to the Infante Juan Manuel, 49

Constance of Aragon, wife of Jayme III. of Majorca, 142, 143, 149

Constantia sent help to Minorca, 232

Constantinople, 105

_Cormorant_, H.M.S., 284, 285

Cornel, En Pedro, General of the army of Alfonso III. against Minorca,

231

Cornut, E. Pedro, Admiral of the Provençal fleet, 66

Cornwallis, Colonel, 273

Corsica ceded to Aragon by the Pope, 98, 118, 138, 143

Coruña, 205

Cotoner, noble family of Aragon:

Marquis of Ariañy, 108;

Nicolas, at reception of Charles V., 176;

some murdered by Comuneros, 183, 189;

title given, 193;

Grand Masters of Malta, 194;

general, 194, 214

Cotonera at Malta, 194

Crespi, Juan, leader of Comuneros at Palma, 181, 186, 188;

death, 188

Creus, Cape of, 86

Cristopol, 122

Crossbowmen. _See_ Catalans.

Cruilles, Gilbert de, envoy of Aragon at Bordeaux, 68;

met King Pedro, 71;

came with the attested copy of the notary’s statement, 75

Cullera, Catalan dockyard at, 59

_Culloden_, H.M.S., 274

Cyprus, King of: niece married to Prince Fernando, 131, 134

Cyzicus, 104

Dameto, noble family of Majorca, Marquis of Bellpuig, 108;

Albertin, served against the Comuneros, 189;

Don Juan, historian of Majorca, 190

Daun, Count, Viceroy of Naples, 253

De Crillon, Duke of Mahon, 280

_Defiance_, H.M.S., 274

Denia, 10

Denmark, Spanish troops in, and escape from, 205

_Deptford_, H.M.S., 274

Desbrull. _See_ Sureda.

Desclot, on Jayme I., 7

Dragonera Island, 14

Dragut, Barbary pirate, 176

Duckworth, Commodore, sent to re-take Minorca, 283;

list of ships of his squadron, 283

_Dunkirk_, H.M.S., off Minorca, 247;

sent to Fornells, 248

Edgcombe, Captain H.M.S. _Louisa_, 273, 274

Edward I. of England:

connection with Aragon, 5, 6, 7;

refused to join with the Pope against King Manfred of Sicily, 57;

umpire between Pedro III. and Charles of Anjou, 64, 67;

does not come to Bordeaux owing to French treachery, 67;

intervention to restore peace, 96, 97;

his daughter Eleanor to marry Alfonso III. of Aragon, 97

Edward the Black Prince joined by Jayme IV. of Majorca, 153

Effingham, Lord, 273