EFFECT OF COLOUR WITH REFERENCE TO MORAL ASSOCIATIONS.
758.
Since colour occupies so important a place in the series of elementary
phenomena, filling as it does the limited circle assigned to it with
fullest variety, we shall not be surprised to find that its effects are
at all times decided and significant, and that they are immediately
associated with the emotions of the mind. We shall not be surprised
to find that these appearances presented singly, are specific, that
in combination they may produce an harmonious, characteristic, often
even an inharmonious effect on the eye, by means of which they act on
the mind; producing this impression in their most general elementary
character, without relation to the nature or form of the object on
whose surface they are apparent. Hence, colour considered as an element
of art, may be made subservient to the highest æsthetical ends.--Note C
C.
759.
People experience a great delight in colour, generally. The eye
requires it as much as it requires light. We have only to remember
the refreshing sensation we experience, if on a cloudy day the sun
illumines a single portion of the scene before us and displays its
colours. That healing powers were ascribed to coloured gems, may have
arisen from the experience of this indefinable pleasure.
760.
The colours which we see on objects are not qualities entirely
strange to the eye; the organ is not thus merely habituated to the
impression; no, it is always predisposed to produce colour of itself,
and experiences a sensation of delight if something analogous to its
own nature is offered to it from without; if its susceptibility is
distinctly determined towards a given state.
761.
From some of our earlier observations we can conclude, that general
impressions produced by single colours cannot be changed, that they act
specifically, and must produce definite, specific states in the living
organ.
762.
They likewise produce a corresponding influence on the mind. Experience
teaches us that particular colours excite particular states of feeling.
It is related of a witty Frenchman, "Il prétendoit que son ton de
conversation avec Madame étoit changé depuis qu'elle avoit changé en
cramoisi le meuble de son cabinet, qui étoit bleu."
763.
In order to experience these influences completely, the eye should be
entirely surrounded with one colour; we should be in a room of one
colour, or look through a coloured glass. We are then identified with
the hue, it attunes the eye and mind in mere unison with itself.
764.
The colours on the _plus_ side are yellow, red-yellow (orange),
yellow-red (minium, cinnabar). The feelings they excite are quick,
lively, aspiring.
YELLOW.
765.
This is the colour nearest the light. It appears on the slightest
mitigation of light, whether by semi-transparent mediums or faint
reflection from white surfaces. In prismatic experiments it extends
itself alone and widely in the light space, and while the two poles
remain separated from each other, before it mixes with blue to
produce green it is to be seen in its utmost purity and beauty. How
the chemical yellow developes itself in and upon the white, has been
circumstantially described in its proper place.
766.
In its highest purity it always carries with it the nature of
brightness, and has a serene, gay, softly exciting character.
767.
In this state, applied to dress, hangings, carpeting, &c., it is
agreeable. Gold in its perfectly unmixed state, especially when the
effect of polish is superadded, gives us a new and high idea of this
colour; in like manner, a strong yellow, as it appears on satin, has a
magnificent and noble effect.
768.
We find from experience, again, that yellow excites a warm and
agreeable impression. Hence in painting it belongs to the illumined and
emphatic side.
769.
This impression of warmth may be experienced in a very lively manner if
we look at a landscape through a yellow glass, particularly on a grey
winter's day. The eye is gladdened, the heart expanded and cheered, a
glow seems at once to breathe towards us.
770.
If, however, this colour in its pure and bright state is agreeable
and gladdening, and in its utmost power is serene and noble, it is, on
the other hand, extremely liable to contamination, and produces a very
disagreeable effect if it is sullied, or in some degree tends to the
_minus_ side. Thus, the colour of sulphur, which inclines to green, has
a something unpleasant in it.
771.
When a yellow colour is communicated to dull and coarse surfaces,
such as common cloth, felt, or the like, on which it does not appear
with full energy, the disagreeable effect alluded to is apparent. By
a slight and scarcely perceptible change, the beautiful impression
of fire and gold is transformed into one not undeserving the epithet
foul; and the colour of honour and joy reversed to that of ignominy
and aversion. To this impression the yellow hats of bankrupts and the
yellow circles on the mantles of Jews, may have owed their origin.
RED-YELLOW.
772.
As no colour can be considered as stationary, so we can very easily
augment yellow into reddish by condensing or darkening it. The colour
increases in energy, and appears in red-yellow more powerful and
splendid.
773.
All that we have said of yellow is applicable here in a higher
degree. The red-yellow gives an impression of warmth and gladness,
since it represents the hue of the intenser glow of fire, and of the
milder radiance of the setting sun. Hence it is agreeable around us,
and again, as clothing, in greater or less degrees is cheerful and
magnificent. A slight tendency to red immediately gives a new character
to yellow, and while the English and Germans content themselves
with bright pale yellow colours in leather, the French, as Castel
has remarked, prefer a yellow enhanced to red; indeed, in general,
everything in colour is agreeable to them which belongs to the active
side.
YELLOW-RED.
774.
As pure yellow passes very easily to red-yellow, so the deepening of
this last to yellow-red is not to be arrested. The agreeable, cheerful
sensation which red-yellow excites, increases to an intolerably
powerful impression in bright yellow-red.
775,
The active side is here in its highest energy, and it is not to
be wondered at that impetuous, robust, uneducated men, should be
especially pleased with this colour. Among savage nations the
inclination for it has been universally remarked, and when children,
left to themselves, begin to use tints, they never spare vermilion and
minium.
776.
In looking steadfastly at a perfectly yellow-red surface, the colour
seems actually to penetrate the organ. It produces an extreme
excitement, and still acts thus when somewhat darkened. A yellow-red
cloth disturbs and enrages animals. I have known men of education to
whom its effect was intolerable if they chanced to see a person dressed
in a scarlet cloak on a grey, cloudy day.
777.
The colours on the _minus_ side are blue, red-blue, and blue-red. They
produce a restless, susceptible, anxious impression.
BLUE.
778.
As yellow is always accompanied with light, so it may be said that blue
still brings a principle of darkness with it.
779.
This colour has a peculiar and almost indescribable effect on the eye.
As a hue it is powerful, but it is on the negative side, and in its
highest purity is, as it were, a stimulating negation. Its appearance,
then, is a kind of contradiction between excitement and repose.
780.
As the upper sky and distant mountains appear blue, so a blue surface
seems to retire from us.
781.
But as we readily follow an agreeable object that flies from us, so we
love to contemplate blue, not because it advances to us, but because it
draws us after it.
782.
Blue gives us an impression of cold, and thus, again, reminds us of
shade. We have before spoken of its affinity with black.
783.
Rooms which are hung with pure blue, appear in some degree larger, but
at the same time empty and cold.
784.
The appearance of objects seen through a blue glass is gloomy and
melancholy.
785.
When blue partakes in some degree of the _plus_ side, the effect is not
disagreeable. Sea-green is rather a pleasing colour.
RED-BLUE.
786.
We found yellow very soon tending to the intense state, and we observe
the same progression in blue.
787.
Blue deepens very mildly into red, and thus acquires a somewhat active
character, although it is on the passive side. Its exciting power is,
however, of a very different kind from that of the red-yellow. It may
be said to disturb rather than enliven.
788.
As augmentation itself is not to be arrested, so we feel an inclination
to follow the progress of the colour, not, however, as in the case of
the red-yellow, to see it still increase in the active sense, but to
find a point to rest in.
789.
In a very attenuated state, this colour is known to us under the name
of lilac; but even in this degree it has a something lively without
gladness.
790.
This unquiet feeling increases as the hue progresses, and it may be
safely assumed, that a carpet of a perfectly pure deep blue-red would
be intolerable. On this account, when it is used for dress, ribbons, or
other ornaments, it is employed in a very attenuated and light state,
and thus displays its character as above defined, in a peculiarly
attractive manner.
791.
As the higher dignitaries of the church have appropriated this unquiet
colour to themselves, we may venture to say that it unceasingly aspires
to the cardinal's red through the restless degrees of a still impatient
progression.
RED.
792.
We are here to forget everything that borders on yellow or blue. We
are to imagine an absolutely pure red, like fine carmine suffered to
dry on white porcelain. We have called this colour "purpur" by way
of distinction, although we are quite aware that the purple of the
ancients inclined more to blue.
793.
Whoever is acquainted with the prismatic origin of red, will not think
it paradoxical if we assert that this colour partly _actu_, partly
_potentiâ_, includes all the other colours.
794.
We have remarked a constant progress or augmentation in yellow and
blue, and seen what impressions were produced by the various states;
hence it may naturally be inferred that now, in the junction of the
deepened extremes, a feeling of satisfaction must succeed; and thus, in
physical phenomena, this highest of all appearances of colour arises
from the junction of two contrasted extremes which have gradually
prepared themselves for a union.
795.
As a pigment, on the other hand, it presents itself to us already
formed, and is most perfect as a hue in cochineal; a substance which,
however, by chemical action may be made to tend to the _plus_ or the
_minus_ side, and may be considered to have attained the central point
in the best carmine.
796.
The effect of this colour is as peculiar as its nature. It conveys an
impression of gravity and dignity, and at the same time of grace and
attractiveness. The first in its dark deep state, the latter in its
light attenuated tint; and thus the dignity of age and the amiableness
of youth may adorn itself with degrees of the same hue.
797.
History relates many instances of the jealousy of sovereigns with
regard to the quality of red. Surrounding accompaniments of this colour
have always a grave and magnificent effect.
798.
The red glass exhibits a bright landscape in so dreadful a hue as to
inspire sentiments of awe.
799.
Kermes and cochineal, the two materials chiefly employed in dyeing to
produce this colour, incline more or less to the _plus_ or _minus_
state, and may be made to pass and repass the culminating point by
the action of acids and alkalis: it is to be observed that the French
arrest their operations on the active side, as is proved by the French
scarlet, which inclines to yellow. The Italians, on the other hand,
remain on the passive side, for their scarlet has a tinge of blue.
800.
By means of a similar alkaline treatment, the so-called crimson is
produced; a colour which the French must be particularly prejudiced
against, since they employ the expressions--"Sot en cramoisi, méchant
en cramoisi," to mark the extreme of the silly and the reprehensible.
GREEN.
801.
If yellow and blue, which we consider as the most fundamental and
simple colours, are united as they first appear, in the first state of
their action, the colour which we call green is the result.
802.
The eye experiences a distinctly grateful impression from this colour.
If the two elementary colours are mixed in perfect equality so that
neither predominates, the eye and the mind repose on the result of this
junction as upon a simple colour. The beholder has neither the wish
nor the power to imagine a state beyond it. Hence for rooms to live in
constantly, the green colour is most generally selected.
COMPLETENESS AND HARMONY.
803.
We have hitherto assumed, for the sake of clearer explanation, that the
eye can be compelled to assimilate or identify itself with a single
colour; but this can only be possible for an instant.
804.
For when we find ourselves surrounded by a given colour which excites
its corresponding sensation on the eye, and compels us by its presence
to remain in a state identical with it, this state is soon found to be
forced, and the organ unwillingly remains in it.
805.
When the eye sees a colour it is immediately excited, and it is its
nature, spontaneously and of necessity, at once to produce another,
which with the original colour comprehends the whole chromatic scale.
A single colour excites, by a specific sensation, the tendency to
universality.
806.
To experience this completeness, to satisfy itself, the eye seeks for
a colourless space next every hue in order to produce the complemental
hue upon it.
807.
In this resides the fundamental law of all harmony of colours, of which
every one may convince himself by making himself accurately acquainted
with the experiments which we have described in the chapter on the
physiological colours.
808.
If, again, the entire scale is presented to the eye externally, the
impression is gladdening, since the result of its own operation is
presented to it in reality. We turn our attention therefore, in the
first place, to this harmonious juxtaposition.
809.
As a very simple means of comprehending the principle of this, the
reader has only to imagine a moveable diametrical index in the
colorific circle.[1] The index, as it revolves round the whole circle,
indicates at its two extremes the complemental colours, which, after
all, may be reduced to three contrasts.
810.
Yellow demands Red-blue,
Blue demands Red-yellow,
Red demands Green,
and contrariwise.
811.
In proportion as one end of the supposed index deviates from the
central intensity of the colours, arranged as they are in the natural
order, so the opposite end changes its place in the contrasted
gradation, and by such a simple contrivance the complemental colours
may be indicated at any given point. A chromatic circle might be made
for this purpose, not confined, like our own, to the leading colours,
but exhibiting them with their transitions in an unbroken series.
This would not be without its use, for we are here considering a very
important point which deserves all our attention.[2]
812.
We before stated that the eye could be in some degree pathologically
affected by being long confined to a single colour; that, again,
definite moral impressions were thus produced, at one time lively and
aspiring, at another susceptible and anxious--now exalted to grand
associations, now reduced to ordinary ones. We now observe that the
demand for completeness, which is inherent in the organ, frees us from
this restraint; the eye relieves itself by producing the opposite
of the single colour forced upon it, and thus attains the entire
impression which is so satisfactory to it.
813.
Simple, therefore, as these strictly harmonious contrasts are, as
presented to us in the narrow circle, the hint is important, that
nature tends to emancipate the sense from confined impressions by
suggesting and producing the whole, and that in this instance we have a
natural phenomenon immediately applicable to æsthetic purposes.
814.
While, therefore, we may assert that the chromatic scale, as given by
us, produces an agreeable impression by its ingredient hues, we may
here remark that those have been mistaken who have hitherto adduced
the rainbow as an example of the entire scale; for the chief colour,
pure red, is deficient in it, and cannot be produced, since in this
phenomenon, as well as in the ordinary prismatic series, the yellow-red
and blue-red cannot attain to a union.
815.
Nature perhaps exhibits no general phenomenon where the scale is in
complete combination. By artificial experiments such an appearance may
be produced in its perfect splendour. The mode, however, in which the
entire series is connected in a circle, is rendered most intelligible
by tints on paper, till after much experience and practice, aided by
due susceptibility of the organ, we become penetrated with the idea of
this harmony, and feel it present in our minds.
816.
Besides these pure, harmonious, self-developed combinations, which
always carry the conditions of completeness with them, there are
others which may be arbitrarily produced, and which may be most easily
described by observing that they are to be found in the colorific
circle, not by diameters, but by chords, in such a manner that an
intermediate colour is passed over.
817.
We call these combinations characteristic because they have all a
certain significancy and tend to excite a definite impression; an
impression, however, which does not altogether satisfy, inasmuch as
every characteristic quality of necessity presents itself only as a
part of a whole, with which it has a relation, but into which it cannot
be resolved.
818.
As we are acquainted with the impressions produced by the colours
singly as well as in their harmonious relations, we may at once
conclude that the character of the arbitrary combinations will be very
different from each other as regards their significancy. We proceed to
review them separately.
YELLOW AND BLUE.
819.
This is the simplest of such combinations. It may be said that it
contains too little, for since every trace of red is wanting in it,
it is defective as compared with the whole scale. In this view it
may be called poor, and as the two contrasting elements are in their
lowest state, may be said to be ordinary; yet it is recommended by
its proximity to green--in short, by containing the ingredients of an
ultimate state.
YELLOW AND RED.
820.
This is a somewhat preponderating combination, but it has a serene
and magnificent effect. The two extremes of the active side are seen
together without conveying any idea of progression from one to the
other. As the result of their combination in pigments is yellow-red, so
they in some degree represent this colour.
BLUE AND RED.
821.
The two ends of the passive side, with the excess of the upper end of
the active side. The effect of this juxtaposition approaches that of
the blue-red produced by their union.
YELLOW-RED AND BLUE-RED.
822.
These, when placed together, as the deepened extremes of both sides,
have something exciting, elevated: they give us a presentiment of red,
which in physical experiments is produced by their union.
823.
These four combinations have also the common quality of producing the
intermediate colour of our colorific circle by their union, a union
which actually takes place if they are opposed to each other in small
quantities and seen from a distance. A surface covered with narrow blue
and yellow stripes appears green at a certain distance.
824.
If, again, the eye sees blue and yellow next each other, it finds
itself in a peculiar disposition to produce green without accomplishing
it, while it neither experiences a satisfactory sensation in
contemplating the detached colours, nor an impression of completeness
in the two.
825.
Thus it will be seen that it was not without reason we called these
combinations characteristic; the more so, since the character of each
combination must have a relation to that of the single colours of which
it consists.
COMBINATIONS NON-CHARACTERISTIC.
826.
We now turn our attention to the last kind of combinations. These are
easily found in the circle; they are indicated by shorter chords, for
in this case we do not pass over an entire intermediate colour, but
only the transition from one to the other.
827.
These combinations may justly be called non-characteristic, inasmuch
as the colours are too nearly alike for their impression to be
significant. Yet most of these recommend themselves to a certain
degree, since they indicate a progressive state, though its relations
can hardly be appreciable.
828.
Thus yellow and yellow-red, yellow-red and red, blue and blue-red,
blue-red and red, represent the nearest degrees of augmentation and
culmination, and in certain relations as to quantity may produce no
unpleasant effect.
829.
The juxtaposition of yellow and green has always something ordinary,
but in a cheerful sense; blue and green, on the other hand, is ordinary
in a repulsive sense. Our good forefathers called these last fool's
colours.
RELATION OF THE COMBINATIONS TO LIGHT AND DARK.
830.
These combinations may be very much varied by making both colours light
or both dark, or one light and the other dark; in which modifications,
however, all that has been found true in a general sense is applicable
to each particular case. With regard to the infinite variety thus
produced, we merely observe:
831.
The colours of the active side placed next to black gain in energy,
those of the passive side lose. The active conjoined with white and
brightness lose in strength, the passive gain in cheerfulness. Red and
green with black appear dark and grave; with white they appear gay.
832.
To this we may add that all colours may be more or less broken or
neutralised, may to a certain degree be rendered nameless, and thus
combined partly together and partly with pure colours; but although the
relations may thus be varied to infinity, still all that is applicable
with regard to the pure colours will be applicable in these cases.
CONSIDERATIONS DERIVED FROM THE EVIDENCE OF EXPERIENCE AND HISTORY.
833.
The principles of the harmony of colours having been thus far defined,
it may not be irrelevant to review what has been adduced in connexion
with experience and historical examples.
834.
The principles in question have been derived from the constitution of
our nature and the constant relations which are found to obtain in
chromatic phenomena. In experience we find much that is in conformity
with these principles, and much that is opposed to them.
835.
Men in a state of nature, uncivilised nations, children, have a great
fondness for colours in their utmost brightness, and especially for
yellow-red: they are also pleased with the motley. By this expression
we understand the juxtaposition of vivid colours without an harmonious
balance; but if this balance is observed, through instinct or accident,
an agreeable effect may be produced. I remember a Hessian officer,
returned from America, who had painted his face with the positive
colours, in the manner of the Indians; a kind of completeness or due
balance was thus produced, the effect of which was not disagreeable.
836.
The inhabitants of the south of Europe make use of very brilliant
colours for their dresses. The circumstance of their procuring silk
stuffs at a cheap rate is favourable to this propensity. The women,
especially, with their bright-coloured bodices and ribbons, are always
in harmony with the scenery, since they cannot possibly surpass the
splendour of the sky and landscape.
837.
The history of dyeing teaches us that certain technical conveniences
and advantages have had great influence on the costume of nations.
We find that the Germans wear blue very generally because it is a
permanent colour in cloth; so in many districts all the country people
wear green twill, because that material takes a green dye well. If
a traveller were to pay attention to these circumstances, he might
collect some amusing and curious facts.
838.
Colours, as connected with particular frames of mind, are again a
consequence of peculiar character and circumstances. Lively nations,
the French for instance, love intense colours, especially on the active
side; sedate nations, like the English and Germans, wear straw-coloured
or leather-coloured yellow accompanied with dark blue. Nations aiming
at dignity of appearance, the Spaniards and Italians for instance,
suffer the red colour of their mantles to incline to the passive side.
839.
In dress we associate the character of the colour with the character of
the person. We may thus observe the relation of colours singly, and in
combination, to the colour of the complexion, age, and station.
840.
The female sex in youth is attached to rose-colour and sea-green, in
age to violet and dark-green. The fair-haired prefer violet, as opposed
to light yellow, the brunettes, blue, as opposed to yellow-red, and
all on good grounds. The Roman emperors were extremely jealous with
regard to their purple. The robe of the Chinese Emperor is orange
embroidered with red; his attendants and the ministers of religion wear
citron-yellow.
841.
People of refinement have a disinclination to colours. This may be
owing partly to weakness of sight, partly to the uncertainty of taste,
which readily takes refuge in absolute negation. Women now appear
almost universally in white and men in black.
842.
An observation, very generally applicable, may not be out of place
here, namely, that man, desirous as he is of being distinguished, is
quite as willing to be lost among his fellows.
843.
Black was intended to remind the Venetian noblemen of republican
equality.
844.
To what degree the cloudy sky of northern climates may have gradually
banished colour may also admit of explanation.
845.
The scale of positive colours is obviously soon exhausted; on the
other hand, the neutral, subdued, so-called fashionable colours
present infinitely varying degrees and shades, most of which are not
unpleasing.
846.
It is also to be remarked that ladies, in wearing positive colours,
are in danger of making a complexion which may not be very bright
still less so, and thus to preserve a due balance with such brilliant
accompaniments, they are induced to heighten their complexions
artificially.
847.
An amusing inquiry might be made which would lead to a critique of
uniforms, liveries, cockades, and other distinctions, according to the
principles above hinted at. It might be observed, generally, that such
dresses and insignia should not be composed of harmonious colours.
Uniforms should be characteristic and dignified; liveries might be
ordinary and striking to the eye. Examples both good and bad would
not be wanting, since the scale of colours usually employed for such
purposes is limited, and its varieties have been often enough tried.[3]
ÆSTHETIC INFLUENCE.
848.
From the moral associations connected with the appearance of colours,
single or combined, their æsthetic influence may now be deduced for
the artist. We shall touch the most essential points to be attended
to after first considering the general condition of pictorial
representation, light and shade, with which the appearance of colour is
immediately connected.
CHIARO-SCURO.
849.
We apply the term chiaro-scuro (Helldunkel) to the appearance of
material objects when the mere effect produced on them by light and
shade is considered.--Note D D.
850.
In a narrower sense a mass of shadow lighted by reflexes is often
thus designated; but we here use the expression in its first and more
general sense.
851.
The separation of light and dark from all appearance of colour is
possible and necessary. The artist will solve the mystery of imitation
sooner by first considering light and dark independently of colour, and
making himself acquainted with it in its whole extent.
852.
Chiaro-scuro exhibits the substance as substance, inasmuch as light and
shade inform us as to degrees of density.
853.
We have here to consider the highest light, the middle tint, and the
shadow, and in the last the shadow of the object itself, the shadow it
casts on other objects, and the illumined shadow or reflexion.
854.
The globe is well adapted for the general exemplification of the nature
of chiaro-scuro, but it is not altogether sufficient. The softened
unity of such complete rotundity tends to the vapoury, and in order to
serve as a principle for effects of art, it should be composed of plane
surfaces, so as to define the gradations more.
855.
The Italians call this manner "il piazzoso;" in German it might
be called "das Flächenhafte."[4] If, therefore, the sphere is a
perfect example of natural chiaro-scuro, a polygon would exhibit the
artist-like treatment in which all kinds of lights, half-lights,
shadows, and reflexions, would be appreciable.--Note E E.
856.
The bunch of grapes is recognised as a good example of a picturesque
completeness in chiaro-scuro, the more so as it is fitted, from its
form, to represent a principal group; but it is only available for the
master who can see in it what he has the power of producing.
857.
In order to make the first idea intelligible to the beginner, (for
it is difficult to consider it abstractedly even in a polygon,) we
may take a cube, the three sides of which that are seen represent the
light, the middle tint, and the shadow in distinct order.
858.
To proceed again to the chiaro-scuro of a more complicated figure, we
might select the example of an open book, which presents a greater
diversity.
859.
We find the antique statues of the best time treated very much with
reference to these effects. The parts intended to receive the light
are wrought with simplicity, the portion originally in shade is, on
the other hand, in more distinct surfaces to make them susceptible
of a variety of reflexions; here the example of the polygon will be
remembered.--Note F F.
860.
The pictures of Herculaneum and the Aldobrandini marriage are examples
of antique painting in the same style.
861.
Modern examples may be found in single figures by Raphael, in entire
works by Correggio, and also by the Flemish masters, especially Rubens.
TENDENCY TO COLOUR.
862.
A picture in black and white seldom makes its appearance; some works
of Polidoro are examples of this kind of art. Such works, inasmuch as
they can attain form and keeping, are estimable, but they have little
attraction for the eye, since their very existence supposes a violent
abstraction.
863.
If the artist abandons himself to his feeling, colour presently
announces itself. Black no sooner inclines to blue than the eye demands
yellow, which the artist instinctively modifies, and introduces partly
pure in the light, partly reddened and subdued as brown, in the
reflexes, thus enlivening the whole.--Note G G.
864.
All kinds of _camayeu_, or colour on similar colour, end in the
introduction either of a complemental contrast, or some variety of hue.
Thus, Polidoro in his black and white frescoes sometimes introduced a
yellow vase, or something of the kind.
865.
In general it may be observed that men have at all times instinctively
striven after colour in the practice of the art. We need only observe
daily, how soon amateurs proceed from colourless to coloured materials.
Paolo Uccello painted coloured landscapes to colourless figures.--Note
H H.
866.
Even the sculpture of the ancients could not be exempt from the
influence of this propensity. The Egyptians painted their bas-reliefs;
statues had eyes of coloured stones. Porphyry draperies were added to
marble heads and extremities, and variegated stalactites were used
for the pedestals of busts. The Jesuits did not fail to compose the
statue of their S. Luigi, in Rome, in this manner, and the most modern
sculpture distinguishes the flesh from the drapery by staining the
latter.
KEEPING.
867.
If linear perspective displays the gradation of objects in their
apparent size as affected by distance, aërial perspective shows us
their gradation in greater or less distinctness, as affected by the
same cause.
868.
Although from the nature of the organ of sight, we cannot see distant
objects so distinctly as nearer ones, yet aërial perspective is
grounded strictly on the important fact that all mediums called
transparent are in some degree dim.
869.
The atmosphere is thus always, more or less, semi-transparent. This
quality is remarkable in southern climates, even when the barometer is
high, the weather dry, and the sky cloudless, for a very pronounced
gradation is observable between objects but little removed from each
other.
870.
The appearance on a large scale is known to every one; the painter,
however, sees or believes he sees, the gradation in the slightest
varieties of distance. He exemplifies it practically by making a
distinction, for instance, in the features of a face according to their
relative position as regards the plane of the picture. The direction of
the light is attended to in like manner. This is considered to produce
a gradation from side to side, while keeping has reference to depth, to
the comparative distinctness of near and distant things.
871.
In proceeding to consider this subject, we assume that the painter is
generally acquainted with our sketch of the theory of colours, and that
he has made himself well acquainted with certain chapters and rubrics
which especially concern him. He will thus be enabled to make use of
theory as well as practice in recognising the principles of effect in
nature, and in employing the means of art.
COLOUR IN GENERAL NATURE.
872.
The first indication of colour announces itself in nature together
with the gradations of aërial perspective; for aërial perspective is
intimately connected with the doctrine of semi-transparent mediums. We
see the sky, distant objects and even comparatively near shadows, blue.
At the same moment, the illuminating and illuminated objects appear
yellow, gradually deepening to red. In many cases the physiological
suggestion of contrasts comes into the account, and an entirely
colourless landscape, by means of these assisting and counteracting
tendencies, appears to our eyes completely coloured.
873.
Local colours are composed of the general elementary colours; but these
are determined or specified according to the properties of substances
and surfaces on which they appear: this specification is infinite.
874.
Thus, there is at once a great difference between silk and wool
similarly dyed. Every kind of preparation and texture produces
corresponding modifications. Roughness, smoothness, polish, all are to
be considered.
875.
It is therefore one of the pernicious prejudices of art that the
skilful painter must never attend to the material of draperies,
but always represent, as it were, only abstract folds. Is not all
characteristic variety thus done away with, and is the portrait of Leo
X. less excellent because velvet, satin, and moreen, are imitated in
their relative effect?
876.
In the productions of nature, colours appear more or less modified,
specified, even individualised: this may be readily observed in
minerals and plants, in the feathers of birds and the skins of beasts.
877.
The chief art of the painter is always to imitate the actual appearance
of the definite hue, doing away with the recollection of the elementary
ingredients of colour. This difficulty is in no instance greater than
in the imitation of the surface of the human figure.
878.
The colour of flesh, as a whole, belongs to the active side, yet the
bluish of the passive side mingles with it. The colour is altogether
removed from the elementary state and neutralised by organisation.
879.
To bring the colouring of general nature into harmony with the
colouring of a given object, will perhaps be more attainable for the
judicious artist after the consideration of what has been pointed out
in the foregoing theory. For the most fancifully beautiful and varied
appearances may still be made true to the principles of nature.
CHARACTERISTIC COLOURING.
880.
The combination of coloured objects, as well as the colour of
their ground, should depend on considerations which the artist
pre-establishes for himself. Here a reference to the effect of colours
singly or combined, on the feelings, is especially necessary. On this
account the painter should possess himself with the idea of the general
dualism, as well as of particular contrasts, not forgetting what has
been adverted to with regard to the qualities of colours.
881.
The characteristic in colour may be comprehended under three leading
rubrics, which we here define as the powerful, the soft, and the
splendid.
882.
The first is produced by the preponderance of the active side, the
second by that of the passive side, and the third by completeness, by
the exhibition of the whole chromatic scale in due balance.
883.
The powerful impression is attained by yellow, yellow-red, and red,
which last colour is to be arrested on the plus side. But little violet
and blue, still less green, are admissible. The soft effect is produced
by blue, violet, and red, which in this case is arrested on the minus
side; a moderate addition of yellow and yellow-red, but much green may
be admitted.
884.
If it is proposed to produce both these effects in their full
significancy, the complemental colours may be excluded to a minimum,
and only so much of them may be suffered to appear as is indispensable
to convey an impression of completeness.
HARMONIOUS COLOURING.
885.
Although the two characteristic divisions as above defined may in some
sense be also called harmonious, the harmonious effect, properly so
called, only takes place when all the colours are exhibited together in
due balance.
886.
In this way the splendid as well as the agreeable may be produced; both
of these, however, have of necessity a certain generalised effect, and
in this sense may be considered the reverse of the characteristic.
887.
This is the reason why the colouring of most modern painters is without
character, for, while they follow their general instinctive feeling
only, the last result of such a tendency must be mere completeness;
this, they more or less attain, but thus at the same time neglect the
characteristic impression which the subject might demand.
888.
But if the principles before alluded to are kept in view, it must be
apparent that a distinct style of colour may be adopted on safe grounds
for every subject. The application requires, it is true, infinite
modifications, which can only succeed in the hands of genius.
GENUINE TONE.
889.
If the word tone, or rather tune, is to be still borrowed in future
from music, and applied to colouring, it might be used in a better
sense than heretofore.
890.
For it would not be unreasonable to compare a painting of powerful
effect, with a piece of music in a sharp key; a painting of soft effect
with a piece of music in a flat key, while other equivalents might be
found for the modifications of these two leading modes.
FALSE TONE.
891.
The word tone has been hitherto understood to mean a veil of a
particular colour spread over the whole picture; it was generally
yellow, for the painter instinctively pushed the effect towards the
powerful side.
892.
If we look at a picture through a yellow glass it will appear in this
tone. It is worth while to make this experiment again and again, in
order to observe what takes place in such an operation. It is a sort of
artificial light, deepening, and at the same time darkening the _plus_
side, and neutralising the _minus_ side.
893.
This spurious tone is produced instinctively through uncertainty
as to the means of attaining a genuine effect; so that instead of
completeness, monotony is the result.
WEAK COLOURING.
894.
It is owing to the same uncertainty that the colours are sometimes so
much broken as to have the effect of a grey camayeu, the handling being
at the same time as delicate as possible.
895.
The harmonious contrasts are often found to be very happily felt in
such pictures, but without spirit, owing to a dread of the motley.
THE MOTLEY.
896.
A picture may easily become party-coloured or motley, when the colours
are placed next each other in their full force, as it were only
mechanically and according to uncertain impressions.
897.
If, on the other hand, weak colours are combined, even although they
may be dissonant, the effect, as a matter of course, is not striking.
The uncertainty of the artist is communicated to the spectator, who, on
his side, can neither praise nor censure.
898.
It is also important to observe that the colours may be disposed
rightly in themselves, but that a work may still appear motley, if they
are falsely arranged in relation to light and shade.
899.
This may the more easily occur as light and shade are already defined
in the drawing, and are, as it were, comprehended in it, while the
colour still remains open to selection.
DREAD OF THEORY.
900.
A dread of, nay, a decided aversion for all theoretical views
respecting colour and everything belonging to it, has been hitherto
found to exist among painters; a prejudice for which, after all, they
were not to be blamed; for what has been hitherto called theory was
groundless, vacillating, and akin to empiricism. We hope that our
labours may tend to diminish this prejudice, and stimulate the artist
practically to prove and embody the principles that have been explained.
ULTIMATE AIM.
901.
But without a comprehensive view of the whole of our theory, the
ultimate object will not be attained. Let the artist penetrate himself
with all that we have stated. It is only by means of harmonious
relations in light and shade, in keeping, in true and characteristic
colouring, that a picture can be considered complete, in the sense we
have now learnt to attach to the term.
GROUNDS.
902.
It was the practice of the earlier artists to paint on light grounds.
This ground consisted of gypsum, and was thickly spread on linen or
panel, and then levigated. After the outline was drawn, the subject was
washed in with a blackish or brownish colour. Pictures prepared in
this manner for colouring are still in existence, by Leonardo da Vinci,
and Fra Bartolomeo; there are also several by Guido.--Note I I.
903.
When the artist proceeded to colour, and had to represent white
draperies, he sometimes suffered the ground to remain untouched.
Titian did this latterly when he had attained the greatest certainty
in practice, and could accomplish much with little labour. The whitish
ground was left as a middle tint, the shadows painted in, and the high
lights touched on.--Note K K.
904.
In the process of colouring, the preparation merely washed as it were
underneath, was always effective. A drapery, for example, was painted
with a transparent colour, the white ground shone through it and gave
the colour life, so the parts previously prepared for shadows exhibited
the colour subdued, without being mixed or sullied.
905.
This method had many advantages; for the painter had a light ground
for the light portions of his work and a dark ground for the shadowed
portions. The whole picture was prepared; the artist could work with
thin colours in the shadows, and had always an internal light to give
value to his tints. In our own time painting in water colours depends
on the same principles.
906.
Indeed a light ground is now generally employed in oil-painting,
because middle tints are thus found to be more transparent, and are in
some degree enlivened by a bright ground; the shadows, again, do not so
easily become black.
907.
It was the practice for a time to paint on dark grounds. Tintoret
probably introduced them. Titian's best pictures are not painted on a
dark ground.
908.
The ground in question was red-brown, and when the subject was drawn
upon it, the strongest shadows were laid in; the colours of the lights
impasted very thickly in the bright parts, and scumbled towards the
shadows, so that the dark ground appeared through the thin colour as a
middle tint. Effect was attained in finishing by frequently going over
the bright parts and touching on the high lights.
909.
If this method especially recommended itself in practice on account
of the rapidity it allowed of, yet it had pernicious consequences.
The strong ground increased and became darker, and the light colours
losing their brightness by degrees, gave the shadowed portions more
and more preponderance. The middle tints became darker and darker, and
the shadows at last quite obscure. The strongly impasted lights alone
remained bright, and we now see only light spots on the painting. The
pictures of the Bolognese school, and of Caravaggio, afford sufficient
examples of these results.
910.
We may here in conclusion observe, that glazing derives its effect
from treating the prepared colour underneath as a light ground. By
this operation colours may have the effect of being mixed to the eye,
may be enhanced, and may acquire what is called tone; but they thus
necessarily become darker.
PIGMENTS.
911.
We receive these from the hands of the chemist and the investigator of
nature. Much has been recorded respecting colouring substances, which
is familiar to all by means of the press. But such directions require
to be revised from time to time. The master meanwhile communicates his
experience in these matters to his scholar, and artists generally to
each other.
912.
Those pigments which according to their nature are the most permanent,
are naturally much sought after, but the mode of employing them also
contributes much to the duration of a picture. The fewest possible
colouring materials are to be employed, and the simplest methods of
using them cannot be sufficiently recommended.
913.
For from the multitude of pigments colouring has suffered much. Every
pigment has its peculiar nature as regards its effect on the eye;
besides this it has its peculiar quality, requiring a corresponding
technical method in its application. The former circumstance is a
reason why harmony is more difficult of attainment with many materials
than with few, the latter, why chemical action and re-action may take
place among the colouring substances.
914.
We may refer, besides, to some false tendencies which the artists
suffer themselves to be led away with. Painters are always looking
for new colouring substances, and believe when such a substance is
discovered that they have made an advance in the art. They have a
great curiosity to know the practical methods of the old masters, and
lose much time in the search. Towards the end of the last century
we were thus long tormented with wax-painting. Others turn their
attention to the discovery of new methods, through which nothing new is
accomplished; for, after all, it is the feeling of the artist only that
informs every kind of technical process.
ALLEGORICAL, SYMBOLICAL, MYSTICAL APPLICATION OF COLOUR.
915.
It has been circumstantially shown above, that every colour produces
a distinct impression on the mind, and thus addresses at once the eye
and feelings. Hence it follows that colour may be employed for certain
moral and æsthetic ends.
916.
Such an application, coinciding entirely with nature, might be called
symbolical, since the colour would be employed in conformity with its
effect, and would at once express its meaning. If, for example, pure
red were assumed to designate majesty, there can be no doubt that this
would be admitted to be a just and expressive symbol. All this has been
already sufficiently entered into.
917.
Another application is nearly allied to this; it might be called the
allegorical application. In this there is more of accident and caprice,
inasmuch as the meaning of the sign must be first communicated to us
before we know what it is to signify; what idea, for instance, is
attached to the green colour, which has been appropriated to hope?
918.
That, lastly, colour may have a mystical allusion, may be readily
surmised, for since every diagram in which the variety of colours may
be represented points to those primordial relations which belong both
to nature and the organ of vision, there can be no doubt that these may
be made use of as a language, in cases where it is proposed to express
similar primordial relations which do not present themselves to the
senses in so powerful and varied a manner. The mathematician extols
the value and applicability of the triangle; the triangle is revered
by the mystic; much admits of being expressed in it by diagrams, and,
among other things, the law of the phenomena of colours; in this case,
indeed, we presently arrive at the ancient mysterious hexagon.
919.
When the distinction of yellow and blue is duly comprehended, and
especially the augmentation into red, by means of which the opposite
qualities tend towards each other and become united in a third; then,
certainly, an especially mysterious interpretation will suggest itself,
since a spiritual meaning may be connected with these facts; and when
we find the two separate principles producing green on the one hand and
red in their intenser state, we can hardly refrain from thinking in the
first case on the earthly, in the last on the heavenly, generation of
the Elohim.--Note L L.
920.
But we shall do better not to expose ourselves, in conclusion, to
the suspicion of enthusiasm; since, if our doctrine of colours finds
favour, applications and allusions, allegorical, symbolical, and
mystical, will not fail to be made, in conformity with the spirit of
the age.
CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS.
In reviewing this labour, which has occupied me long, and which at
last I give but as a sketch, I am reminded of a wish once expressed
by a careful writer, who observed that he would gladly see his works
printed at once as he conceived them, in order then to go to the task
with a fresh eye; since everything defective presents itself to us more
obviously in print than even in the cleanest manuscript. This feeling
may be imagined to be stronger in my case, since I had not even an
opportunity of going through a fair transcript of my work before its
publication, these pages having been put together at a time when a
quiet, collected state of mind was out of the question.[5]
Some of the explanations I was desirous of giving are to be found in
the introduction, but in the portion of my work to be devoted to the
history of the doctrine of colours, I hope to give a more detailed
account of my investigations and the vicissitudes they underwent. One
inquiry, however, may not be out of place here; the consideration,
namely, of the question, what can a man accomplish who cannot devote
his whole life to scientific pursuits? what can he perform as a
temporary guest on an estate not his own, for the advantage of the
proprietor?
When we consider art in its higher character, we might wish that
masters only had to do with it, that scholars should be trained by
the severest study, that amateurs might feel themselves happy in
reverentially approaching its precincts. For a work of art should be
the effusion of genius, the artist should evoke its substance and form
from his inmost being, treat his materials with sovereign command, and
make use of external influences only to accomplish his powers.
But if the professor in this case has many reasons for respecting
the dilettante, the man of science has every motive to be still more
indulgent, since the amateur here is capable of contributing what may
be satisfactory and useful. The sciences depend much more on experiment
than art, and for mere experiment many a votary is qualified.
Scientific results are arrived at by many means, and cannot dispense
with many hands, many heads. Science may be communicated, the treasure
may be inherited, and what is acquired by one may be appropriated
by many. Hence no one perhaps ought to be reluctant to offer his
contributions. How much do we not owe to accident, to mere practice,
to momentary observation. All who are endowed only with habits of
attention, women, children, are capable of communicating striking and
true remarks.
In science it cannot therefore be required, that he who endeavours
to furnish something in its aid should devote his whole life to it,
should survey and investigate it in all its extent; for this, in most
cases, would be a severe condition even for the initiated. But if we
look through the history of science in general, especially the history
of physics, we shall find that many important acquisitions have been
made by single inquirers, in single departments, and very often by
unprofessional observers.
To whatever direction a man may be determined by inclination or
accident, whatever class of phenomena especially strike him, excite
his interest, fix his attention, and occupy him, the result will still
be for the advantage of science: for every new relation that comes to
light, every new mode of investigation, even the imperfect attempt,
even error itself is available; it may stimulate other observers and is
never without its use as influencing future inquiry.
With this feeling the author himself may look back without regret
on his endeavours. From this consideration he can derive some
encouragement for the prosecution of the remainder of his task; and
although not satisfied with the result of his efforts, yet re-assured
by the sincerity of his intentions, he ventures to recommend his past
and future labours to the interest of his contemporaries and posterity.
Multi pertransibunt et augebitur scientia.
[1] Plate 1, fig. 3.
[2] See Note C.
[3] Some early Italian writers, Sicillo, Occolti, Rinaldi, and others,
have treated this subject in connexion with the supposed signification
of colours.--T.
[4] The English technical expressions "flat" and "square" have an
association of mannerism.--T
[5] Towards the close of 1806, when Weimar was occupied by Napoleon
after the battle of Jena.--T.
NOTES.
NOTE A.--Par. 18.
Leonardo da Vinci observes that "a light object relieved on a dark
ground appears magnified;" and again, "Objects seen at a distance
appear out of proportion; this is because the light parts transmit
their rays to the eye more powerfully than the dark. A woman's white
head-dress once appeared to me much wider than her shoulders, owing
to their being dressed in black."[1] "It is now generally admitted
that the excitation produced by light is propagated on the retina a
little beyond the outline of the image. Professor Plateau, of Ghent,
has devoted a very interesting special memoir to the description
and explanation of phenomena of this nature. See his 'Mémoire sur
l'Irradiation,' published in the 11th vol. of the Transactions of the
Royal Academy of Sciences at Brussels."[2]--S. F.
NOTE B.--Par. 23.
"The duration of ocular spectra produced by strongly exciting the
retina, may be conveniently measured by minutes and seconds; but to
ascertain the duration of more evanescent phenomena, recourse must be
had to other means. The Chevalier d'Arcy (Mém. de l'Acad. des Sc.
1765,) endeavoured to ascertain the duration of the impression produced
by a glowing coal in the following manner. He attached it to the
circumference of a wheel, the velocity of which was gradually increased
until the apparent trace of the object formed a complete circle, and
then measured the duration of a revolution, which was obviously that
of the impression. To ascertain the duration of a revolution it is
sufficient merely to know the number of revolutions described in a
given time. Recently more refined experiments of the same kind have
been made by Professors Plateau and Wheatstone."--S. F.
[1] "Trattato della Pittura, Roma, 1817," p. 143-223. This edition,
published from a Vatican MS., contains many observations not included
in former editions.
[2] A few notes (marked with inverted commas and with the signature S.
F.) have been kindly furnished by a scientific friend.
NOTE C.--Par. 50.
Every treatise on the harmonious combination of colours contains the
diagram of the chromatic circle more or less elaborately constructed.
These diagrams, if intended to exhibit the contrasts produced by
the action and re-action of the retina, have one common defect. The
opposite colours are made equal in intensity; whereas the complemental
colour pictured on the retina is always less vivid, and always darker
or lighter than the original colour. This variety undoubtedly accords
more with harmonious effects in painting.
The opposition of two pure hues of equal intensity, differing only in
the abstract quality of colour, would immediately be pronounced crude
and inharmonious. It would not, however, be strictly correct to say
that such a contrast is too violent; on the contrary, it appears the
contrast is not carried far enough, for though differing in colour,
the two hues may be exactly similar in purity and intensity. Complete
contrast, on the other hand, supposes dissimilarity in all respects.
In addition to the mere difference of hue, the eye, it seems, requires
difference in the lightness or darkness of the hue. The spectrum of a
colour relieved as a dark on a light ground, is a light colour on a
dark ground, and _vice versâ_. Thus, if we look at a bright red wafer
on the whitest surface, the complemental image will be still lighter
than the white surface; if the same wafer is placed on a black surface,
the complemental image will be still darker. The colour of both these
spectra may be called greenish, but it is evident that a colour must be
scarcely appreciable as such, if it is lighter than white and darker
than black. It is, however, to be remarked, that the white surface
round the light greenish image seems tinged with a reddish hue, and
the black surface round the dark image becomes slightly illuminated
with the same colour, thus in both cases assisting to render the image
apparent (58).
The difficulty or impossibility of describing degrees of colour in
words, has also had a tendency to mislead, by conveying the idea of
more positive hues than the physiological contrast warrants. Thus,
supposing scarlet to be relieved as a dark, the complemental colour is
so light in degree and so faint in colour, that it should be called a
pearly grey; whereas the theorists, looking at the quality of colour
abstractedly, would call it a green-blue, and the diagram would falsely
present such a hue equal in intensity to scarlet, or as nearly equal as
possible.
Even the difference of mass which good taste requires may be suggested
by the physiological phenomena, for unless the complemental image is
suffered to fall on a surface precisely as near to the eye as that on
which the original colour was displayed, it appears larger or smaller
than the original object (22), and this in a rapidly increasing
proportion. Lastly, the shape itself soon becomes changed (26).
That vivid colour demands the comparative absence of colour, either
on a lighter or darker scale, as its contrast, may be inferred again
from the fact that bright colourless objects produce strongly coloured
spectra. In darkness, the spectrum which is first white, or nearly
white, is followed by red: in light, the spectrum which is first black,
is followed by green (39-44). All colour, as the author observes
(259), is to be considered as half-light, inasmuch as it is in every
case lighter than black and darker than white. Hence no contrast of
colour with colour, or even of colour with black or white, can be so
great (as regards lightness or darkness) as the contrast of black and
white, or light and dark abstractedly. This distinction between the
differences of degree and the differences of kind is important, since a
just application of contrast in colour may be counteracted by an undue
difference in lightness or darkness. The mere contrast of colour is
happily employed in some of Guido's lighter pictures, but if intense
darks had been opposed to his delicate carnations, their comparative
whiteness would have been unpleasantly apparent. On the other hand, the
flesh-colour in Giorgione, Sebastian del Piombo (his best imitator),
and Titian, was sometimes so extremely glowing[1] that the deepest
colours, and black, were indispensable accompaniments. The manner of
Titian as distinguished from his imitation of Giorgione, is golden
rather than fiery, and his biographers are quite correct in saying
that he was fond of opposing red (lake) and blue to his flesh[2]. The
correspondence of these contrasts with the physiological phenomena will
be immediately apparent, while the occasional practice of Rubens in
opposing bright red to a still cooler flesh-colour, will be seen to be
equally consistent.
The effect of white drapery (the comparative absence of colour) in
enhancing the glow of Titian's flesh-colour, has been frequently
pointed out:[3] the shadows of white thus opposed to flesh, often
present, again, the physiological contrast, however delicately,
according to the hue of the carnation. The lights, on the other hand,
are not, and probably never were, quite white, but from the first,
partook of the quality of depth, a quality assumed by the colourists to
pervade every part of a picture more or less.[4]
It was before observed that the description of colours in words may
often convey ideas of too positive a nature, and it may be remarked
generally that the colours employed by the great masters are, in their
ultimate effect, more or less subdued or broken. The physiological
contrasts are, however, still applicable in the most comparatively
neutral scale.
Again, the works of the colourists show that these oppositions are
not confined to large masses (except perhaps in works to be seen only
at a great distance); on the contrary, they are more or less apparent
in every part, and when at last the direct and intentional operations
of the artist may have been insufficient to produce them in their
minuter degrees, the accidental results of glazing and other methods
may be said to extend the contrasts to infinity. In such productions,
where every smallest portion is an epitome of the whole, the eye
still appreciates the fascinating effect of contrast, and the work is
pronounced to be true and complete, in the best sense of the words.
The Venetian method of scumbling and glazing exhibits these minuter
contrasts within each other, and is thus generally considered more
refined than the system of breaking the colours, since it ensures a
fuller gradation of hues, and produces another class of contrasts,
those, namely, which result from degrees of transparence and opacity.
In some of the Flemish and Dutch masters, and sometimes in Reynolds,
the two methods are combined in great perfection.
The chromatic diagram does not appear to be older than the last
century. It is one of those happy adaptations of exacter principles to
the objects of taste which might have been expected from Leonardo da
Vinci. That its true principle was duly felt is abundantly evident from
the works of the colourists, as well as from the general observations
of early writers.[5] The more practical directions occasionally to be
met with in the treatises of Leon Battista Alberti, Leonardo da Vinci
and others, are conformable to the same system. Some Italian works,
not written by painters, which pretend to describe this harmony, are,
however, very imperfect.[6] A passage in Lodovico Dolce's Dialogue on
Colours is perhaps the only one worth quoting. "He," says that writer,
"who wishes to combine colours that are agreeable to the eye, will
put grey next dusky orange; yellow-green next rose-colour; blue next
orange; dark purple, black, next dark-green; white next black, and
white next flesh-colour."[7] The Dialogue on Painting, by the same
author, has the reputation of containing some of Titian's precepts:
if the above passage may be traced to the same source, it must be
confessed that it is almost the only one of the kind in the treatise
from which it is taken.
[1] "Ardito veramente alquanto, sanguigno, e quasi
fiammeggiante."--_Zanetti della Pittura Veneziana_, Ven. 1771, p.
90. Warm as the flesh colour of the colourists is, it still never
approaches a positive hue, if we except some examples in frescoes and
other works intended to be seen at a great distance. Zanetti, speaking
of a fresco by Giorgione, now almost obliterated, compares the colour
to "un vivo raggio di cocente sole."---_Varie Pitture a fresco dei
Principali Maestri Veneziani_. Ven. 1760.
[2] Ridolfi.
[3] Zanetti, I. ii.
[4] Two great authorities, divided by more than three centuries, Leon
Battista Alberti and Reynolds, have recommended this subdued treatment
of white. "It is to be remembered," says the first, "that no surface
should be made so white that it cannot be made more so. In white
dresses again, it is necessary to stop far short of the last degree of
whiteness."--_Della Pittura_, I. ii., compare with Reynolds, vol. i.
dis. 8.
[5] Vasari observes, "L'unione nella pittura è una discordanza
dicolori diversi accordati insième."--Vol. i. c. 18. This observation
is repeated by various writers on art in nearly the same words, and
at last appears in Sandrart: "Concordia, potissimum picturæ decus,
in discordiâ consistit, et quasi litigio colorum."--P. i. c. 5. The
source, perhaps, is Aristotle: he observes, "We are delighted with
harmony, because it is the union of contrary principles having a ratio
to each other."--_Problem._
[6] See "Occolti Trattato de' Colori." Parma, 1568.
[7] "Volendo l'uomo accoppiare insième colori che all'occhio
dilettino--porrà insième il berrettino col leonato; il verde-giallo con
l'incarnato e rosso; il turchino con l'arangi; il morello col verde
oscuro; il nero col bianco; il bianco con l'incarnato."--_Dialogo di
M. Lodovico Dolce nel quale si ragiona della qualità, diversità, e
proprietà de' colori_. Venezia, 1565.
NOTE D.--Par. 66.
In some of these cases there can be no doubt that Goethe attributes
the contrast too exclusively to the physiological cause, without
making sufficient allowance for the actual difference in the colour of
the lights. The purely physical nature of some coloured shadows was
pointed out by Pohlmann; and Dr. Eckermann took some pains to convince
Goethe of the necessity of making such a distinction. Goethe at first
adhered to his extreme view, but some time afterwards confessed to
Dr. Eckermann, that in the case of the blue shadows of snow (74), the
reflection of the sky was undoubtedly to be taken into the account.
"Both causes may, however, operate together," he observed, "and the
contrast which a warm yellow light demands may heighten the effect of
the blue." This was all his opponent contended.[1]
With a few such exceptions, the general theory of Goethe with regard
to coloured shadows is undoubtedly correct; the experiments with two
candles (68), and with coloured glass and fluids (80), as well as the
observations on the shadows of snow (75), are conclusive, for in all
these cases only one light is actually changed in colour, while the
other still assumes the complemental hue. "Coloured shadows," Dr. J.
Müller observes, "are usually ascribed to the physiological influence
of contrast; the complementary colour presented by the shadow being
regarded as the effect of internal causes acting on that part of the
retina, and not of the impression of coloured rays from without. This
explanation is the one adopted by Rumford, Goethe, Grotthuss, Brandes,
Tourtual, Pohlmann, and most authors who have studied the subject."[2]
In the Historical Part the author gives an account of a scarce French
work, "Observations sur les Ombres Colorées," Paris, 1782. The
writer[3] concludes that "the colour of shadows is as much owing to
the light that causes them as to that which (more faintly) illumines
them."
[1] Eckermann's "Gespräche mit Goethe," vol. ii. p. 76 and 280.
[2] "Elements of Physiology," by J. Müller, M. D., translated from the
German by William Baly, M.D. London, 1839.
[3] Anonymous, having only given the initials H. F. T.
NOTE E.--Par. 69.
This opinion of the author is frequently repeated (201, 312, 591), and
as it seems at first sight to be at variance with a received principle
of art, it may be as well at once to examine it.
In order to see the general proposition in its true point of view,
it will be necessary to forget the arbitrary distinctions of light
and shade, and to consider all such modifications between highest
brightness and absolute darkness only as so many lesser degrees of
light.[1] The author, indeed, by the word shadow, always understands a
lesser light.
The received notion, as stated by Du Fresnoy,[2] is much too positive
and unconditional, and is only true when we understand the "displaying"
light to comprehend certain degrees of half or reflected light, and the
"destroying" shade to mean the intensest degree of obscurity.
There are degrees of brightness which destroy colour as well as
degrees of darkness.[3] In general, colour resides in a mitigated
light, but a very little observation shows us that different colours
require different degrees of light to display them. Leonardo da Vinci
frequently inculcates the general principle above alluded to, but he
as frequently qualifies it; for he not only remarks that the highest
light may be comparative privation of colour, but observes, with great
truth, that some hues are best displayed in their fully illumined
parts, some in their reflections, and some in their half-lights; and
again, that every colour is most beautiful when lit by reflections from
its own surface, or from a hue similar to its own.[4]
The Venetians went further than Leonardo in this view and practice;
and he seems to allude to them when he criticises certain painters,
who, in aiming at clearness and fulness of colour, neglected what, in
his eyes, was of superior importance, namely, gradation and force of
chiaro-scuro.[5]
That increase of colour supposes increase of darkness, as so often
stated by Goethe, may be granted without difficulty. To what extent, on
the other hand, increase of darkness, or rather diminution of light,
is accompanied by increase of colour, is a question which has been
variously answered by various schools. Examples of the total negation
of the principle are not wanting, nor are they confined to the infancy
of the art. Instances, again, of the opposite tendency are frequent
in Venetian and early Flemish pictures resembling the augmenting
richness of gems or of stained glass:[6] indeed, it is not impossible
that the increase of colour in shade, which is so remarkable in the
pictures alluded to, may have been originally suggested by the rich
and fascinating effect of stained glass; and the Venetians, in this as
in many other respects, may have improved on a hint borrowed from the
early German painters, many of whom painted on glass.[7]
At all events, the principle of still increasing in colour in certain
hues seems to have been adopted in Flanders and in Venice at an early
period;[8] while Giorgione, in carrying the style to the most daring
extent, still recommended it by corresponding grandeur of treatment in
other respects.
The same general tendency, except that the technical methods are
less transparent, is, however, very striking in some of the painters
of the school of Umbria, the instructors or early companions of
Raphael.[9] The influence of these examples, as well as that of Fra
Bartolommeo, in Florence, is distinctly to be traced in the works of
the great artist just named, but neither is so marked as the effect
of his emulation of a Venetian painter at a later period. The glowing
colour, sometimes bordering on exaggeration, which Raphael adopted
in Rome, is undoubtedly to be attributed to the rivalry of Sebastian
del Piombo. This painter, the best of Giorgione's imitators, arrived
in Rome, invited by Agostini Chigi, in 1511, and the most powerful of
Raphael's frescoes, the Heliodorus and Mass of Bolsena, as well as
some portraits in the same style, were painted in the two following
years. In the hands of some of Raphael's scholars, again, this extreme
warmth was occasionally carried to excess, particularly by Pierino del
Vaga, with whom it often degenerated into redness. The representative
of the glowing manner in Florence was Fra Bartolommeo, and, in the
same quality, considered abstractedly, some painters of the school of
Ferrara were second to none.
In another Note (par. 177) some further considerations are offered,
which may partly explain the prevalence of this style in the beginning
of the sixteenth century; here we merely add, that the conditions under
which the appearance itself is most apparent in nature are perhaps more
obvious in Venice than elsewhere. The colour of general nature may be
observed in all places with almost equal convenience, but with regard
to an important quality in living nature, namely, the colour of flesh,
perhaps there are no circumstances in which its effects at different
distances can be so conveniently compared as when the observer and the
observed gradually approach and glide past each other on so smooth an
element and in so undisturbed a manner as on the canals and in the
gondolas of Venice;[10] the complexions, from the peculiar mellow
carnations of the Italian women to the sun-burnt features and limbs
of the mariners, presenting at the same time the fullest variety in
another sense.
At a certain distance--the colour being always assumed to be unimpaired
by interposed atmosphere--the reflections appear kindled to intenser
warmth; the fiery glow of Giorgione is strikingly apparent; the colour
is seen in its largest relation; the _macchia_,[11] an expression so
emphatically used by Italian writers, appears in all its quantity, and
the reflections being the focus of warmth, the hue seems to deepen in
shade.
A nearer view gives the detail of cooler tints more perceptibly,[12]
and the forms are at the same time more distinct. Hence Lanzi is quite
correct when, in distinguishing the style of Titian from that of
Giorgione, he says that Titian's was at once more defined and less
fiery.[13] In a still nearer observation the eye detects the minute
lights which Leonardo da Vinci says are incompatible with effects such
as those we have described[14] and which, accordingly, we never find
in Giorgione and Titian. This large impression of colour, which seems
to require the condition of comparative distance for its full effect,
was most fitly employed by the same great artists in works painted in
the open air or for large altar-pieces. Their celebrated frescoes on
the exterior of the Fondaco de' Tedeschi at Venice, to judge from their
faint remains and the descriptions of earlier writers, were remarkable
for extreme warmth in the shadows. The old frescoes in the open air
throughout Friuli have often the same character, and, owing to the
fulness of effect which this treatment ensures, are conspicuous at a
very great distance.[15]
In assuming that the Venetian painters may have acquired a taste for
this breadth[16] of colour under the circumstances above alluded to,
it is moreover to be remembered that the time for this agreeable
study was the evening; when the sun had already set behind the hills
of Bassano; when the light was glowing but diffused; when shadows
were soft--conditions all agreeing with the character of their
colouring:[17] above all, when the hour invited the fairer portion of
the population to betake themselves in their gondolas to the lagunes.
The scene of this "promenade" was to the north of Venice, the quarter
in which Titian at one time lived. A letter exists written by Francesco
Priscianese, giving an account of his supping with the great painter in
company with Jacopo Nardi, Pietro Aretino, the sculptor Sansovino, and
others. The writer speaks of the beauty of the garden, where the table
was prepared, looking over the lagunes towards Murano, "which part of
the sea," he continues, "as soon as the sun was down, was covered with
a thousand gondolas, graced with beautiful women, and enlivened by the
harmony of voices and instruments, which lasted till midnight, forming
a pleasing accompaniment to our cheerful repast."[18]
To return to Goethe: perhaps the foregoing remarks may warrant the
conclusion that his idea of colour in shadow is not irreconcileable
with the occasional practice of the best painters. The highest examples
of the style thus defined are, or were, to be found in the works of
Giorgione[19] and Titian, and hence the style itself, though "within
that circle" few "dare walk" is to be considered the grandest and
most perfect. Its possible defects or abuse are not to be dissembled:
in addition to the danger of exaggeration[20] it is seldom united
with the plenitude of light and shade, or with roundness; yet, where
fine examples of both modes of treatment may be compared, the charm
of colour has perhaps the advantage.[21] The difficulty of uniting
qualities so different in their nature, is proved by the very rare
instances in which it has been accomplished. Tintoret in endeavouring
to add chiaro-scuro to Venetian colour, in almost every instance fell
short of the glowing richness of Titian.[22]
Giacomo Bassan and his imitators, even in their dark effects, still had
the principle of the gem in view: their light, in certain hues, is the
minimum of colour, their lower tones are rich, their darks intense,
and all is sparkling.[23] Of the great painters who, beginning, on
the other hand, with chiaro-scuro, sought to combine with it the full
richness of colour, Correggio, in the opinion of many, approached
perfection nearest; but we may perhaps conclude with greater justice
that the desired excellence was more completely attained by Rembrandt
than by any of the Italians.
[1] Leonardo da Vinci observes: "L'ombra è diminuzione di luce, tenebre
è privazione di luce." And again: "Sempre il minor lume è ombra del
lume maggiore."--_Trattato della Pittura_, pp. 274-299.
N. B. The same edition before described has been consulted throughout.
[2]
"Lux varium vivumque dabit, nullum umbra colorem."
_De Arte Graphicá_.
"Know first that light displays and shade destroys
Refulgent nature's variegated dies."--Mason's _Translation_.
[3] A Spanish writer, Diego de Carvalho e Sampayo, quoted by Goethe
("Farbenlehre," vol. ii.), has a similar observation. This destroying
effect of light is striking in climates where the sun is powerful, and
was not likely to escape the notice of a Spaniard.
[4] Trattato, pp. 103, 121, 123, 324, &c.
[5] Ib. pp. 85, 134.
[6] Absolute opacity, to judge from the older specimens of stained
glass, seems to have been considered inadmissible. The window was
to admit light, however modified and varied, in the form prescribed
by the architect, and that form was to be preserved. This has been
unfortunately lost sight of in some modern glass-painting, which,
by excluding the light in large masses, and adopting the opacity
of pictures (the reverse of the influence above alluded to), has
interfered with the architectural symmetry in a manner far from
desirable. On the other hand, if we suppose painting at any period
to have aimed at the imitation of stained glass, such an imitation
must of necessity have led to extreme force; for the painter sets
out by substituting a mere white ground for the real light of the
sky, and would thus be compelled to subdue every tone accordingly.
In such an imitation his colour would soon deepen to its intensest
state; indeed, considerable portions of the darker hues would be lost
in obscurity. The early Flemish pictures seldom err on the side of
a gay superabundance of colour; on the contrary, they are generally
remarkable for comparatively cool lights, for extreme depth, and a
certain subdued splendour, qualities which would necessarily result
from the imitation or influence in question.
[7] See Langlois, "Peinture sur Verre." Rouen, 1832; Descamps, "La Vie
des Peintres Flamands;" and Gessert, "Geschichte der Glasmalerei."
Stutgard, 1839. The antiquity of the glass manufactory of Murano
(Venice) is also not to be forgotten. Vasari objects to the Venetian
glass, because it was darker in colour than that of Flanders, France,
and England; but this very quality was more likely to have an
advantageous influence on the style of the early oil-painters. The use
of stained glass was, however, at no period very general in Italy.
[8] Zanetti, "Della Pittura Veneziana," marks the progress of the early
Venetian painters by the gradual use of the warm outline. There are
some mosaics in St. Mark's which have the effect of flesh-colour, but
on examination, the only red colour used is found to be in the outlines
and markings. Many of the drawings of the old masters, heightened with
red in the shadows, have the same effect. In these drawings the artists
judiciously avoided colouring the lips and cheeks much, for this would
only have betrayed the want of general colour, as is observable when
statues are so treated.
[9] Andrea di Luigi, called L'Ingegno, and Niccolo di Fuligno, are
cited as the most prominent examples. See Rumohr, "Italienische
Forschungen." Perogino himself occasionally adopted a very glowing
colour.
The early Italian schools which adhered most to the Byzantine types
appear to have been also the most remarkable for depth, or rather
darkness, of colour. This fidelity to customary representation was
sometimes, as in the schools of Umbria, and to a certain extent in
those of Siena and Bologna, the result of a religious veneration for
the ancient examples; in others, as in Venice, the circumstance of
frequent intercourse with the Levant is also to be taken into the
account. The Greek pictures of the Madonna, not to mention other
representations, were extremely dark, in exaggerated conformity,
it is supposed, with the tradition respecting her real complexion
(see D'Agincourt, vol. iv. p. 1); a belief which obtained so late as
Lomazzo's time, for, speaking of the Madonna, he observes, "Leggesi
però che fu alquanto bruna." Giotto, who with the independence of
genius betrayed a certain contempt for these traditions, failed perhaps
to unite improvement with novelty when he substituted a pale white
flesh-colour for the traditional brown. Some specimens of his works,
still existing at Padua, present a remarkable contrast in this respect
with the earliest productions of the Venetian and Paduan artists. His
works at Florence differ as widely from those of the earlier painters
of Tuscany. This peculiarity was inherited by his imitators, and at
one time almost characterised the Florentine school. Leon Battista
Alberti was not perhaps the first who objected to it ("Vorrei io
che dai pittori fosse comperato il color bianco assai più caro che
le presiosissime gemme."--_Della Pittura_, I. ii.) The attachment
of Fra Bartolommeo to the grave character of the Christian types is
exemplified in his deep colouring, as well as in other respects.
[10] Holland might be excepted, and in Holland similar causes may have
had a similar influence.
[11] Local colour; literally, the _blot_.
[12] Zanetti ventures to single out the picture of Tobit and the Angel
in S. Marziale as the first example of Titian's own manner, and in
which a direct imitation of Giorgione is no longer apparent. In this
picture the lights are cool and the blood-tint very effective.
[13] "Meno sfumato, men focoso."--_Storia Pittorica_.
[14] "La prima cosa che de' colori si perde nelle distante è il lustro,
loro minima parte."--_Trattato_, p. 213; and elsewhere, "I lumi
principali in picciol luogo son quelli che in picciola distanza sono i
primi che si perdono all' occhio."--p. 128.
[15] A colossal St. Christopher, the usual subject, is frequently seen
occupying the whole height of the external wall of a church. We have
here an example of the influence of religion, such as it was, even on
the style of colouring and practical methods of the art. The mere sight
of the image of St. Christopher, the type of strength, was considered
sufficient to reinvigorate those who were exhausted by the labours of
husbandry. The following is a specimen of the inscriptions inculcating
this belief:--
"Christophori Sancti speciem quicumque tuetur,
Illo namque die nullo languore tenetur."
Hence the practice of painting the figure on the outside of churches,
hence its colossal size, and hence the powerful qualities in colour
above described. See Maniago, "Storia delle Belle Arti Friulane."
[16] The authority of Fuseli sufficiently warrants the application of
the term breadth to colour; he speaks of Titian's "breadth of local
tint."
[17] Zanetti quotes an opinion of the painters of his time to the same
effect:--"Teneano essi (alcuni maestri) per cosa certa, che in molte
opere Tiziano volesse fingere il lume--quale si vede nell' inclinarsi
del sole verso la sera. Gli orizzonti assai luminosi dietro le
montagne, le ombre incerte e più le carnagioni brunette e rosseggianti
delle figure, gl'induceano a creder questo."--Lib. ii. Leonardo da
Vinci observes, "Quel corpo che si troverà in mediocre lume fia in
lui poca differenza da' lumi all' ombre. E questo accade sul far
della sera--e queste opere sono dolci ed hacci grazia ogni qualità di
volto," &c.--p. 336. Elsewhere, "Le ombre fatte dal sole od altri lumi
particolari sono senza grazia."--p. 357; see also p. 247.
[18] See "Francesco Priscianese De' Primi Principii della Lingua
Latina," Venice, 1550. The letter is at the end of the work. It is
quoted in Ticozzi's "Vite de' Pittori Vecelli," Milan, 1817.
[19] The works of Giorgione are extremely rare. The pictures best
calculated to give an idea of the glowing manner for which he
is celebrated, are the somewhat early works and several of the
altar-pieces of Titian, the best specimens of Palma Vecchio, and the
portraits of Sebastian del Piombo.
[20] Zanetti and Lodovico Dolce mention Lorenzo Lotto as an instance
of the excess of Giorgione's style. Titian himself sometimes
overstepped the mark, as his biographers confess, and as appears,
among other instances, from the head of St. Peter in the picture (now
in the Vatican) in which the celebrated St. Sebastian is introduced.
Raphael was criticised by some cardinals for a similar defect. See
"Castiglione, Il Cortigiano," 1. ii.
In the same paragraph to which the present observations refer, the
authority of Kircher is quoted; his treatise, "Ars magna lucis et
umbrae," was published in Rome in 1646. In a portrait of Nicholas
Poussin, engraved by Clouet, the painter is represented holding a book,
which, from the title and the circumstance of Poussin having lived in
Rome in Kircher's time, Goethe supposes to be the work in question. The
abuse of the principle above alluded to, is perhaps exemplified in the
red half-tints observable in some of Poussin's figures.
The augmentation of colour in subdued light was still more directly
taught by Lomazzo. He composes the half-tints of flesh merely by
diminishing the quantity of white, the proportions of the other colours
employed (for he enters into minute details) remaining unaltered. See
his "Trattato della arte della Pittura," Milan, 1584, p. 301.