MILITARY PYROTECHNY IN THE GREAT WAR
The outbreak of the great war, whatever may have been the case
as regards other branches, found the Service badly equipped
pyrotechnically. The great and almost frantic interest taken in
military pyrotechny during the first half of the nineteenth century
had died away. Gradually the pyrotechnic stores included in the
official schedule had been reduced until in 1914 a few rockets—mostly
signal—lights for signalling and illumination, Very pistol cartridges
for signalling purposes, with single stars of various colours, and
incendiary and light stars for shells constituted the entire list.
The cause of this neglect of the art of pyrotechny for warlike purposes
was not difficult to understand. Rifled barrels, breech-loading, and
quick-firing ordnance had entirely destroyed interest in the rocket
as a projectile. The telephone and telegraph had almost entirely
superseded older methods of signalling, and so with most of the
pyrotechnic contrivances which, less than a century before, had been
thought to be indispensable.
As events proved, this abandonment of old ideas was premature. Although
every thinking man in the country realised that war was some day
inevitable, no one, or at least very few, realised the nature of the
struggle. The development of land war into what were practically siege
operations on a gigantic scale; the nature of sea warfare with the new
factors, the submarine, seaplane and wireless; the extent and ferocity
of aerial warfare—all were unforeseen. Yet each of these called for new
inventions, new methods of destruction, new methods of protection and
communication, and in many cases the resuscitation of old ideas long
since abandoned.
And as fire has for all time been associated with the sword, it is
small wonder that pyrotechny played no inconspicuous part in the
struggle.
As has always been the case, and no doubt always will be, the outbreak
of hostilities was the signal for an epidemic of inventions. Men who
had never before interested themselves either in war, or in that
particular department of science to which their ideas belong, and in
spite of or perhaps because of an entire ignorance of the subject,
inundated the authorities with so-called inventions which were so much
waste of time to all concerned.
In this connection it is interesting to turn to a volume of
“Abridgements of Specifications relating to Fire-arms and Other
Weapons,” published by the Patent Office in 1859. The preface contains
the following remarks: “It is worthy of notice that a very large
proportion of the so-called inventions of the present day are, in
fact, old contrivances, sometimes modified and adapted to modern
requirements, but very often identical with what has been tried and
abandoned as useless long ago. From the year 1617 down to the end
of the year 1852, not more than about 300 patents were granted for
inventions relating to fire-arms. When the war with Russia broke out
the Patent Office was inundated with applications for Letters Patent
for similar inventions, and about 600 have since been actually granted.
Of these it may be safely said that five-sixths of the applications
related to old contrivances which have been patented over and over
again.”
Many of these inventions recall a story of the Duke of Wellington,
who was examining a steam rocket invented and patented by a Jacob
Perkins in 1824. This device consisted of an iron case with a stick
like that of a rocket. The case was filled with water and had a
fusible metal plug at the base. The case was heated, and when the plug
melted the generated steam escaped and impinging on the air drove
forward the projectile. The absurdity of the idea is too obvious to
need discussion. The Duke carefully examined it, and after asking many
questions, remarked: “If this had been invented first and gunpowder
afterwards, what a capital improvement gunpowder would have been.”
The great war saw these “inventions” multiplied a thousand-fold. The
spread of education, the availability of books from which at least a
smattering of any subject could be obtained, and from the increase both
in quality and quantity of newspaper news a consequent closer knowledge
of what was happening—all these factors helped to add to the crop
of ideas. In many cases undoubtedly these ideas were elaborated and
worked out by the inventor, adopted by the authorities, and proved of
the highest value. These cases were, however, greatly in the minority,
and were generally the work of one who had at least some pre-knowledge
of his subject. Such a man was the late Wing-Commander F. A. Brock,
R.N.A.S., of whom it can be said without fear of contradiction no one
man did more for military pyrotechny during the great war, and possibly
in no other single subject during the war was one man so invaluable.
Born in 1884, educated at Dulwich, he entered the firm of C. T. Brock
and Co. in 1901, where he remained until the outbreak of war. Endowed
with a marked inventive ability and a phenomenal memory, and brought
up as it were in an atmosphere of pyrotechny, he developed a knowledge
of pyrotechnic chemistry which was extraordinary and appeared almost
instinctive.
A naval correspondent, writing in “The Navy,” speaks of him as follows:
“From H_{2}O to WO_{2} they knew all about it, or thought they did
until the wayward genius of the Commander, who never pretended to be a
chemist, taught them that there were permutations and combinations to
the _n_th degree that they had never dared to think of.
[Illustration: WING-COMMANDER FRANK ARTHUR BROCK, R.N.A.S.
Killed at Zeebrugge, April 23rd, 1918.]
“Wing-Commander Brock’s great secret was originality. To the accepted
formula he would add just a touch of the unexpected. The chemists would
say it can’t be done, or it wouldn’t work. Sometimes it did not, but
often it did, very nearly. And Brock’s pioneer brain touched it a bit
more—and lo! the impossible and the unexpected had arrived.”
During his connection with the firm he had travelled over a large
portion of the world on its behalf. His experience at a comparatively
early age in organising and carrying out large displays—where the
safety of thousands of spectators is in the hands of the directing
mind—no doubt did much to develop those qualities of self-reliance and
self-confidence which were so marked a characteristic of his Service
career.
Wing-Commander Brock was responsible for many pyrotechnic inventions,
and for the practical development of many ideas and inventions not his
own, but which required technical knowledge and experience to ensure
success.
It is perhaps as the “inventor of the smoke screen” that he is
best known, a quite mistaken idea, the fallacy of which a moment’s
consideration will show. There are many references to the use of smoke
as a screen in classic times and even in mythology. The smoke ball,
as we have seen, was a recognised military store up to the middle of
the last century. It is just as absurd to credit Commander Brock, or
for that matter any living man, with the invention of the use of the
smoke screen in warfare as to credit the inventor of a patent fire
extinguisher with the idea of putting out fires.
What Commander Brock did do was to provide the means when the demand
arose of producing smoke suited to the particular purpose for which it
was to be used, whether for screens, signalling, or other purposes.
As an example the “E” float may be cited. A demand had arisen for a
smoke-producing device for use on board merchant ships to assist escape
from enemy submarine attack. Commander Brock, with characteristic
energy, in a very short space of time produced the “E” float, which
for ease in manipulation by untrained operators and volume of smoke
produced was probably unsurpassed by any subsequent device, and on the
score of cheapness it undoubtedly held the field.
This store, which was in reality a triumph of pyrotechnic design, was
in appearance so simple as to mislead some at least to whom greater
insight might have been credited as to the ingenuity of its design.
Counsel at a sitting of the Royal Commission on Awards to Inventors,
described the float as “half-a-dozen or so drain rockets in a box.” A
remark which might be considered as accurate as to describe a clock as
some pieces of metal in a box, were it not for the fact that the box
in question contained no drain rockets, or anything resembling them
more closely than one firework resembles another designed for quite a
different purpose.
[Illustration: Smoke Float in Action.]
The requirements to be met were as follows: The apparatus was to be
used by men whom by nature of their employment it was impossible to
train individually, therefore its ignition must be simple and at
the same time certain and quick in action, and carried on the float
itself; a chamber had to be provided in which to as it were accumulate
the smoke generated, which chamber had of necessity to have holes
through which the smoke could issue. As the float had to be dropped
after ignition from the deck of the vessel into the sea, and would
consequently be submerged for a short time, these holes must be in some
way sealed until the float rose to the surface. The pyrotechnic
compositions which produce the greatest volume of smoke were found to
take some considerable time to attain their maximum of production,
and separate units had to be included which would develop almost
instantaneously a big mass of smoke, pending the generation of the main
supply.
In addition, the float must be so constructed as to remain efficient
when stored on the deck of a merchant vessel in all weathers and
conditions.
Two hundred thousand of these floats were issued during the war.
The subject of smoke is one which naturally attracts the attention of
the pyrotechnist, although in what might be called a negative direction.
For display work the elimination of smoke is obviously of greater
importance than its production, but inquiry into the one of necessity
leads to a knowledge of the other.
In some few cases the smoke generated is of value in adding to the
effect of the burning composition; the most noticeable case of this is
the use of coloured fire as flares, that is to say, burnt in masses
for the illumination of trees and other natural features. Some years
ago Messrs. C. T. Brock & Co. spent considerable time in eliminating
as far as possible the smoke from coloured fire, when it was found
that without the smoke the result was very poor. It was the reflection
of the colour on the smoke upon which the illumination depended for
its effect. This, however, is hardly germane to our subject, but is
mentioned to indicate how largely the question of smoke enters into the
work of the modern pyrotechnist.
Commander Brock had, apart from his ordinary work, been engaged for
some months prior to the outbreak of war on the question of the
production of smoke for the Admiralty, and had also interested himself
in the subject for commercial purposes, such as insecticide and other
uses. He was therefore in a position, when the demand arose for smoke
both for naval and military use, to start research in the matter
considerably ahead of other inquirers, and to produce immediately
a smoke that would supply the needs for the time being until more
satisfactory means could be evolved.
The Royal Naval Experimental Station at Stratford, of which he was
in command and which he organised and brought into being, had many
activities besides smoke. But even the exacting work of controlling
its many activities was not sufficient for the Commander’s untiring
energy; the few moments he could snatch from his duties and the many he
stole from sleep were devoted to the invention and elaboration of war
devices. His greatest achievement was the Brock anti-Zeppelin bullet,
for which he and he alone is responsible, and which beyond any shadow
of doubt delivered this country from the terror of the Zeppelin raids.
His other inventions include many purely pyrotechnic smoke devices and
inventions connected with the production of smoke, such as igniters
which were used to start the action of smoke production, the Dover
flares of one million candle power each, used by the anti-submarine
patrol in the Straits of Dover, and burned to the extent of several
hundreds every night.
He was also responsible for several forms of stars for use in Very
pistol cartridges.
Captain Carpenter, V.C., in his splendid book, “The Blocking of
Zeebrugge,” writes as follows of his work in connection with that
operation:
“It would be difficult for anybody to speak too highly of
Wing-Commander Frank A. Brock. He was a rare personality. An
inventive genius, than whom the country had no better, it was
his brain that differentiated this blocking enterprise from all
previous attempts in history in one most important particular. The
difficulty of reaching the destination in the face of a strenuous
opposition had hitherto brought failure, but he provided an
antidote in the form of a satisfactory artificial fog designed to
protect the blockships from the enemy’s guns during the critical
period of approach. That in itself was a wonderful achievement, but
his inventive mind was not satisfied therewith. To him we owed the
special flares intended for turning darkness into light.
“A special buoy was wanted—one that would automatically provide
its own light on being thrown into the water. Brock made so little
of the problem that he produced such a buoy, designed, constructed
and ready for use in less than twenty-four hours. Special signal
lights were required: Brock produced them. Flame projectors, far
exceeding anything hitherto known, were mooted: Brock produced them
also. No matter what our requirements were Brock was undefeated.
With a highly scientific brain he possessed extraordinary knowledge
of almost any subject. He had travelled much and could tell you
all that was worth knowing of any country from Patagonia to
Spitzbergen. He was no mean authority on old prints and books, was
also a keen philatelist, and was blessed with a remarkable memory.
Wherever he went he carried with him a pocket edition of the New
Testament, which was his favourite possession; his knowledge of the
contents was quite unique. And with it all he was a great shot and
an all-round sportsman. His fine physique was well remembered by
many a Rugby footballer from the days when he played in the pack
of one of the leading club fifteens. His geniality and humour were
hard to beat. But of all his qualities, optimism perhaps held first
place. At times we, who were far from being pessimistic, thought
his optimism excessive, but it was justified absolutely with regard
to the success of the enterprise.”
The “Very” was a pre-war invention, patented in 1878; it was not
adopted into the Service until about ten years later. It consists of
a short-barrelled pistol of 1 inch calibre—or rather that was the
original size, a 1½ inch pattern was introduced during the war, and
subsequently a 1½ inch pattern with a longer barrel and shoulder piece.
The original cartridge was in effect a single star Roman candle, fired
by percussion. A small propelling charge drove out a single coloured
star, either red, white, green or blue. The star rose to a height of
about 300 feet. These were used purely for signalling purposes.
The war suggested another use of the “Very” pistol, that is for
illuminating purposes, and various illuminating stars were introduced,
both to light up upon reaching their objective with a range of two to
three hundred yards, and to hang suspended from a parachute, similar
to the old parachute light ball, but with many times the brilliance,
although considerably less in size.
The difficulty of identifying coloured stars in daylight suggested the
use of coloured smokes. These were successfully evolved by Major Wicks
and Captain Gray, an achievement of far greater difficulty than the
casual observer might think.
Apart from these synthetically prepared colours, the yellow smoke
natural to orpiment was much used in signal stars.
Later stars were suggested by Commander Brock, which ascended burning
white and at their height broke into two, and in a subsequent pattern
into three, stars of varying colours.
The rifle grenade, which was fired by a rod fixed to the base of the
grenade and running down the barrel of a rifle, being blown out by a
cartridge without a bullet, was also fitted up for signalling purposes.
Upon opening, a series of lights, arranged to code, were suspended from
a parachute.
Recognition and illuminating lights were constructed for use from
aeroplanes, and were ignited by dropping through a launching tube fixed
to the machine, which made contact and fired them electrically as they
passed through.
Landing lights and wing-tip lights, electrically ignited, were other
stores used in connection with aerial warfare.
Another was the incendiary bomb. Until the outbreak of war the
incendiary composition for use as stars in incendiary shells was of a
most primitive nature, and even during the war incendiary compositions
were used which were ridiculous in comparison with those produced later.
The construction also of some of the earlier efforts was quite as
absurd. Projectiles were devised in a thin paper case, intended to
be dropped from heights of many thousand feet, and ignite on impact,
whereas the impact produced by the velocity of a projectile after such
a fall was sufficient to scatter the case and its ingredients in all
directions.
It was the use of aluminium in pyrotechny which pointed the way to real
incendiary composition, composition which exceeds the temperature of
these primitive pitch and other elementary compositions by many times
more than the flame of a candle exceeds the temperature of ice.
Bombs containing thermit, and later on thermalloy (a composition which
set hard, and did away with the necessity of a case), were terrible
weapons, giving a temperature which has hardly been exceeded by other
means.
These compositions were almost identical with some of those containing
aluminium used in pyrotechny for a considerable time before the
war, but of course not for incendiary purposes. The intense heat is
naturally accompanied by brilliant light, which was of great value
to the pyrotechnists, the more so as aluminium compositions do not
deteriorate on being kept as do those containing magnesium, and
although the light is not quite so brilliant, and has less actinic
value, the fact that it is considerably cheaper, combined with its
keeping qualities, renders it a very satisfactory substitute for that
rather expensive metal, in very many cases at least.