"The crusades are not, in my mind, either the popular

delusions that our cheap literature has determined them to be,

nor papal conspiracies against kings and peoples, as they

appear to the Protestant controversialist; nor the savage

outbreaks of expiring barbarism, thirsting for blood and

plunder, nor volcanic explosions of religious intolerance. I

believe them to have been, in their deep sources, and in the

minds of their best champions, and in the main tendency of

their results, capable of ample justification. They were the

first great effort of mediæval life to go beyond the pursuit

of selfish and isolated ambitions; they were the trial-feat of

the young world, essaying to use, to the glory of God and the

benefit of man, the arms of its new knighthood. ... That in

the end they were a benefit to the world no one who reads can

doubt; and that in their course they brought out a love for

all that is heroic in human nature, the love of freedom, the

honour of prowess, sympathy with sorrow, perseverance to the

last and patient endurance without hope, the chronicles of the

age abundantly prove; proving, moreover, that it was by the

experience of those times that the forms of those virtues were

realized and presented to posterity."

_William Stubbs, Seventeen Lectures on the Study of Mediæval

and Modern History, lecture 8._

"Though begun under the name and influence of religious

belief, the crusades deprived religious ideas, I shall not say

of their legitimate share of influence, but of their exclusive

and despotic possession of the human mind. This result, though

undoubtedly unforeseen, arose from various causes. The first

was evidently the novelty, extent, and variety of the scene

which displayed itself to the crusaders; what generally

happens to travellers happened to them. It is mere

common-place to say, that travelling gives freedom to the

mind; that the habit of observing different nations, different

manners and different opinions, enlarges the ideas, and

disengages the judgment from old prejudices. The same thing

happened to those nations of travellers who have been called

the crusaders; their minds were opened and raised by having

seen a multitude of different things, of having become

acquainted with other manners than their own. They found

themselves also placed in connexion with two states of

civilization, not only different from their own, but more

advanced--the Greek state of society on the one hand, and the

Mussulman on the other. ... It is curious to observe in the

chronicles the impression made by the crusaders on the

Mussulmans, who regarded them at first as the most brutal,

ferocious, and stupid barbarians they had ever seen. The

crusaders, on their part, were struck with the riches and

elegance of manners which they observed among the Mussulmans.

These first impressions were succeeded by frequent relations

between the Mussulmans and Christians. These became more

extensive and important than is commonly believed. ... There

is another circumstance which is worthy of notice. Down to the

time of the crusades, the court of Rome, the centre of the

Church, had been very little in communication with the laity,

unless through the medium of ecclesiastics; either legates

sent by the court of Rome, or the whole body of the bishops

and clergy. There were always some laymen in direct relation

with Rome; but upon the whole, it was by means of churchmen

that Rome had any communication with the people of different

countries. During the crusades, on the contrary, Rome became a

halting-place for a great portion of the crusaders, either in

going or returning. A multitude of laymen were spectators of

its policy and its manners, and were able to discover the

share which personal interest had in religious disputes. There

is no doubt that this newly-acquired knowledge inspired many

minds with a boldness hitherto unknown. When we consider the

state of the general mind at the termination of the crusades,

especially in regard to ecclesiastical matters, we cannot fail

to be struck with a singular fact: religious notions underwent

no change, and were not replaced by contrary or even different

opinions. Thought, notwithstanding, had become more free;

religious creeds were not the only subject on which the human

mind exercised its faculties; without abandoning them, it

began occasionally to wander from them, and to take other

directions. ... The social state of society had undergone an

analogous change. ... Without entering into the details ... we

may collect into a few general facts the influence of the

crusades on the social state of Europe. They greatly

diminished the number of petty fiefs, petty domains, and petty

proprietors; they concentrated property and power in a smaller

number of hands. It is from the time of the crusades that we

may observe the formation and growth of great fiefs--the

existence of feudal power on a large scale. ... This was one

of the most important results of the crusades. Even in those

cases where small proprietors preserved their fiefs, they did

not live upon them in such an insulated state as formerly. The

possessors of great fiefs became so many centres around which

the smaller ones were gathered, and near which they came to

live. During the crusades, small proprietors found it

necessary to place themselves in the train of some rich and

powerful chief, from whom they received assistance and

support. They lived with him, shared his fortune, and passed

through the same adventures that he did. When the crusaders

returned home, this social spirit, this habit of living in

intercourse with superiors continued to subsist, and had its

influence on the manners of the age. ... The extension of the

great fiefs, and the creation of a number of central points in

society, in place of the general dispersion which previously

existed, were the two principal effects of the crusades,

considered with respect to their influence upon feudalism. As

to the inhabitants of the towns, a result of the same nature

may easily be perceived. The crusades created great civic

communities. Petty commerce and petty industry were not

sufficient to give rise to communities such as the great

cities of Italy and Flanders. It was commerce on a great

scale--maritime commerce, and, especially, the commerce of the

East and West, which gave them birth; now it was the crusades

which gave to the maritime commerce the greatest impulse it

had yet received. On the whole, when we survey the state of

society at the end of the crusades, we find that the movement

tending to dissolution and dispersion, the movement of

universal localization (if I may be allowed such an

expression), had ceased, and had been succeeded by a movement

in the contrary direction, a movement of centralization. All

things tended to mutual approximation; small things were

absorbed in great ones, or gathered round them. Such was the

direction then taken by the progress of society."

_F. Guizot, History of Civilization, lecture 8 (volume 1).

www.gutenberg.org/files/61572/61572-h/61572-h.htm#Page_151_

{638}

CRUSADES: A. D. 1383.

The Bishop of Norwich's Crusade in Flanders.

See FLANDERS: A. D. 1383.

CRUSADES: A. D. 1420-1431.

Crusade against the Hussites.

See BOHEMIA: A. D. 1419-1434.

CRUSADES: A. D. 1442-1444.

Christian Europe against the Turks.

See TURKS (THE OTTOMANS): A. D. 1402-1451.

CRUSADES: A. D. 1467-1471.

Crusade Instigated by the Pope against George Podiebrad, king

of Bohemia.

See BOHEMIA: A. D. 1458-1471..

----------CRUSADES: End----------

CRYPTEIA, The.

See KRYPTEIA.

CTESIPHON.

"The Parthian monarchs, like the Mogul sovereigns of

Hindostan, delighted in the pastoral life of their Scythian

ancestors, and the imperial camp was frequently pitched in the

plain of Ctesiphon, on the eastern banks of the Tigris, at the

distance of only three miles from Seleucia. The innumerable

attendants on luxury and despotism resorted to the court, and

the little village of Ctesiphon insensibly swelled into a

great city. Under the reign of Marcus, the Roman generals

penetrated as far as Ctesiphon and Seleucia. They were

received as friends by the Greek colony; they attacked as

enemies the seat of the Parthian kings; yet both cities

experienced the same treatment. The sack and conflagration of

Seleucia, with the massacre of 300,000 of the inhabitants,

tarnished the glory of the Roman triumph, Seleucia, already

exhausted by the neighborhood of a too powerful rival, sunk

under the fatal blow; but Ctesiphon, in about thirty-three

years, had sufficiently recovered its strength to maintain an

obstinate siege against the emperor Severus. The city was,

however, taken by assault; the king, who defended it in

person, escaped with precipitation; 100,000 captives and a

rich booty rewarded the fatigues of the Roman soldiers.

Notwithstanding these misfortunes, Ctesiphon succeeded to

Babylon and to Seleucia as one of the great capitals of the

East."

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 8.

https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717_

In 637 A. D. Ctesiphon passed into the possession of the

Saracens.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST AND EMPIRE: A. D. 632-651.

ALSO IN:

_G. Rawlinson, Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy, chapter 6._

See, also, MEDAIN.

CUATOS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PAMPAS TRIBES.

CUBA: A. D. 1492-1493.

Discovery by Columbus.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1492; and 1493-1496.

CUBA: A. D. 1511.

Spanish conquest and occupation of the island.

"Of the islands, Cuba was the second discovered; but no

attempt had been made to plant a colony there during the

lifetime of Columbus; who, indeed, after skirting the whole

extent of its southern coast, died in the conviction that it

was part of the continent. At length, in 1511, Diego, the son

and successor of the 'admiral,' who still maintained the seat

of government in Hispaniola, finding the mines much exhausted

there, proposed to occupy the neighbouring island of Cuba, or

Fernandina, as it is called, in compliment to the Spanish

monarch. He prepared a small force for the conquest, which he

placed under the command of Don Diego Velasquez. ...

Velasquez, or rather his lieutenant Narvaez, who took the

office on himself of scouring the country, met with no serious

opposition from the inhabitants, who were of the same family

with the effeminate natives of Hispaniola." After the

conquest, Velasquez was appointed governor, and established

his seat of government at St. Jago, on the southeast corner of

the island.

_W. H. Prescott, Conquest of Mexico, book 2, chapter 1._

ALSO IN:

_Sir A. Helps, Spanish Conquest in America, book 7._

CUBA: A. D. 1514-1851.

Slow development of the island.

Capture of Havana by the English.

Discontent with Spanish rule.

Conspiracies of revolution.

"Velasquez founded many of the towns of the island, the first

of which was Baracoa, then Bayamo, and in 1514 Trinidad, Santo

Espiritu, Puerto Principe; next, in 1515, Santiago de Cuba, as

also, in the same year, the town of Habana. ... This period

(1511-1607) is particularly interesting to the general reader

from the fact that in it the explorations of Hernandez de

Cadoba and Grijalva to Darien, Yucatan, etc., were

inaugurated,--events which had so much to do with the spread

of Spanish rule and discovery, paving the way as they did for

the exploration of Mexico under Hernando Cortes, who, in the

early history of Cuba, figures largely as the lieutenant of

the Governor Velasquez. ... In 1524, Diego Velasquez died,

--his death hastened, it is said, by the troubles brought upon

him by his disputes with his insubordinate lieutenant, Cortes.

... In the history of the improvement of the island, his

government will bear favorable comparison with many of the

later governments; and while that great evil, slavery, was

introduced into the island in his time, so also was the sugar

cane. ... Up to 1538, there seems to be nothing specially

striking in the general history of the island, if we except

the constant attacks with fire and sword of the

'filibusteros,' or pirates of all nations, from which most all

the sea-coast towns suffered more or less; but in that year

there arrived at Santiago de Cuba a man destined to play an

important part in the history and discovery of the new world,

and named as Provincial Governor of Florida as well as of

Cuba,--I allude to Hernando de Soto, who brought with him 10

large vessels, prepared and fitted out expressly for the

conquest of the new Spanish territory of Florida. After much

care and preparation, this expedition started out from the

city of Habana, the 12th of May [see FLORIDA: A. D.

1528-1542]. ... In this period, also, was promulgated that

order, secured, it is believed, by the noble efforts of Padre

Las Casas, prohibiting the enslaving of the aborigines; while,

also, such had become its importance as a town, all vessels

directed to and from Mexico were ordered to stop at Havana. In

the period of years that elapsed from 1607 to 1762, the island

seems to have been in a perfect state of lethargy, except the

usual changes of its many Governors, and the raids made upon

it by pirates, or by more legalized enemies in the form of

French and English men-of-war. In this latter year, however,

occurred an event of much import, from the fact that after it,

or upon its occurrence, the Government of Spain was led to see

the great importance of Cuba, and particularly Havana, as the

'Key to the New World,'--this event was the taking of Havana

by the English.

{639}

On the 6th of June, 1762, there arrived off the port of Havana

an English squadron of 32 ships and frigates, with some 200

transports, bringing with them a force of nearly 20,000 men of

all arms, under command of the Duke of Albemarle. This

formidable armament, the largest that America had ever seen,

laid siege to the city of Havana, whose garrison consisted at

that time of only about 2,700 regulars and the volunteers that

took up arms immediately for the defense of the place. ... The

garrison, however, made a very gallant and prolonged defense,

notwithstanding the smallness of their numbers, and finally,

surrendering, were permitted to march out with the honors of

war, the English thus coming into possession of the most

important defences on the coast, and, subsequently, taking

possession of the town of Matanzas. Remaining in possession of

this portion of the Island of Cuba for many months (until July

6, 1763), the English, by importing negro labor to cultivate

the large tracts of wild land, and by shipping large

quantities of European merchandize, gave a start to the trade

and traffic of the island that pushed it far on its way to the

state of prosperity it has now reached; but by the treaty of

peace, at Paris, in February, 1763 [see Seven Years War], was

restored to Spain the portion of the island wrested from her

by the English. ... In this period (1762-1801) the island made

rapid advances in improvement and civilization, many of the

Captains-General of this period doing much to improve the

towns and the people, beautifying the streets, erecting

buildings, etc. In 1763, a large emigration took place from

Florida, and in 1795 the French emigrants from Santo Domingo

came on to the island in large numbers. ... From 1801, rapid

increase in the prosperity of the island has taken place. ...

At various times insurrections, some of them quite serious in

their nature, have shown what the natural desire of the native

population is for greater privileges and freedom. ... In 1823,

there was a society of 'soles,' as it was called, formed for

the purpose of freeing the island, having at its head young D.

Francisco Lemus, and having for its pretext that the island

was about to be sold to England. In 1829, there was discovered

the conspiracy of the Black Eagle, as it was called (Aguila

Negra), an attempt on the part of the population to obtain

their freedom, some of the Mexican settlers in the island

being prominent in it. The insurrection, or attempt at one, by

the blacks in 1844, was remarkable for its wide-spread

ramifications among the slaves of the island, as well as its

thorough organization,--the intention being to murder all the

whites on the island. Other minor insurrections there were,

but it remained for Narciso Lopez, with a force of some 300

men, to make the most important attempt [1851], in which he

lost his life, to free the island."

_S. Hazard, Cuba with Pen and Pencil, pages 547-550._

ALSO IN:

_M. M. Ballou, History of Cuba, chapter 1-3._

_Lord Mahon (Earl Stanhope),

History of England, 1713-1783, chapter 38 (volume 4)._

_J. Entick, History of the Late War, volume 5, pages 363-386._

_D. Turnbull, Cuba, chapter 22-24._

CUBA: A. D. 1845-1860.

Acquisition coveted by the slave-power in the United States.

Attempted purchase.

Filibustering schemes.

The Ostend Manifesto.

"When the Spanish colonies in America became independent, they

abolished slavery. Apprehensive that the republics of Mexico

and Columbia would be anxious to wrest Cuba and Porto Rico

from Spain, secure their independence, and introduce into

those islands the idea, if they did not establish the fact, of

freedom, the slave-masters [of the United States] at once

sought to guard against what they deemed so calamitous an

event. ... But after the annexation of Texas, there was a

change of feeling and purpose, and Cuba, from being an object

of dread, became an object of vehement desire. The

propagandists, strengthened and emboldened by that signal

triumph, now turned their eyes towards this beautiful 'isle of

the sea,' as the theatre of new exploits; and they determined

to secure the 'gem of the Antilles' for the coronet of their

great and growing power. During Mr. Polk's administration an

attempt was made to purchase it, and the sum of $100,000,000

was offered therefor. But the offer was promptly declined.

What, however, could not be bought it was determined to steal,

and filibustering movements and expeditions became the order

of the day. For no sooner was President Taylor inaugurated

than he found movements on foot in that direction; and, in

August, 1849, he issued a proclamation, affirming his belief

that an 'armed expedition' was being fitted out 'against Cuba

or some of the provinces of Mexico,' and calling upon all good

citizens' to discountenance and prevent any such enterprise.'

In 1851 an expedition, consisting of some 500 men, sailed from

New Orleans under Lopez, a Cuban adventurer. But though it

effected a landing, it was easily defeated, and its leader and

a few of his followers were executed. Soon afterward, a secret

association, styling itself the Order of the Lone Star, was

formed in several of the Southern cities, having a similar

object in view; but it attracted little notice and

accomplished nothing. ... In August, 1854, President Pierce

instructed Mr. Marcy, his Secretary of State, to direct

Buchanan, Mason and Soulé, ministers respectively at the

courts of London, Paris and Madrid, to convene in some

European city and confer with each other in regard to the

matter of gaining Cuba to the United States. They met

accordingly, in October, at Ostend. The results of their

deliberations were published in a manifesto, in which the

reasons are set forth for the acquisition; and the declaration

was made that the Union could never enjoy repose and security 'as

long as Cuba is not embraced within its boundaries.' But the

great source of anxiety, the controlling motive, was the

apprehension that, unless so annexed, she would 'be

Africanized and become a second San Domingo,' thus 'seriously

to endanger' the Union. This paper attracted great attention

and caused much astonishment. It was at first received with

incredulity, as if there had been some mistake or imposition

practised. ... But there was no mistake. ... It was the

deliberate utterance of the conference, and it received the

indorsement of Mr. Pierce and his administration. The

Democratic national conventions of 1856 and of 1860 were quite

as explicit as were the authors of the Ostend manifesto 'in

favor of the acquisition of Cuba.'"

_H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall of the

Slave Power in America, volume 2, ch.47._

{640}

ALSO IN:

_H. Von Holst, Constitutional and Political History

of the United States,

volume 4, chapter 2, and volume 5, chapter 1._

_G. T. Curtis, Life of James Buchanan, volume 2, chapter 6._

_M. M. Ballou, History of Cuba, chapter 3._

_J. J. Roche, The Story of the Filibusters, chapter 3._

----------CUBA: End----------

CUBIT, The.

"The length of the Egyptian foot is ... shown to be equal to

1.013 English foot, or 12.16 inches (0.3086 metre) and the

cubit to 18.24 English inches, or 0.463 metre. This cubit was

identical with the Phœnician or Olympic cubit, afterwards

adopted in Greece. ... The second of the two Egyptian cubits

was the royal cubit, or cubit of Memphis, of seven palms or

twenty-eight digits. ... The mean length of the Egyptian royal

cubit is ... ascertained to be 20.67 English inches, or 525

mm. ... There is much conflict of opinion as to the actual

length of the several cubits in use by the Jews at different

periods; but the fact that Moses always mentions the Egyptian

measures ... as well as the Egyptian weights ... proves that

the Hebrews originally brought their weights and measures from

Egypt. ... In his dissertation on cubits, Sir Isaac Newton

states grounds for his opinion that the sacred cubit of the

Jews was equal to 24.7 of our inches, and that the royal cubit

of Memphis was equivalent to five-sixths of this sacred Jewish

cubit, or 20.6 inches."

_H. W. Chisholm, On the Science of Weighing and

Measuring, chapter 2._

CUCUTA, The Convention of.

See COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1819-1830.

CUFA.

See BUSSORAH and KUFA.

CUICIDH, The.

See TUATH, THE.

CULDEES, The.

It used to be set forth by religious historians that the

Culdees were an ardent religious fraternity in Scotland,

probably founded by Columba, the saintly Irish missionary of

the sixth century, and having its principal seat in Iona; that

they "were the lights of Scotland in a dark and superstitious

age"; that they struggled for several centuries against the

errors and the oppressive pretensions of Rome, and that "the

strength and vigor of the Reformation in Scotland, where the

Papal power received its first and most decisive check, may be

traced not indirectly to the faith, the doctrines, and the

spirit of the ancient Culdees." It was claimed for the

Presbyterian Church that its form of church government

prevailed among the Culdees, while the supporters of

Episcopacy found evidences to the contrary. But all these

views, with all the controversies fomented by them, have been

dissipated by modern historical investigation. The facts

gathered by Dean Reeves and published in 1864, in his work on

the "Culdees of the British Islands," supported by the more

recent studies of Mr. W. F. Skene, are now generally accepted.

Says Mr. Skene, (Celtic Scotland, book 2, chapter 6): "It is not

till after the expulsion of the Columban monks from the

kingdom of the Picts, in the beginning of the eighth century,

that the name of Culdee appears. To Adamnan, to Eddi and to

Bede it was totally unknown. They knew of no body of clergy

who bore this name, and in the whole range of ecclesiastical

history there is nothing more utterly destitute of authority

than the application of this name to the Columban monks of the

sixth and seventh centuries, or more utterly baseless than the

fabric which has been raised upon that assumption." Mr.

Skene's conclusion is that the Culdees sprang from an ascetic

order called Deicolæ or God-worshippers; that in Irish the

name became Ceile De, thence corrupted into Culdee; that they

were hermits, who became in time associated in communities,

and were finally brought under the canonical rule of the Roman

church, along with the secular clergy.

CULEUS, The.

See AMPHORA.

CULHUACAN.

See MEXICO, ANCIENT: THE TOLTEC EMPIRE.

CULLODEN, Battle of (1746).

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1745-1746.

CULM, OR KULM, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1813 (AUGUST).

CULTURKAMPF, The.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1873-1887.

CUMÆ.--CUMÆAN SIBYL.

"Earlier than 735 B. C., ... though we do not know the precise

era of its commencement, there existed one solitary Grecian

establishment in the Tyrrhenian Sea,--the Campanian Cumæ, near

Cape Misenum; which the more common opinion of chronologists

supposed to have been founded in 1050 B. U. and which has even

been carried back by some authors to 1139 B. C. ... We may at

least feel certain that it is the most ancient Grecian

establishment in any part of Italy. ... The Campanian

Cumæ--known almost entirely by this its Latin

designation--received its name and a portion of its

inhabitants from the Æolic Kymê in Asia Minor. ... Cumæ,

situated on the neck of the peninsula which terminates in Cape

Misenum, occupied a lofty and rocky hill overhanging the sea

and difficult of access on the land side. ... In the hollow

rock under the very walls of the town was situated the cavern

of the prophetic Sibyl,--a parallel and reproduction of the

Gergithian Sibyl, near Kymê in Æolis: in the immediate

neighborhood, too, stood the wild woods and dark lake of

Avernus, consecrated to the subterranean gods, and offering an

establishment of priests, with ceremonies evoking the dead,

for purposes of prophecy or for solving doubts and mysteries.

It was here that Grecian imagination localized the Cimmerians

and the fable of Odysseus; and the Cumæans derived gains from

the numerous visitors to this holy spot, perhaps hardly less

than those of the inhabitants of Krissa from the vicinity of

Delphi. Of the relations of these Cumæans with the Hellenic

world generally, we unfortunately know nothing; but they seem

to have been in intimate connection with Rome during the time

of the kings, and especially during that of the last king

Tarquin,--forming the intermediate link between the Greek and

Latin world, whereby the feelings of the Teukrians and

Gergitheans near the Æolic Kymê and the legendary stories of

Trojan as well as Grecian heroes,--Æneas and Odysseus--passed

into the antiquarian imagination of Rome and Latium. The

writers of the Augustan age knew Cumæ only in its decline, and

wondered at the vast extent of its ancient walls, yet

remaining in their time. But during the two centuries prior to

500 B. C. these walls inclosed a full and thriving population,

in the plenitude of prosperity."

_G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 22._

See, also, SIBYLS

CUMANS, OR KOMANS, The.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1114-1301.

CUMBERLAND GAP, The capture of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:

A. D. 1863 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER: TENNESSEE).

{641}

CUMBRIA:

The British kingdom.

"The Britons of Cumbria occupy a tolerably large space on the

map, but a very small one in history;--their annals have

entirely perished;--and nothing authentic remains concerning

them, except a very few passages, wholly consisting of

incidental notices relating to their subjection and their

misfortunes. Romance would furnish much more; for it was in

Cumbria that Rhyderc, or Roderic the magnificent, is therein

represented to have reigned, and Merlin to have prophesied.

Arthur held his court in merry Carlisle; and Peredur, the

Prince of Sunshine, whose name we find amongst the princes of

Strathclyde, is one of the great heroes of the 'Mabinogion,'

or tales of youth, long preserved by tradition amongst the

Cymri. These fantastic personages, however, are of importance

in one point of view, because they show, what we might

otherwise forget--that from the Ribble in Lancashire, or

thereabouts, up to the Clyde, there existed a dense population

composed of Britons, who preserved their national language and

customs, agreeing in all respects with the Welsh of the

present day. So that even in the tenth century, the ancient

Britons still inhabited the greater part of the western coast

of the island, however much they had been compelled to yield

to the political supremacy of the Saxon invaders. The 'Regnum

Cumbrense' comprehended many districts, probably governed by

petty princes or Reguli, in subordination to a chief monarch

or Pendragon. Reged appears to have been somewhere in the

vicinity of Annandale. Strathclyde is of course the district

or vale of Clydesdale. In this district, or state, was

situated Alcluyd, or Dunbritton, now Dumbarton, where the

British kings usually resided; and the whole Cumbrian kingdom

was not infrequently called Strathclyde, from the ruling or

principal state; just as the United Kingdom of Great Britain

and Ireland is often designated in common language as

'England,' because England is the portion where the monarch

and legislature are found. Many dependencies of the Cumbrian

kingdom extended into modern Yorkshire, and Leeds was the

frontier town between the Britons and the Angles. ... The

kings of Cumbria became the vassals, or 'men,' of the

Anglo-Saxon kings. Eugenius had thus submitted to Athelstane.

Of the nature of the obligation I shall speak hereafter. The

Anglo-Saxon kings appear to have been anxious to extend and

confirm their supremacy; Edmund proceeded against Donald, or

Dumhnail, the Scottish King of Cumbria (A. D. 945), with the

most inveterate and implacable hostility. ... Edmund, having

thus obtained possession of Cumbria, granted the country to

Malcolm, King of the Scots, upon condition, as the chronicles

say, of being his co-operator, both by sea and by land. ...

From this period the right of the Scottish kings or princes to

the kingdom of Cumbria, as vassals of the English crown, seems

to have been fully admitted: and the rights of the Scottish

kings to the 'Earldom of Cumberland'--for such it was

afterwards termed--were founded upon Edmund's grant. The

Britons of Strathclyde, and Reged, and Cumbria, gradually

melted away into the surrounding population; and, losing their

language, ceased to be discernible as a separate race. Yet it

is most probable that this process was not wholly completed

until a comparatively recent period."

_F. Palgrave, History of the Anglo-Saxons,

chapter 11._

Cumbria and Cambria (Wales), the two states long maintained by

the Britons, against the Angles and Saxons, bore, in reality,

the same name, Cumbria being the more correct form of it. The

earliest development of the so-called Welsh poetry seems to

have been in Cumbria rather than in Wales. Taliesen and

Aneurin were Cumbrian bards, and Arthur, if any historical

personage stands behind his kingly shadow, was probably a

Cumbrian hero.

_J. Rhys, Celtic Britain._

ALSO IN:

_W. F. Skene, The Four Ancient Books of Wales._

See, also, KYMRY, ALCLYDE,

and SCOTLAND: 10TH-11TH CENTURIES.

CUNARD LINE, The founding of the.

See STEAM NAVIGATION: ON THE OCEAN.

CUNAXA, Battle of (B. C. 401).

See PERSIA: B. C. 401-400.

CUNEIFORM WRITING.

The characters employed for the written languages of ancient

Babylonia and Assyria, have been called cuneiform, from the

Latin cunens, a wedge, because the marks composing them are

wedge-shaped. All knowledge of those characters and of the

languages expressed in them had been lost for many centuries,

and its recent recovery is one of the most marvelous

achievements of our age. "Travellers had discovered

inscriptions engraved in cuneiform, or, as they were also

termed, arrow-headed characters, on the ruined monuments of

Persepolis and other ancient sites in Persia. Some of these

monuments were known to have been erected by the Achæmenian

princes--Darius, the son of Hystaspes, and his successors--and

it was therefore inferred that the inscriptions also had been

carved by order of the same kings. The inscriptions were in

three different systems of cuneiform writing; and since the

three kinds of inscription were always placed side by side, it

was evident that they represented different versions of the

same text. ... It was clear that the three versions of the

Achæmenian inscriptions were addressed to the three chief

populations of the Persian Empire, and that the one which

invariably came first was composed in ancient Persian, the

language of the sovereign himself. Now this Persian version

happened to offer the decipherer less difficulties than the

two others which accompanied it. The number of distinct

characters employed in writing it did not exceed forty, while

the words were divided from one another by a slanting wedge.

Some of the words contained so many characters that it was

plain that these latter must denote letters and not syllables,

and that consequently the Persian cuneiform system must have

consisted of an alphabet, and not of a syllabary. It was

further plain that the inscriptions had to be read from left

to right, since the ends of all the lines were exactly

underneath one another on the left side, whereas they

terminated irregularly on the right. ... The clue to the

decipherment of the inscriptions was first discovered by the

successful guess of a German scholar, Grotefend. Grotefend

noticed that the inscriptions generally began with three or

four words, one of which varied, while the others remained

unchanged. The variable word had three forms, though the same

form always appeared on the same monument. Grotefend,

therefore, conjectured that this word represented the name of

a king, the words which followed it being royal titles."

Working on this conjecture, he identified the three names with

Darius, Xerxes and Artaxerxes, and one of the supposed titles

with a Zend word for "king," which gave him a considerable

part of the cuneiform alphabet. He was followed in the work by

Burnouf, Lassen and Sir Henry Rawlinson, until, finally,

Assyrian inscriptions were read with "almost as much certainty

as a page of the Old Testament."

_A. H. Sayce, Fresh Light from the ancient monuments,

chapter 1._

{642}

CUNIBERTUS, King of the Lombards, A. D. 691-700.

CUNIMARÉ, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES:

GUCK OR Coco GROUP.

CURDS, OR KURDS, The.

See CARDUCHI.

CURFEW-BELL, The.

"Except from its influence upon the imagination, it would be

hardly worth while to notice the legend of the curfew-bell, so

commonly supposed to have been imposed by William [the

Conqueror] upon the English, as a token of degradation and

slavery; but the 'squilla di lontano, che paja il giorno

pianger che si muore,' was a universal custom of police

throughout the whole of mediaeval Europe, not unconnected with

devotional feeling."

Sir F. Palgrave, History of Normandy and England,

volume 3, page 627.

"In the year [1061] after King Henry's death [Henry I. of

France], in a Synod held at Caen by the Duke's authority [Duke

William of Normandy, who became in 1066 the Conqueror, and

King of England], and attended by Bishops, Abbots, and Barons,

it was ordered that a bell should be rung every evening, at

hearing of which prayer should be offered, and all people

should get within their houses and shut their doors. This odd

mixture of piety and police seems to be the origin of the

famous and misrepresented Curfew. Whatever was its object, it

was at least not ordained as any special hardship on William's

English subjects."

_E. A. Freeman, History of the Norman Conquest

of England, chapter 12, section 3 (volume 3)._

CURIA, Ancient Roman.

See COMITIA-CURIATA.

CURIA, Municipal, of the later Roman empire.

Decuriones.

"It is only necessary in this work to describe the general

type of the municipal organization which existed in the

provinces of the Roman Empire after the time of Constantine.

... The proprietors of land in the Roman provinces generally

dwelt in towns and cities, as a protection against brigands

and man-stealers. Every town had an agricultural district

which formed its territory, and the landed proprietors

constituted the municipality. The whole local authority was

vested in an oligarchical senate called the Curia, consisting

probably of one hundred of the wealthiest landed proprietors

in the city or township. This body elected the municipal

authorities and officers, and filled up vacancies in its own

body. It was therefore independent of the proprietors from

among whom it was taken, and whose interests it ought to have

represented. The Curia--not the body of landed

proprietors--formed therefore the Roman municipality. The

Curia was used by the imperial government as an instrument of

fiscal extortion."

_G. Finlay, Greece under the Romans, chapter 2, section 1._

"When the progress of fiscal tyranny had almost sapped the

vigor of society, the decuriones [members of the municipal

curiæ, called, also, curiales] ... being held jointly

responsible for the taxation, became the veriest slaves of the

empire. Responsible jointly for the taxes, they were, by the

same token, responsible for their colleagues and their

successors; their estates were made the securities of the

imperial dues; and if any estate was abandoned by its

proprietor, they were compelled to occupy it and meet the

imposts exigible from it. Yet they could not relinquish their

offices; they could not leave the city except by stealth; they

could not enter the army, or the priesthood, or any office

which might relieve them from municipal functions. ... Even

the children of the Curial were adscribed to his functions,

and could engage in no course of life inconsistent with the

onerous and intolerable duty. In short, this dignity was so

much abhorred that the lowest plebeian shunned admission to

it, the members of it made themselves bondmen, married

slave-women, or joined the barbaric hordes in order to escape

it; and malefactors, Jews and heretics were sometimes

condemned to it, as an appropriate penalty for their

offenses."

_P. Godwin, History of France:

Ancient Gaul, book 2, chapter 8._

ALSO IN:

_T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, book 3, chapter 9._

_F. Guizot, History of Civilization, volume 2

(volume 1, France), lecture 2._

See, also ROME: A. D. 363-379.

CURIA, Papal.

College of Cardinals.

Consistory.

"The Court of Rome, commonly called the Roman Curia, consisted

of a number of dignified ecclesiastics who assisted the Pope

in the executive administration. The Pontiff's more intimate

advisers, or, as we should say, his privy council, were the

College of Cardinals [see PAPACY: A. D. 1059], consisting of a

certain number of cardinal bishops, cardinal priests, and

cardinal deacons. The cardinal deacons, at first seven and

afterwards fourteen in number, were originally ecclesiastics

appointed as overseers and guardians of the sick and poor in

the different districts of Rome. Equal to them in rank were

the fifty cardinal priests, as the chief priests of the

principal Roman churches were called; who, with the cardinal

deacons, formed, in very early times, the presbytery, or

senate of the Bishop of Rome. ... According to some

authorities, cardinal bishops were instituted in the 9th

century; according to others not till the 11th, when seven

bishops of the dioceses nearest to Rome--Ostia, Porto,

Velitrae, Tusculum, Præneste, Tibur, and the Sabines--were

adopted by the Pope partly as his assistants in the service of

the Lateran, and partly in the general administration of the

Church. In process of time, the appointment of such cardinal

bishops was extended not only to the rest of Italy but also to

foreign countries. Though the youngest of the cardinals in

point of time, cardinal bishops were the highest in rank, and

enjoyed the pre-eminence in the College. Their titles were

derived from their dioceses. ... But they were also called by

their own names. The number of the cardinals was indefinite

and varying. The Council of Basle endeavoured to restrict it

to 24. But this was not carried out, and Pope Sixtus V. at

length fixed the number at 70. The Council called the

Consistory, which advised with the Pope both in temporal and

ecclesiastical matters, was ordinarily private, and confined

to the cardinals alone; though on extraordinary occasions, and

for solemn purposes of state, as in the audiences of foreign

ambassadors, &c., other prelates, and even distinguished

laymen, might appear in it."

_T. H. Dyer, History of Modern Europe, volume 1, page 38._

{643}

CURIA REGIS OF THE NORMAN KINGS.

"The Curia Regis [under the Norman Kings of England], the

supreme tribunal of judicature, of which the Exchequer was the

financial department or session, was ... the court of the king

sitting to administer justice with the advice of his

counsellors; those counsellors being, in the widest

acceptation, the whole body of tenants-in-chief, but in the

more limited usage, the great officers of the household and

specially appointed judges. The great gatherings of the

national council may be regarded as full sessions of the Curia

Regis, or the Curia Regis as a perpetual committee of the

national council."

_William Stubbs, Constitutional History of England,

chapter 11, section 127._

"Not long after the granting of Magna Charta, the Curia Regis

was permanently divided into three committees or courts, each

taking a certain portion of the business:

(1) Fiscal matters were confined to the Exchequer;

(2) civil disputes, where neither the king's interest nor any

matter savouring of a criminal nature were involved, were

decided in the Common Pleas; and

(3) the court of King's Bench retained all the remaining

business and soon acquired the exclusive denomination of the

ancient Curia Regis."

"But the same staff of judges was still retained for all three

courts, with the chief justiciar at their head. Towards the

end of Henry III.'s reign, the three courts received each a

distinct staff, and on the abolition by Edward I. of the

office of chief justiciar, the only remaining bond of union

being severed, they became completely separated. Some trace of

their ancient unity of organization always survived, however,

in the court of Exchequer Chamber; until at length after six

centuries of independent existence they were again united by

the Judicature Act, 1873. Together with the Court of Chancery

and the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty courts, they now form

divisions of a consolidated High Court of Justice, itself a

branch of the Supreme Court of Judicature."

_T. P. Taswell-Langmead,

English Constitutional History, page 154._

"The Aula Regia, or Curia Regis ... has been described in

various and at first sight contradictory terms. Thus it has

been called the highest Law Court, the Ministry of the King, a

Legislative Assembly, &c. The apparent inconsistency of these

descriptions vanishes on closer inspection, and throws great

light on mediæval history. For the Curia Regis possessed every

attribute which has been ascribed to it."

_A. V. Dicey, The Privy Council, part 1._

ALSO IN:

_R. Gneist, History of the English Constitution, chapter 19._

CURIALES.

See CURIA, MUNICIPAL.

CURIOSOLITÆ, The.

See VENETI OF WESTERN GAUL.

CURTIS, George W., and Civil-Service Reform.

See CIVIL SERVICE REFORM IN THE UNITED STATES.

CURULE ÆDILES.

See ROME: B. C. 494-492.

CURULE CHAIR.

In ancient Rome, "certain high offices of state conferred upon

the holder the right of using, upon public occasions, an ivory

chair of peculiar form. This chair was termed Sella Curulis.

... This was somewhat in the form of a modern camp-stool."

_W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman Antiquity, chapters 2 and 4._

CURZOLA, Battle of (1298).

See GENOA: A. D. 1261-1299.

CUSCO: The Capital of the Incas of Peru.

See PERU: A. D. 1533-154.8.

CUSH.--CUSHITES.

"Genesis, like the Hebrews of later date, includes under the

name of Cush the nations dwelling to the South, the Nubians,

Ethiopians and tribes of South Arabia."

_M. Duncker, History of Antiquity, book 2, chapter 1._

See, also, HAMITES, and ARABIA.

CUSHING, Lieutenant William B.

Destruction of the ram Albemarle.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:

A. D.1864 (OCTOBER: NORTH CAROLINA).

CUSTER'S LAST BATTLE.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1876.

CUSTOMS DUTIES.

See TARIFF.

CUSTOMS UNION, The German (Zollverein).

See TARIFF: A. D. 1833.

CUSTOZZA, Battles of (1848 and 1866).

See ITALY: A. D. 1848-1849; and 1862-1866.

CUTLER, Manasseh, and the Ordinance of 1787.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF THE

UNITED STATES: A. D. 1787.

CUYRIRI, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES:

GUCK OR COCO GROUP.

CYCLADES, The.--SPORADES, The.

"Among the Ionic portion of Hellas are to be reckoned (besides

Athens) Eubœa, and the numerous group of islands included

between the southernmost Eubœan promontory, the eastern coast

of Peloponnesus, and the northwestern coast of Krête. Of these

islands some are to be considered as outlying prolongations,

in a southeasterly direction, of the mountain-system of

Attica; others of that of Eubœa; while a certain number of

them lie apart from either system, and seem referable to a

volcanic origin. To the first class belong Keôs, Kythnus,

Seriphus, Pholegandrus, Sikinus, Gyarus, Syra, Paros, and

Antiparos; to the second class Andros, Tênos, Mykonos, Dêlos,

Naxos, Amorgos; to the third class Kimôlus, Mêlos, Thêra.

These islands passed amongst the ancients by the general name

of the Cyclades and the Sporades; the former denomination

being commonly understood to comprise those which immediately

surrounded the sacred island of Dêlos,--the latter being given

to those which lay more scattered and apart. But the names are

not applied with uniformity or steadiness even in ancient

times: at present, the whole group are usually known by the

title of Cyclades."

_G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 12._

CYDONIA, Battles and siege of (B. C. 71-68).

See CRETE: B. C. 68-66.

CYLON, Conspiracy of.

See ATHENS: B. C. 612-595.

CYMBELINE, Kingdom of.

See COLCHESTER, ORIGIN OF.

CYMRY, The.

See KYMRY, THE.

CYNOSARGES AT ATHENS, The.

See GYMNASIA, GREEK.

CYNOSCEPHALÆ, Battle of (B. C. 364).

The battle in which Pelopidas, the Theban patriot, friend and

colleague of Epaminondas, was slain. It was fought B. C. 364,

in Thessaly, near Pharsalus, on the heights called

Cynoscephalæ, or the Dog's Heads, and delivered the Thessalian

cities from the encroachments of the tyrant of Pheræ.

_C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, chapter 40._

CYNOSCEPHALÆ: (B. C. 197).

See GREECE: B. C. 214-146.

{644}

CYNOSSEMA, Naval battle of.

Two successive naval battles fought, one in July and the

second in October, B. C. 411, between the Athenians and the

Peloponnesian allies, in the Hellespont, are jointly called

the Battle of Cynossema. The name was taken from the headland

called Cynossema, or the "Dog's Tomb," "ennobled by the legend

and the chapel of the Trojan queen Hecuba." The Athenians had

the advantage in both encounters, especially in the latter

one, when they were joined by Alcibiades, with reenforcements,

just in time to decide the doubtful fortunes of the day.

_E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 4, chapter 5._

ALSO IN:

_G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 63._

See GREECE: B. C. 411-407.

CYNURIANS, The.

See KYNURIANS.

CYPRUS: Origin of the name.

"The Greek name of the island was derived from the abundance

in which it produced the beautiful plant ('Copher') which

furnishes the 'al-henna,' coveted throughout the East for the

yellow dye which it communicates to the nails. It was rich in

mines of copper, which has obtained for it the name by which

it is known in the modern languages of the West."

_J. Kenrick, Phœnicia, chapter 4._

CYPRUS: Early History.

"The first authentic record with regard to Cyprus is an

inscription on an Egyptian tombstone of the 17th century B.

C., from which it appears that the island was conquered by

Thothmes III. of Egypt, in whose reign the exodus of the

Children of Israel is supposed to have taken place. This was

no doubt anterior to the establishment of any Greek colonies,

and probably, also, before the Phœnicians had settled in the

island. ... As appears from various inscriptions and other

records, Cyprus became subject successively to Egypt, as just

mentioned, to Assyria, to Egypt again in 568 B. C., when it

was conquered by Amasis, and in 525 B. C. to Persia. Meanwhile

the power of the Greeks had been increasing. ... The

civilization of the West was about to assert itself at

Marathon and Salamis; and Cyprus, being midway between East

and West, could not fail to be involved in the coming

conflict. On the occasion of the Ionic revolt [see PERSIA: B.

C. 521-493] the Greek element in Cyprus showed its strength:

and in 502 B. C. the whole island, with the single exception

of the Phœnician town of Amathus, took part with the Ionians

in renouncing the authority of the Persian king." But in the

war which followed, the Persians, aided by the Phœnicians of

the mainland, reconquered Cyprus, and the Cyprian Greeks were

long disheartened. They recovered their courage, however,

about 410 B. C. when Evagoras, a Greek of the royal house of

Teucer, made himself master of Salamis, and finally

established a general sovereignty over the island--even

extending his power to the mainland and subjugating Tyre. "The

reign of Evagoras is perhaps the most brilliant period in the

history of Cyprus. Before his death, which took place in 374

B. C., he had raised the island from the position of a mere

dependency of one or other of the great Eastern monarchies,

had gained for it a place among the lending states of Greece,

and had solved the question as to which division of the

ancient world the Cyprian people should be assigned.

Consequently when, some forty years later, the power of Persia

was shattered by Alexander the Great at the battle of Issus,

the kings of the island hastened to offer him their submission

as the leader of the Greek race, and sent 120 ships to assist

him in the siege of Tyre." After Alexander's death, Cyprus was

disputed between Antigonus and Ptolemy.

See MACEDONIA: B. C. 310-301.

The king of Egypt secured the prize, and the island remained

under the Greek-Egyptian crown, until it passed, with the rest

of the heritage of the Ptolemys to the Romans. "When the

[Roman] empire was divided, on the death of Constantine the

Great, Cyprus, like Malta, passed into the hands of the

Byzantine Emperors. Like Malta, also, it was exposed to

frequent attacks from the Arabs; but, although they several

times occupied the island and once held it for no less than

160 years, they were always expelled again by the Byzantine

Emperors, and never established themselves there as firmly as

they did in Malta. The crusades first brought Cyprus into

contact with the western nations of modern Europe."

_C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography of British Colonies,

section 1, chapter 2._

ALSO IN:

_R. H. Lang, CYPRUS, chapter 1-8._

_F. Von Loher, CYPRUS, chapter 12 and 30._

_L. P. Di Cesnola, Cyprus; its ancient cities, &c._

CYPRUS: B. C. 58.

Annexed to the Roman Dominions.

"The annexation of Cyprus was decreed in 696 [B. C. 58] by the

people [of Rome], that is, by the leaders of the democracy,

the support given to piracy by the Cypriots being alleged as

the official reason why that course should now be adopted.

Marcus Cato, intrusted by his opponents with the execution of

this measure, came to the island without an army; but he had

no need of one. The king [a brother of the king of Egypt] took

poison; the inhabitants submitted without offering resistance

to their inevitable fate, and were placed under the governor

of Cilicia."

_T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 5, chapter 4._

CYPRUS: A. D. 117.

Jewish insurrection.

"This rich and pleasant territory [the island of Cyprus] had

afforded a refuge to the Jews of the continent through three

generations of disturbance and alarm, and the Hebrew race was

now [A. D. 117] probably not inferior there in number to the

native Syrians or Greeks. On the first outburst of a Jewish

revolt [against the Roman domination, in the last year of the

reign of Trajan] the whole island fell into the hands of the

insurgents, and became an arsenal and rallying point for the

insurrection, which soon spread over Egypt, Cyrene and

Mesopotamia. The leader of the revolt in Cyprus bore the name

of Artemion, but we know no particulars of the war in this

quarter, except that 240,000 of the native population is said

to have fallen victims to the exterminating fury of the

insurgents. When the rebellion was at last extinguished in

blood, the Jews were forbidden thenceforth to set foot on the

island; and even if driven thither by stress of weather, the

penalty of death was mercilessly enforced. ... The Jewish

population of Cyrenaica outnumbered the natives. ... The

hostility of the Jews in these parts was less directed against

the central government and the Roman residents than the native

race. ... Of these 220,000 are said to have perished."

_C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 65._

{645}

CYPRUS: A. D. 1191.

Conquest by Richard Cœur de Lion.

Founding of the Latin Kingdom.

During the civil strife and confusion of the last years of the

Comnenian dynasty of emperors at Constantinople, one of the

members of the family, Isaac Comnenos, secured the sovereignty

of Cyprus and assumed the title of emperor. With the alliance

of the king of Sicily, he defeated the Byzantine forces sent

against him, and was planted securely, to all appearance, on

his newly built throne at the time of the Third Crusade.

Circumstances at that time (A. D. 1191) gave him a fatal

opportunity to provoke the English crusaders. First, he seized

the property and imprisoned the crews of three English ships

that were wrecked on the Cyprian coast. Not satisfied with

that violence, he refused shelter from the storm to a vessel

which bore Berengaria of Navarre, the intended wife of King

Richard. "The king of England immediately sailed to Cyprus;

and when Isaac refused to deliver up the ship-wrecked

crusaders, and to restore their property, Richard landed his

army and commenced a series of operations, which ended in his

conquering the whole island, in which he abolished the

administrative institutions of the Eastern Empire, enslaving

the Greek race, introducing the feudal system, by which he

riveted the chains of a foreign domination, and then gave it

as a present to Guy of Lusignan, the titular king of

Jerusalem, who became the founder of a dynasty of Frank kings

in Cyprus."

_G. Finlay, History of the Byzantine and Greek Empires,

from 716 to 1453, book 3, chapter 3, section 1._

Before giving Cyprus to Guy of Lusignan, Richard had sold the

island to the Templars, and Guy had to pay the knights heavily

for the extinguishment of their rights. Richard, therefore,

was rather a negotiator than a giver in the transaction.

_William Stubbs, Seventeen Lectures on the Study of Mediæval and

Modern History, lecture 8._

CYPRUS: A. D. 1192-1489.

The kingdom under the house of Lusignan.

"The house of Lusignan maintained itself in Cyprus for nearly

three centuries, during which, although fallen somewhat from

the blessedness which had been broken up by Isaac Comnenus,

the island seems to have retained so much fertility and

prosperity as to make its later history very dark by contrast.

... Guy, we are told, received Cyprus for life only, and did

homage for the island to Richard. As he already bore the title

of king, the question whether he should hold Cyprus as a

kingdom does not seem to have arisen. ... On his death, in

April, 1194, Richard putting in no claim for the reversion,

his brother, Amalric of Lusignan, constable of Palestine,

entered on the possession as his heir. ... Amalric succeeded

to the crown of Jerusalem; the crown of Jerusalem, which,

after the year 1269, became permanently united with that of

Cyprus, was an independent crown, and the king of Jerusalem an

anointed king: the union of the crowns therefore seems to have

precluded any question as to the tenure by which the kingdom

of Cyprus should be held. ... The homage then due to Richard,

or to the crown of England, ceased at the death of Guy."

_William Stubbs, Seventeen Lectures on the Study of

Mediæval and Modern History, lecture 8._

See, also, JERUSALEM: A. D. 1291.

CYPRUS: A. D. 1291-1310.

The Knights Hospitallers of St. John.

See HOSPITALLERS OF ST. JOHN: A. D. 1118-1310.

CYPRUS: A. D. 1489-1570.

A Venetian dependency.

The last reigning king of Cyprus was James II., a bastard

brother of Queen Charlotte, whom he drove from the Cypriot

throne in 1464. This king married a Venetian lady, Caterina

Cornaro, in 1471 and was declared to be "the son-in·law of the

Republic." The unscrupulous republic is said to have poisoned

its son·in-law in order to secure the succession. He died in

1473, and a son, born after his death, lived but two years.

Cyprus was then ruled by the Venetians for fifteen years in

the name of Caterina, who finally renounced her rights wholly

in favor of the republic. After 1489, until its conquest by

the Turks, Cyprus was a Venetian dependency, in form as well

as in fact, but tributary to the Sultan of Egypt.

_William Stubbs, Seventeen Lectures on the Study of

Mediæval and Modern History, lecture 8._

CYPRUS: A. D. 1570-1571.

Conquest by the Turks.

See TURKS: A. D. 1566-1571.

CYPRUS: A. D. 1821.

Turkish massacre of Christians.

See GREECE: A. D. 1821-1829.

CYPRUS: A. D. 1878.

Control surrendered by Turkey to England.

See TURKS: A. D. 1878, THE TREATIES OF

SAN STEFANO AND BERLIN.

----------CYPRUS: End----------

CYREANS, The.

See PERSIA: B. C. 401-400.

CYRENAICA.--CYRENE.--KYRENE.

A city, growing into a kingdom, which was founded at an early

day by the Greeks, on that projecting part of the coast of

Libya, or northern Africa, which lies opposite to Greece. The

first settlers were said to have been from the little island

of Thera, whose people were bold and enterprising. The site

they chose "was of an unusual nature, especially for

islanders, and lay several miles away from the sea, the shores

of which were devoid of natural bays for anchorage. But, with

this exception, every advantage was at hand: instead of the

narrow stony soil of their native land, they found the most

fertile corn-fields, a broad table-land with a healthy

atmosphere and watered by fresh springs; a well-wooded

coast-land, unusually well adapted for all the natural

products which the Hellenes deemed essential; while in the

background spread mysteriously the desert, a world passing the

comprehension of the Hellenes, out of which the Libyan tribes

came to the shore with horses and camels, with black slaves,

with apes, parrots and other wonderful animals, with dates and

rare fruits. ... An abundant spring of water above the shore

was the natural point at which the brown men of the deserts

and the mariners assembled. Here regular meetings became

customary. The bazaar became a permanent market, and the

market a city which arose on a grand scale, broad and lofty,

on two rocky heights, which jut out towards the sea from the

plateau of the desert. This city was called Cyrene. ... Large

numbers of population immigrated from Crete, the islands and

Peloponnesus. A large amount of new land was parcelled out,

the Libyans were driven back, the landing-place became the

port of Apollonia, and the territory occupied by the city

itself was largely extended. Cyrene became, like Massalia, the

starting point of a group of settlements, the centre of a

small Greece: Barca and Hesperides [afterwards called

Berenice] were her daughters. Gradually a nation grew up,

which extended itself and its agriculture, and contrived to

cover a large division of African land with Hellenic culture.

This was the new era which commenced for Cyrene with the reign

of the third king, the Battus who, on account of the

marvellously rapid rise of his kingdom, was celebrated as 'the

fortunate' in all Hellas. The Battiadæ [the family or dynasty

of Battus] were soon regarded as a great power."

_E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 2, chapter 3._

{646}

Cyrenaica became subject to Egypt under the Ptolemys, and was

then usually called Pentapolis, from the five cities of

Cyrene, Apollonia, Arsinoë (formerly Teuchira), Berenice

(formerly Hesperis, or Hesperides) and Ptolemais (the port of

Barca). Later it became a province of the Roman Empire, and

finally, passing under Mahometan rule, sank to its present

state, as a district, called Barca, of the kingdom of

Tripoli.--Cyrene was especially famous for the production of a

plant called silphium--supposed to be assafœtida--on which

the ancients seem to have set an extraordinary value. This was

one of the principal sources of the wealth of Cyrene.--

_E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography,

chapter 8, section 1, and chapter 12, section 2._

CYRENAICA: B. C. 525.

Tributary to Persia.

See EGYPT: B. C. 525-332.

CYRENAICA: B. C. 322.

Absorbed in the Kingdom of Egypt by Ptolemy Lagus.

See EGYPT: B. C. 323-30.

CYRENAICA: B. C. 97.

Transferred to the Romans by will.

"In the middle of this reign [of Ptolemy, called Lathyrus,

king of Egypt] died Ptolemy Apion, king of Cyrene. He was the

half-brother of Lathyrus and Alexander, and having been made

king of Cyrene by his father Euergetes II., he had there

reigned quietly for twenty years. Being between Egypt and

Carthage, then called the Roman province of Africa, and having

no army which he could lead against the Roman legions, he had

placed himself under the guardianship of Rome; he had bought a

truce during his lifetime, by making the Roman people his

heirs in his will, so that on his death they were to have his

kingdom. Cyrene had been part of Egypt for above two hundred

years, and was usually governed by a younger son or brother of

the king. But on the death of Ptolemy Apion, the Roman senate,

who had latterly been grasping at everything within their

reach, claimed his kingdom as their inheritance, and in the

flattering language of their decree by which the country was

enslaved, they declared Cyrene free."

_S. Sharpe, History of Egypt, chapter 11._

CYRENAICA: A. D. 117.

Jewish insurrection.

See CYPRUS: A. D. 117.

CYRENAICA: A. D. 616.

Destroyed by Chosroes.

See EGYPT: A. D. 616-628.

CYRENAICA: 7th Century.

Mahometan conquest.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 647-709.

----------CYRENAICA: End----------

CYRUS, The empire of.

See PERSIA: B. C. 549-521.

CYRUS THE YOUNGER,

The expedition of.

See PERSIA: B. C. 401-400.

CYZICUS: B. C. 411-410, Battles at.

See GREECE: B. C. 411-407.

CYZICUS: B. C. 74.

Siege by Mithridates.

Cyzicus, which had then become one of the largest and

wealthiest cities of Asia Minor, was besieged for an entire

year (B. C. 74-73) by Mithridates in the Third Mithridatic

war. The Roman Consul Lucullus came to the relief of the city

and succeeded in gaining a position which blockaded the

besiegers and cut off their supplies. In the end, Mithridates

retreated with a small remnant only, of his great armament,

and never recovered from the disaster.

_G. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, volume 3, chapter 1._

CYZICUS: A. D. 267.

Capture by the Goths.

See GOTHS: A. D. 258-267.

----------CYZICUS: End----------

CZAR, OR TZAR.

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1547.

CZARTORISKYS, The, and the fall of Poland.

See POLAND: A. D. 1763-1773.

CZASLAU, OR CHOTUSITZ, Battle of (A. D. 1742).

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1742 (JANUARY-MAY).

CZEKHS, The.

See BOHEMIA: ITS PEOPLE.

----------CZEKHS, End----------

D.

DACHTELFIELD, The.

See SAXONS: A. D. 772-804.

DACIA, The Dacians.

Ancient Dacia embraced the district north of the Danube

between the Theiss and the Dneister. "The Dacians [at the time

of Augustus, in the last half century B. C.] occupied the

whole of what now forms the southern part of Hungary, the

Banat and Transylvania. ... The more prominent part which they

henceforth assumed in Roman history was probably owing

principally to the immediate proximity in which they now found

themselves to the Roman frontier. The question of the relation

in which the Dacians stood to the Getæ, whom we find in

possession of these same countries at an earlier period, was

one on which there existed considerable difference of opinion

among ancient writers: but the prevailing conclusion was that

they were only different names applied to the same people.

Even Strabo, who describes them as distinct, though cognate

tribes, states that they spoke the same language. According to

his distinction the Getæ occupied the more easterly regions,

adjoining the Euxine, and the Dacians the western, bordering

on the Germans."

_E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography,

chapter 20, section 1._

DACIA: A. D. 102-106.

Trajan's conquest.

At the beginning of the second century, when Trajan conquered

the Dacians and added their country to the Roman Empire, "they

may be considered as occupying the broad block of land bounded

by the Theiss, the Carpathians, the lower Danube or Ister, and

the Pruth." In his first campaign, A. D. 102, Trajan

penetrated the country to the heart of modern Transylvania,

and forced the Dacians to give him battle at a place called

Tapæ, the site of which is not known. He routed them with much

slaughter, as they had been routed at the same place, Tapæ,

sixteen years before, in one of the ineffectual campaigns

directed by Domitian. They submitted, and Trajan established

strong Roman posts in the country; but he had scarcely reached

Rome and celebrated his triumph there, before the Dacians were

again in arms. In the spring of the year 104, Trajan repaired

to the lower Danube in person, once more, and entered the

Dacian country with an overwhelming force. This time the

subjugation was complete, and the Romans established their

occupation of the country by the founding of colonies and the

building of roads.

{647}

Dacia was now made a Roman province, and "the language of the

Empire became, and to this day substantially remains, the

national tongue of the inhabitants. ... Of the Dacian

province, the last acquired and the first to be surrendered of

the Roman possessions, if we except some transient

occupations, soon to be commemorated, in the East, not many

traces now exist; but even these may suffice to mark the

moulding power of Roman civilization. ... The accents of the

Roman tongue still echo in the valleys of Hungary and

Wallachia; the descendants of the Dacians at the present day

repudiate the appellation of Wallachs, or strangers, and still

claim the name of Romúni."

_C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 63._

DACIA: A. D. 270.

Given up to the Goths.

See GOTHS: A. D. 268-270.

DACIA: 4th Century.

Conquest by the Huns.

See GOTHS (VISIGOTHS): A. D. 376,

and HUNS: A. D. 433-453.

DACIA: 6th Century.

Occupied by the Avars.

See AVARS.

DACIA: Modern history.

See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES.

----------DACIA: End----------

DACOITS.

See DAKOITS.

DACOTAS.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY,

and PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.

DÆGSASTAN, Battle of.

Fought, A. D. 603, between the Northumbrians and the Scots of

Dalriada, the army of the latter being almost wholly

destroyed.

DAGOBERT I.,

King of the Franks

(Neustria), A.. D. 628-638;

(Austrasia), 622--633:

(Burgundy), 628-638.

Dagobert II., King of the Franks

(Austrasia), A.. D. 673-678.

Dagobert III., King of the Franks

(Neustria and Burgundy), A. D. 711-715.

DAHIS, The.

See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES,

14TH-19TH CENTURIES (SERVIA).

DAHLGREN, Admiral John A.

Siege of Charleston.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:

A. D. 1863 (JULY, and AUGUST-DECEMBER: S. CAROLINA).

DAHLGREN, Ulric.

Raid to Richmond.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:

A. D. 1864 (FEBRUARY-MARCH: VIRGINIA).

DAKOITS.--DAKOITEE.

The Dakoits of India, who were suppressed soon after the

Thugs, were "robbers by profession, and even by birth."

Dakoitee "was established upon a broad basis of hereditary

caste, and was for the most part an organic state of society.

'I have always followed the trade of my ancestors, Dakoitee.'

said Lukha, a noted Dakoit, who subsequently became approver.

'My ancestors held this profession before me,' said another,

'and we train boys in the same manner. In my caste if there

were any honest persons, i. e., not robbers, they would be

turned out.'" The hunting down of the Dakoits was begun in

1838, under the direction of Colonel Sleeman, who had already

hunted down the Thugs.

_J. W. Kaye, The Administration of the East India Co.,

part 3, chapter 3._

DAKOTA, North and South: A. D. 1803.-

Embraced in the Louisiana Purchase.

See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1798-1803.

DAKOTA: A. D. 1834-1838.

Partly joined, in succession, to Michigan, Wisconsin,

and Iowa Territories.

See WISCONSIN: A. D. 1805-1848.

DAKOTA: A. D. 1889.

Admission to the Union.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1889-1890.

DAKOTAS.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES:

SIOUAN FAMILY and PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.

DALAI LAMA.

See LAMAS.

DALCASSIANS.

The people of North Munster figure prominently under that name

in early Irish history.

_T. Moore, History of Ireland, volume 2._

DALHOUSIE, Lord, The India administration of.

See INDIA: A. D. 1845-1849; 1848-1856; and 1852.

DALMATIA.

"The narrow strip of land on the eastern side of the Hadriatic

on which the name of Dalmatia has settled down has a history

which is strikingly analogous to its scenery. ... As the

cultivation and civilization of the land lies in patches, as

harbours and cities alternate with barren hills, so Dalmatia

has played a part in history only by fits and starts. This

fitful kind of history goes on from the days of Greek colonies

and Illyrian piracy to the last war between Italy and Austria.

But of continuous history, steadily influencing the course of

the world's progress, Dalmatia has none to show."

_E. A. Freeman, Subject and Neighbour Lands of Venice,

pages 85-87._

ALSO IN:

_T. G. Jackson, Dalmatia, the Quarnero and Istria,

chapter 1-2._

See, also, ILLYRICUM OF THE ROMANS; SALONA;

and BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES.

DALMATIA: 6th-7th Centuries:

Slavonic occupation.

See SLAVONIC PEOPLES: 6TH AND 7TH CENTURIES;

also, BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES: 7TH CENTURY.

DALMATIA: A. D. 944.

Beginning of Venetian Conquest.

See VENICE: A. D. 810-961.

DALMATIA: A. D. 1102.

Conquest by the king of Hungary.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 972--1114.

DALMATIA: 14th Century.

Conquest from the Venetians by Louis the Great of Hungary.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1301-1442.

DALMATIA: 16th Century.

The Uscocks.

See USCOCKS.

DALMATIA: A. D. 1694-1696.

Conquests by the Venetians.

See TURKS: A. D. 1684-1696.

DALMATIA: A. D. 1699.

Cession in great part to Venice by the Turks.

See HUNGARY: 1683-1699.

DALMATIA: A. D. 1797.

Acquisition by Austria.

See, FRANCE: A. D. 1797 (MAY-OCTOBER).

DALMATIA: A. D. 1805.

Ceded by Austria to the kingdom of Italy.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1805-1806.

DALMATIA: A. D. 1809.

Incorporated in the Illyrian Provinces of Napoleon.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).

DALMATIA: A. D. 1814.

Restored to Austria.

Austria recovered possession of Dalmatia under the

arrangements of the Congress of Vienna.

----------DALMATIA: End----------

DALRIADA.

"A district forming the northeast corner of Ireland and

comprising the north half of the county of Antrim, was called

Dalriada. It appears to have been one of the earliest

settlements of the Scots among the Picts of Ulster and to have

derived its name from its supposed founder Cairbre, surnamed

Righfhada or Riada. It lay exactly opposite the peninsula of

Kintyre [Scotland] from whence it was separated by a part of

the Irish channel of no greater breadth than about fourteen

miles; and from this Irish district the colony of Scots, which

was already Christian [fifth century] passed over and settled

in Kintyre and in the island of Isla"--establishing a Scotch

Dalriada.

_W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland, book 1, chapter 3._

For some account of the Scotch Dalriada,

See SCOTLAND: 7TH CENTURY.

{648}

DAMASCUS, Kingdom of.

The kingdom of Damascus, or "Aram of Damascus" as it was

entitled, was formed soon after that Syrian region threw off

the yoke of dependence which David and Solomon had imposed

upon it. "Rezon, the outlaw, was its founder. Hader, or Hadad,

and Rimmon, were the chief divinities of the race, and from

them the line of its kings derived their names,--Hadad,

Ben-hadad, Hadad-ezer, Tabrimmon."

_Dean Stanley, Lectures on the History of

the Jewish Church, lecture. 33._

"Though frequently captured and plundered in succeeding

centuries by Egypt and Assyria, neither of those nations was

able to hold it long in subjection because of the other. It

was probably a temporary repulse of the Assyrians, under

Shalmaneser II., by the Damascene general Naaman to which

reference is made in 2 Kings volume 1: 'by him the Lord had given

deliverance unto Syria.' ... After the great conquerors of

Egypt and Asia, each in his day, had captured and plundered

Damascus, it was taken without resistance by Parmenio for

Alexander the Great [B. C. 333]. In it Pompey spent the

proudest year of his life, 64 B. C., distributing at his

pleasure the thrones of the East to the vassals of Rome.

Cleopatra had received the city as a love-gift from Mark

Antony, and Tiberius had bestowed it upon Herod the Great,

before Aretas of Petra, the father of the princess whom Herod

Antipas divorced for Herodias' sake, and the ruler whose

officers watched the city to prevent the escape of Paul, made

it, we know not how, a part of his dominions."

_W. B. Wright, Ancient Cities, chapter 7._

DAMASCUS: A. D. 634.

Conquest by the Arabs.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 632-639.

DAMASCUS: A. D. 661.

Becomes the seat of the Caliphate.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 661.

DAMASCUS: A. D. 763.

The Caliphate transferred to Bagdad.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 763.

DAMASCUS: A. D. 1148-1217.

Capital of the Atabeg and the Ayoubite sultans.

See SALADIN, THE EMPIRE OF.

DAMASCUS: A. D. 1401.

Sack and massacre by Timour.

See Timour.

DAMASCUS: A. D. 1832.

Capture by Mehemed Ali.

See TURKS: A. D. 1831-1840.

----------DAMASCUS: End----------

DAMASUS II., Pope, A. D. 1048, July to August.

DAMIETTA: A. D. 1219-1220.

Siege, capture and surrender by the Crusaders.

See CRUSADES: A. D. 1216-1229.

DAMIETTA: A. D. 1249-1250.

Capture and loss by Saint Louis.

See CRUSADES: A. D. 1248-1254.

DAMIETTA: A. D. 1252.

Destruction by the Mamelukes.

"Two years after the deliverance of the king [Saint Louis],

and whilst he was still in Palestine, the Mamelukes, fearing a

fresh invasion of the Franks, in order to prevent their

enemies from taking Damietta and fortifying themselves in that

city, entirely destroyed it. Some years after, as their fears

were not yet removed, and the second crusade of Louis IX.

spread fresh alarms throughout the East, the Egyptians caused

immense heaps of stone to be cast into the mouth of the Nile,

in order that the Christian fleets might not be able to sail

up the river. Since that period a new Damietta has been built

at a small distance from the site of the former city."

_J. F. Michaud, History of the Crusades, book 14._

DAMNONIA.

See BRITAIN: 6TH CENTURY.

DAMNONII, OR DAMNII, The.

See DUMNONII.

DAMOISEL.--DAMOISELLE.--DONZELLO.

"In mediæval Latin 'domicella' is used for the unmarried

daughter of a prince or noble, and 'domicellus,' contracted

from 'domnicellus,' the diminutive of 'dominus,' for the son.

These words are the forerunners of the old French 'dâmoisel'

in the masculine, and 'damoiselle' in the feminine gender.

Froissart calls Richard, prince of Wales, son of Edward: 'le

jeune damoisil Richart.' In Romance the word is indifferently

'damoisel' and' 'danzel,' in Italian 'donzello.' All of these

are evidently titles under the same notion as that of child

and 'enfant,' of which the idea belongs to the knights of an

earlier period."

_R. T. Hampson, Origines Patriciæ, page 328._

DANAIDÆ, The.

See ARGOS.--ARGOLIS.

DANCING PLAGUE.

See PLAGUE, A. D. 1374.

DANDRIDGE, Engagement at.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:

A. D. 1863-1864 (DECEMBER-APRIL:

TENNESSEE--MISSISSIPPI).

DANEGELD, The.

"A tax of two shillings on the hide of land, originally levied

as tribute to the Danes under Ethelred, but continued [even

under the Plantagenets], like the income tax, as a convenient

ordinary resource."

_William Stubbs, The Early Plantagenets, page 53._

See ENGLAND: A. D. 979-1016.

DANELAGH, OR DANELAGA, OR DANELAU.

The district in England held by the Danes after their treaty

with Alfred the Great, extending south to the Thames, the Lea

and the Ouse; north to the Tyne; west of the mountain district

of Yorkshire, Westmoreland and Cumberland. "Over all this

region the traces of their colonization abound in the villages

whose names end in by, the Scandinavian equivalent of the English

tun or ham."

_William Stubbs, Constitutional History of England,

chapter 7, section 77._

See, also, ENGLAND: A. D. 855-880.

DANES AS VIKINGS.

See, also, NORMANS.--NORTHMEN.

DANES: In England.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 855-880, 979-1016,

and 1016-1042;

also NORMANS: A. D. 787-880.

DANES: In Ireland.

See IRELAND: 9TH-10TH CENTURIES.

----------DANES: End----------

DANITES, The.

See MORMONISM: A. D. 1830-1846.

DANTE AND THE FACTIONS OF FLORENCE.

See FLORENCE: A. D. 1295-1300; and 1301-1313.

DANTON AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1791 (OCTOBER),

to 1793-1794 (NOVEMBER-JUNE).

DANTZIC:

In the Hanseatic League.

See HANSA TOWNS.

DANTZIC: A. D. 1577.

Submission to the king of Poland.

See POLAND: A. D. 1574-1590.

DANTZIC: A. D. 1793.

Acquisition by Prussia.

See POLAND: A. D. 1793-1796.

DANTZIC: A. D. 1806-1807.

Siege and capture by the French.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1807 (FEBRUARY-JUNE).

DANTZIC: A. D. 1807.

Declared a Free state.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1807 (JUNE-JULY).

DANTZIC: A. D. 1813.

Siege and capture by the Allies.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1813 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).

{649}

DARA.

One of the capitals of the Parthian kings, the site of which

has not been identified.

DARA, Battle of (A. D. 529).

See PERSIA: A.. D. 226-627.

DARDANIANS OF THE TROAD.

See TROJA;

and ASIA MINOR: THE GREEK COLONIES;

also, AMORITES.

DARIEN, The Isthmus of.

See PANAMA.

DARIEN: The Scottish colony.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1695-1699.

DARINI, The.

See IRELAND, TRIBES OF EARLY CELTIC

INHABITANTS.

DARIUS,

King of Persia, B. C. 521-486.

Darius II., B. C. 425-405.

Darius III. (Codomannus), B. C. 336-331.

DARK AGES, The.

The historical period, so-called, is nearly identical with

that more commonly named the Middle Ages; but its duration may

be properly considered as less by a century or two. From the

5th to the 13th century is a definition of the period which

most historians would probably accept.

See MIDDLE AGES.

DARORIGUM.

Modern Vannes.

See VENETI OF WESTERN GAUL.

DAR-UL-ISLAM AND DAR-UL-HARB.

"The Koran divides the world into two portions, the House of

Islam, Dar-ul-Islam, and the House of War, Dar-ul-harb. It has

generally been represented by Western writers on the

institutes of Mahometanism and on the habits of Mahometan

nations, that the Dar-ul-harb, the House of War, comprises all

lands of the misbelievers. ... There is even a widely-spread

idea among superficial talkers and writers that the holy

hostility, the Jehad [or Dhihad] of Mussulmans against

non-Mussulmans is not limited to warfare between nation and

nation; but that 'it is a part of the religion of every

Mahometan to kill as many Christians as possible, and that by

counting up a certain number killed, they think themselves

secure of heaven.' But careful historical investigators, and

statesmen long practically conversant with Mahometan

populations have exposed the fallacy of such charges against

those who hold the creed of Islam. ... A country which is

under Christian rulers, but in which Mahometans are allowed

free profession of their faith, and peaceable exercise of

their ritual, is not a portion of the House of War, of the

Dar-ul-harb; and there is no religious duty of warfare, no

Jehad, on the part of true Mussulmans against such a state.

This has been of late years formally determined by the chief

authorities in Mahometan law with respect to British India."

_Sir E. S. Creasy, History of the Ottoman Turks, chapter 6._

DASTAGERD.

The favorite residence of the last great Persian king and

conqueror, Chosroes (A. D. 590-628), was fixed at Dastagerd,

or Artemita, sixty miles north of Ctesiphon, and east of the

Tigris. His palaces and pleasure grounds were of extraordinary

magnificence.

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 46.

https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717_

DASYUS.

See INDIA: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

DAUPHINS OF FRANCE.--DAUPHINE.

In 1349, Philip VI., or Philip de Valois, of France, acquired

by purchase from Humbert II., count of Vienne, the sovereignty

of the province of Dauphine. This principality became from

that time the appanage of the eldest sons of the kings of

France and gave them their peculiar name or title of the

Dauphins. The title in question had been borne by the counts

of Vienne (in Dauphiné), "on account of the dolphin which they

carried upon their helmets and on their armorial bearings."

_E. De Bonnechose, History of France,

book 2, chapter 2, footnote._

ALSO IN:

_E. Smedley, History of France, part 1, chapter 9._

See, also, BURGUNDY: A. D. 1127-1378.

DAVENPORT, John, and the founding of New Haven Colony.

See CONNECTICUT: A. D. 1638, and 1639.

DAVID, King of Israel and Judah.

See JEWS: THE KINGDOMS OF ISRAEL AND

JUDAH, and JERUSALEM: CONQUEST, &c.

DAVID I.,

King of Scotland, A. D. 1124-1153.

David II., 1329-1370.

DAVIS, Jefferson.

Election to the Presidency of the rebellious

"Confederate States."

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:

A. D. 1861 (FEBRUARY).

Flight and capture.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:

A. D. 1865 (APRIL-MAY).

DAVOUT, Marshal, Campaigns of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1806 (OCTOBER);

1806-1807; 1807 (FEBRUARY-JUNE);

also RUSSIA: A. D. 1812;

and GERMANY: A. D. 1812-1813;

1813 (AUGUST), (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).

DAY OF BARRICADES, The.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1584-1589.

DAY OF DUPES, The.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1630-1632.

DAY OF THE SECTIONS, The.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1795 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).

DAYAKS, OR DYAKS, The.

See MALAYAN RACE.

DEAK, Francis, and the recovery of Hungarian nationality.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1866-1867.

DEAN FOREST.

The "Royal Forest of Dean," situated in the southwestern angle

of the county of Gloucester, England, between the Severn and

the Wye, is still so extensive that it covers some 23,000

acres, though much reduced from its original dimensions. Its

oaks and its iron mines have played important parts in British

history. The latter were worked by the Romans and still give

employment to a large number of miners. The former were

thought to be so essential to the naval power of England that

the destruction of the Forest is said to have been one of the

special duties prescribed to the Spanish Armada.

_J. C. Brown, Forests of England._

DEANE, Silas, and the American transactions

with Beaumarchais in France.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776-1778.

DEARBORN, General Henry, and the War of 1812.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:

A. D. 1812 (JUNE-OCTOBER),

(SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER);

A. D. 1813 (OCTOBER-NOVEMBER).

DEBRECZIN, Battle of (1849).

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1848-1849.

DEBT, Laws concerning: Ancient Greek.

At Athens, in the time of Solon (6th century, B. C.) the

Thetes--"the cultivating tenants, metayers and small

proprietors of the country ... are exhibited as weighed down

by debts and dependence, and driven in large numbers out of a

state of freedom into slavery--the whole mass of them (we are

told) being in debt to the rich, who were proprietors of the

greater part of the soil. They had either borrowed money for

their own necessities, or they tilled the lands of the rich as

dependent tenants, paying a stipulated portion of the produce,

and in this capacity they were largely in arrear.

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All the calamitous effects were here seen of the old harsh law

of debtor and creditor--once prevalent in Greece, Italy, Asia,

and a large portion of the world--combined with the

recognition of slavery as a legitimate status, and of the

right of one man to sell himself as well as that of another

man to buy him. Every debtor unable to fulfil his contract was

liable to be adjudged as the slave of his creditor, until he

could find means either of paying it or working it out; and

not only he himself, but his minor sons and unmarried

daughters and sisters also, whom the law gave him the power of

selling. The poor man thus borrowed upon the security of his

body (to translate literally the Greek phrase) and upon that

of the persons in his family. So severely had these oppressive

contracts been enforced, that many debtors had been reduced

from freedom to slavery in Attica itself,--many others had

been sold for exportation,--and some had only hitherto

preserved their own freedom by selling their children. ... To

their relief Solon's first measure, the memorable

Seisachtheia, shaking off of burthens, was directed. The

relief which it afforded was complete and immediate. It

cancelled at once all those contracts in which the debtor had

borrowed on the security either of his person or of his land:

it forbade all future loans or contracts in which the person

of the debtor was pledged as security: it deprived the

creditor in future of all power to imprison, or enslave, or

extort work from, his debtor, and confined him to an effective

judgment at law authorizing the seizure of the property of the

latter. It swept off all the numerous mortgage pillars from

the landed properties in Attica, leaving the land free from

all past claims. It liberated and restored to their full

rights all debtors actually in slavery under previous legal

adjudication; and it even provided the means (we do not know

how) of re-purchasing in foreign lands, and bringing back to a

renewed life of liberty in Attica, many insolvents who had

been sold for exportation. And while Solon forbad every

Athenian to pledge or sell his own person into slavery, he

took a step farther in the same direction by forbidding him to

pledge or sell his son, his daughter, or an unmarried sister

under his tutelage--excepting only the case in which either of

the latter might be detected in unchastity. ... One thing is

never to be forgotten in regard to this measure, combined with

the concurrent amendments introduced by Solon in the law--it

settled finally the question to which it referred. Never again

do we hear of the law of debtor and creditor as disturbing

Athenian tranquility. The general sentiment which grew up at

Athens, under the Solonian money-law and under the

democratical government, was one of high respect for the

sanctity of contracts. ... There can be little doubt that

under the Solonian law, which enabled the creditor to seize

the property of his debtor, but gave him no power over the

person, the system of money-lending assumed a more beneficial

character."

_G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 11 (volume 3)._

DEBT: Ancient Roman.

"The hold of the creditor was on the person of the debtor. The

obligation of a debt was a tying up or binding, or bondage, of

the person: the payment was a solution, a loosing or release

of the person from that bondage. The property of the debtor

was not a pledge for the debt. It could be made so by special

agreement, though in the earliest law only by transferring it

at once to the ownership of the creditor. Without such special

agreement, the creditor whose debtor failed to pay could not

touch his property. Even when the debtor had been prosecuted

and condemned to pay, if he still failed, the creditor could

not touch his property. He could seize his person--I speak

now of the early law, in the first centuries of the

republic--and after holding him in rigorous confinement for

sixty days, with opportunities, however, either to pay himself

or get somebody to pay for him, if payment still failed, he

could sell him as a slave, or put him to death; if there were

several creditors, they could cut his body into pieces and

divide it among them. This extreme severity was afterward

softened; but the principle remained long unchanged, that the

hold of the creditor was on the person of the debtor. If the

debtor obstinately and to the last refused to surrender his

property, the creditor could not touch it."

_J. Hadley, Introduction to Roman Law, lecture 10._

"During the first half of the Samnite war [B. C. 326-304], but

in what year is uncertain, there was passed that famous law

which prohibited personal slavery for debt. No creditor might

for the future attach the person of his debtor, but he might

only seize his property; and all those whose personal freedom

was pledged for their debts (nexi), were released from their

liability, if they could swear that they had property enough

to meet their creditor's demands. It does not appear that this

great alteration in the law was the work of any tribune, or

that it arose out of any general or deliberate desire to

soften the severity of the ancient practice. It was

occasioned, we are told, by one scandalous instance of abuse

of power on the part of a creditor. ... But although personal

slavery for debt was thus done away with, yet the consequences

of insolvency were much more serious at Rome than they are in

modern Europe. He whose property had once been made over to

his creditors by the prætor's sentence, became, ipso facto,

infamous; he lost his tribe, and with it all his political

rights; and the forfeiture was irrevocable, even though he

might afterwards pay his debts to the full; nor was it even in

the power of the censors to replace him on the roll of

citizens. So sacred a thing did credit appear in the eyes of

the Romans."

_T. Arnold, History of Rome, chapter 32 (volume 2)._

DEBT: In England.

"Debt has been regarded as a crime by primitive society in

every part of the world. In Palestine, as in Rome, the

creditor had power over the person of the debtor, and

misfortune was commonly treated with a severity which was not

always awarded to crime."

_[Leviticus 12 xxv., 39-41, and 2 Kings iv., 1]_

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"In this country [England] the same system was gradually

introduced in Plantagenet times. The creditor, who had been

previously entitled to seize the goods, or even the land of

the debtor, was at last authorised to seize his person. In one

sense, indeed, the English law was, in this respect, more

irrational than the cruel code of the Jews, or the awful

punishment [death and dismemberment or slavery--Gibbon, chapter

44] which the law of the Twelve Tables reserved for debtors.

In Palestine the creditor was, at least, entitled to the

service of the debtor or of his children, and the slave had

the prospect of an Insolvent Debtor's Relief Act in the

Sabbatical year. Even the law of the Twelve Tables allowed the

creditors to sell the debtor into slavery, instead of

resorting to the horrible alternative of partitioning his

body. But in England the creditors had no such choice. They

had nothing to do but to throw the debtor into prison; and by

his imprisonment deprive themselves of the only chance of his

earning money to pay their debts. A law of this kind was

intolerable to a commercial people. The debtor languished in

gaol, the creditor failed to obtain payment of his debt. When

trade increased in Tudor times, the wits of legislators were

exercised in devising some expedient for satisfying the

creditor without imprisoning the debtor. The Chancellor was

authorised to appoint commissioners empowered to divide the

debtor's property among the creditors. By an Act of Anne the

debtor who complied with the law was released from further

liability, and was practically enabled to commence life anew.

In 1826, a debtor was allowed to procure his own bankruptcy;

while in 1831, commissioners were appointed to carry out the

arrangements which had been previously conducted under the

Court of Chancery. The law of bankruptcy which was thus

gradually developed by the legislation of three centuries only

applied to persons in trade. No one who was not a trader could

become a bankrupt; the ordinary debtor became as a matter of

course an insolvent, and passed under the insolvent laws. The

statutes, moreover, omitted to give any very plain definition

of a trader. The distinction between trader and non-trader

which had been gradually drawn by the Courts was not based on

any very clear principle. A person who made bricks on his own

estate of his own clay was not a trader; but a person who

bought the clay and then made the bricks was a trader.

Farmers, again, were exempt from the bankruptcy law; but

farmers who purchased cattle for sale at a profit were liable

to it. The possibility, moreover, of a trader being made a

bankrupt depended on the size of his business. A petitioning

creditor in bankruptcy was required to be a person to whom at

least £100 was due; if two persons petitioned, their debts

were required to amount to £150; if more than two persons

petitioned, to £200. A small shopkeeper, therefore, who could

not hope to obtain credit for £200, £150, or £100, could not

become a bankrupt; he was forced to become an insolvent. The

treatment of the insolvent was wholly different from that of

the bankrupt. The bankruptcy law was founded on the principle

that the goods and not the person of the debtor should be

liable for the debt; the insolvency law enabled the person of

the debtor to be seized, but provided no machinery for

obtaining his goods. ... Up to 1838 the first step in

insolvency was the arrest of the debtor. Any person who made a

deposition on oath that some other person was in debt to him,

could obtain his arrest on what was known as 'mesne process.'

The oath might possibly be untrue; the debt might not be due;

the warrant issued on the sworn deposition as a matter of

course. But, in addition to the imprisonment on mesne process,

the insolvent could be imprisoned for a further period on what

was known as 'final process.' Imprisonment on mesne process

was the course which the creditor took to prevent the flight

of the debtor; imprisonment on final process was the

punishment which the Court awarded to the crime of debt. Such

a system would have been bad enough if the debtors' prisons

had been well managed. The actual condition of these prisons

almost exceeds belief. Dickens, indeed, has made the story of

a debtor's imprisonment in the Marshalsea familiar to a world

of readers. ... The Act of 1813 had done something to mitigate

the misery which the law occasioned. The Court which was

constituted by it released 50,000 debtors in 13 years. But

large numbers of persons were still detained in prison for

debt. In 1827 nearly 6,000 persons were committed in London

alone for debt. The Common Law Commissioners, reporting in

1830, declared that the loud and general complaints of the law

of insolvency were well founded; and Cottenham, in 1838,

introduced a bill to abolish imprisonment for debt in all

cases. The Lords were not prepared for so complete a remedy;

they declined to abolish imprisonment on final process, or to

exempt from imprisonment on mesne process, persons who owed

more than £20, and who were about to leave the country.

Cottenham, disappointed at these amendments, decided on

strengthening his own hands by instituting a fresh inquiry. He

appointed a commission in 1839, which reported in 1840, and

which recommended the abolition of imprisonment on final

process, and the union of bankruptcy and insolvency. In 1841,

in 1842, in 1843, and in 1844 Cottenham introduced bills to

carry out this report. The bills of 1841, 1842, and 1843 were

lost. The bill of 1844 was not much more successful. Brougham

declared that debtors who refused to disclose their property,

who refused to answer questions about it, who refused to give

it up, or who fraudulently made away with it, as well as

debtors who had been guilty of gross extravagance, deserved

imprisonment. He introduced an alternative bill giving the

Court discretionary power to imprison them. The Lords,

bewildered by the contrary counsels of two such great lawyers

as Cottenham and Brougham, decided on referring both bills to

one Select Committee. The Committee preferred Brougham's bill,

amended it, and returned it to the House. This bill became

ultimately law. It enabled both private debtors and traders

whose debts amounted to less than the sums named in the

Bankruptcy Acts to become bankrupts; and it abolished

Imprisonment in all cases where the debt did not exceed £20."

_S. Walpole, History of England from 1815,

chapter 17 (volume 4)._

DEBT: In the United States.

"In New York, by the act of April 26, 1831, c. 300, and which

went into operation on March 1st, 1832, arrest and

imprisonment on civil process at law, and on execution in

equity founded upon contract, were abolished. The provision

under the act was not to apply to any person who should have

been a non-resident of the state for a month preceding (and

even this exception was abolished by the act of April 25th,

1840); nor to proceedings as for a contempt to enforce civil

remedies; nor to actions for fines and penalties; nor to suits

founded in torts ... nor on promises to marry; or for moneys

collected by any public officer; or for misconduct or neglect

in office, or in any professional employment.

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The plaintiff, however, in any suit, or upon any judgment or

decree, may apply to a judge for a warrant to arrest the

defendant, upon affidavit stating a debt or demand due, to

more than $50; and that the defendant is about to remove

property out of the jurisdiction of the court, with intent to

defraud his creditors; or that he has property or rights in

action which he fraudulently conceals; or public or corporate

stock, money, or evidences of debt, which he unjustly refuses

to apply to the payment of the judgment or decree in favor of

the plaintiff; or that he has assigned, or is about to assign

or dispose of his property, with intent to defraud his

creditors; or has fraudulently contracted the debt, or

incurred the obligation respecting which the suit is brought.

If the judge shall be satisfied, on due examination, of the

truth of the charge, he is to commit the debtor to jail,

unless he complies with certain prescribed conditions or some

one of them, and which are calculated for the security of the

plaintiff's claim. Nor is any execution against the body to be

issued on justices' judgments, except in cases essentially the

same with those above stated. ... By the New York act of 1846,

c. 150, the defendant is liable for imprisonment as in actions

for wrong, if he be sued and judgment pass against him in

actions on contracts for moneys received by him (and it

applies to all male persons) in a fiduciary character. The

legislature of Massachusetts, in 1834 and 1842, essentially

abolished arrest and imprisonment for debt, unless on proof

that the debtor was about to abscond. As early as 1790, the

constitution of Pennsylvania established, as a fundamental

principle, that debtors should not be continued in prison

after surrender of their estates in the mode to be prescribed

by law, unless in cases of a strong presumption of fraud. In

February, 1819, the legislature of that state exempted women

from arrest and imprisonment for debt; and this provision as

to women was afterwards applied in New York to all civil

actions founded upon contract. ... Females were first exempted

from imprisonment for debt in Louisiana and Mississippi; and

imprisonment for debt, in all cases free from fraud, is now

abolished in each of those states. The commissioners in

Pennsylvania, in their report on the Civil Code, in January,

1835, recommended that there be no arrest of the body of the

debtor on mesne process, without an affidavit of the debt, and

that the defendant was a non-resident, or about to depart

without leaving sufficient property, except in cases of force,

fraud, or deceit, verified by affidavit. This suggestion was

carried into effect by the act of the legislature of

Pennsylvania of July 12th, 1842, entitled 'An Act to abolish

imprisonment for debt, and to punish fraudulent debtors.' In

New Hampshire, imprisonment on mesne process and execution for

debt existed under certain qualifications, until December 23,

1840, when it was abolished by statute, in cases of contract

and debts accruing after the first of March, 1841. In Vermont,

imprisonment for debt, on contracts made after first January,

1839, is abolished, as to resident citizens, unless there be

evidence that they are about to abscond with their property;

so, also, the exception in Mississippi applies to cases of

torts, frauds, and meditated concealment, or fraudulent

disposition of property."

_J. Kent, Commentaries on American Law;

edited by O. W. Holmes, Jr., volume 2 (foot-note)._

"In many states the Constitution provides

(A) that there shall be no imprisonment for debt:

Indiana. C. 1, 22;

Minnesota. C. I, 12;

Kansas. C. B. Rts. 16;

Maryland. C. 3, 38;

North Carolina. C. 1, 16;

Missouri. C. 2. 16;

Texas. C. 1, 18;

Oregon. C. 1, 19;

Nevada. C. 1, 14;

South Carolina. C. 1, 20;

Georgia. C. 1, 1, 21;

Alabama. C. 1, 21;

Mississippi. C. 1, 11;

Florida. C. Decl'n Rts. 15.

(B) That there shall be no imprisonment for debt

(1) in any civil action on mesne or final process, in seven states:

Ohio. C. 1, 15;

Iowa. C. 1, 19;

Nebraska. C. 1, 20;

Tennessee. C. 1, 18;

Arkansas. C. 2, 16;

California. C. 1, 15;

Oregon. C. 1, 15;

Arizona. B. Uts. 18.

(2) In any action or judgment founded upon contract, in

three states:

New Jersey. C. 1, 17;

Michigan. C. 6, 33;

Wisconsin. C. 1, 16.