PART VI._Foods and Their Adulteration Origin, Manufacture, and Composition of Food Products; Description of Common Adulterations, Food Standards, and National Food Laws and Regulations

VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS.

SUCCULENT VEGETABLES.

The term vegetable as applied to food in the broadest sense of the

word means that class which distinguishes it from animal food. In

a narrower sense, however, the term vegetable is used to denote a

certain class of food which is of a succulent or juicy nature. While

cereals and fruits are vegetables in the broadest sense of the word

they are not in the narrow and common meaning. The term “vegetable” in

this section therefore refers to those substances commonly known as

vegetables upon the market and which are characterized by their high

water content. On account of this abundance of liquid or juice the term

succulent is applied to them. The common vegetables which are included

in this class consist of lettuce, spinach, potatoes, cauliflower,

beets, radishes, turnips, cabbage, green Indian corn, peas, beans,

tomatoes, yams, etc. These vegetables contain in a fresh state from

70 to 95 percent of water. Many of them can be kept for a length of

time without deterioration, especially the potato and beet, and for

a short time cabbage, radishes, etc., if kept cool and moist. Other

kinds of vegetables are not easily preserved for any length of lime

except in cold storage, such as lettuce, peas, beans, tomatoes, etc.

If the potato and other starchy tubers are kept out of account these

vegetables do not have a very high nutritive value, as will be seen by

the analysis which follows. They have, however, an important part in

the ration because of their palatability and the effect which they have

upon the general activity of the alimentary canal. For instance, there

is very little nourishment obtained in eating a turnip which perhaps is

95 percent water,--yet its palatability, its condimental character, and

its general salutary effect upon digestion is such as to make it worth

while to pay even a high price in proportion to its nutriment. For this

reason, as well as for their nutritive value, the use of succulent

vegetables is to be very highly commended.

In general, as has been said, these vegetables are eaten in a fresh

state or after being kept for a considerable time in cold storage

or otherwise. The potato, for instance, can be kept by properly

covering it in the earth or in bins through the winter. Cabbages

are also kept in the same way and many other vegetables without

apparent deterioration. These vegetables are often desiccated, and

in this way can be kept for a much longer period. Unfortunately no

method of desiccation has been developed which preserves entirely the

palatability of the vegetable, although its nutrient properties, which

are perhaps the least important of its properties in many respects, are

preserved to a certain extent by desiccation.

We may, however, leave out of consideration the desiccation of fresh

vegetables. Certain of the vegetables above mentioned naturally become

desiccated on maturity as in the case of peas and beans, but then they

are removed from the category of succulent vegetables. Green Indian

corn is also often dried, but in this process its palatability is to a

certain extent impaired even when it is prepared for cooking in such

a way as to restore practically all of the water which has been lost.

Succulent vegetables are eaten either in a raw state or after cooking.

For instance radishes and vegetables of this class are rarely cooked.

On the other hand, potatoes, peas, and beans are always cooked and

practically never eaten raw. Green Indian corn is also universally

cooked before eating. There are other vegetables which are sometimes

eaten raw and sometimes cooked, as, for instance, the turnip, while on

the other hand the beet, which is very sweet and naturally would be

considered a suitable food for eating in a raw state, is always cooked

before it is consumed.

=Artichoke.=--This vegetable, while not very extensively grown in the

United States, is cultivated to a very extensive degree in Europe.

The tubers of the artichoke (_Cynara Scolymus_) are essentially

a carbohydrate food, growing underground, and thus belong, in a

measure, to the same class as the potato, the yam, and the beet. The

carbohydrates which are present in artichokes do not contain very

much starch. In this respect they differ from the potato and the yam.

When the starch of the potato and yam is converted by fermentation or

otherwise into sugar it forms chiefly dextrose or maltose. On the other

hand, when the carbohydrates of artichokes are converted into sugar

they form chiefly levulose. The principal part of the carbohydrate

is known as inulin or levulin. The artichoke can be easily kept over

a long period of time, and may remain without much detriment in the

ground, where the winters are not severe, from autumn until spring.

After harvesting it may be kept for some time without any very great

loss in its food value.

In the following table are given the data showing the composition of

the artichoke, harvested in the autumn and also in the spring:

Spring:

Water, 79.03 percent

Inulin or levulin, 17.76 „

Protein, 1.27 „

Ether extract, .18 „

Ash, .99 „

Fall:

Water, 79.70 percent

Inulin or levulin, 16.93 „

Protein, 1.48 „

Ether extract, .14 „

Ash, 1.08 „

(Behrend, J. für Landwirtschaft, vol. 52, p. 134, 1904.)

The above data show that the artichoke, like the potato, is a food

product poor in protein and in fat and rich in carbohydrate material.

In so far as known the carbohydrates of artichokes are equally as

digestible and nutritious as those of other tubers.

=Asparagus.=--Asparagus (_Asparagus officinalis_ L.)--French, asperge;

German, spargel; Italian, sparagio; Spanish, esparrago--is a highly

prized vegetable and is a native of Europe. The edible asparagus is

the young, fresh, undeveloped shoots taken at an early period of

growth. They are highly valued when stewed or for use as a salad. There

is a number of varieties of asparagus, among which may be mentioned

the Giant Dutch asparagus, the common green asparagus, white German

asparagus, etc. These are different in kind only, since they all belong

to the same botanical species and the variations are produced chiefly

by different methods of cultivation.

_Composition._--

Water, 93.96 percent

Ash, .67 „

Protein, 1.83 „

Fiber, .74 „

Sugar, starch, etc., 2.55 „

Fat, .25 „

Asparagus is composed chiefly of water, which amounts, in round

numbers, to 94 percent of its entire weight. Its edible portion is rich

in protein as compared with the beet and many other vegetables. It

is somewhat richer also in fat than the beet or the turnip. Its food

value, as will be seen, is largely of a condimental character.

=The Bean.=--The bean belongs to the family Fabaceæ. It is a native

of America and has been cultivated from the earliest times. There are

many different varieties of the bean which are cultivated in this

country. They grow over the whole range of the United States. There

are early and late maturing varieties. Beans are used for food both in

the fresh state, while the pods are tender and can be eaten with the

immature beans, and also in the dry state, in which condition they are

a staple article of food. There are many different varieties of beans

which, while not always botanically identical, are sufficiently so to

warrant the use of the common name. Two general classes, however, may

be distinguished, namely, those that grow in small clusters or bunches

and those that grow upon vines or tendrils which have to be supported.

In regard to the kinds of culture to which beans are subjected there

may be mentioned field beans, which are cultivated over a large area,

and garden beans, which are cultivated in small gardens for the green

markets.

_Kidney Bean._--The kidney bean, or French bean, is a special botanical

variety (_Phaseolus vulgaris_ L.). It is what is known in French as

haricot; in German as Bohne; Dutch, Boon; Italian, faginolo; Spanish,

habichuela. This variety of bean is commonly called a French bean and

is a native of South America. It does not seem to have been known

before the discovery of the American continent and hence is not thought

to have grown wild in any other part of the world. The kidney bean

is not very well suited to very high northern latitudes, since it is

particularly sensitive to the cold, even if the temperature is not low

enough to produce frost. The kidney bean is cultivated over large areas

and is also a garden crop. There are early and late varieties, so that

the season for the kidney bean is a long one. The pods of this bean

are distinguished by being long and slender, and it is particularly

valuable for edible purposes while green and is also prized for

canning. This is true, especially, of that variety which has a tender

pod.

There is another variety of bean in which the pod is tough, and this,

of course, is not so well suited for eating green, although when very

young, even the tough-podded bean can be used. There are a great many

different varieties of kidney beans known, one of which is called the

“dwarf kidney bean” on account of its growing only on low bushes and

needing no support for the vines. In this variety the pods hang in

thick clusters, the lower ends often touching the ground.

_Butter Beans._--There is another large class of beans known as butter

beans. This variety is also known as Geneva, or plainpalais, or wax

bean.

_Lima Beans._--The Lima bean is also a different botanical species

known as _Phaseolus lunatus_ L. It is nearly related to the kidney

bean, being also a native of South America. The vine is a very long

one, often reaching more than 10 feet if a proper support be offered

it. The common Lima bean is one which matures rather late in the

season, but it is most highly valued for its product, which is eaten

shelled. There are smaller varieties of this bean known as the dwarf

Lima or small Lima.

The total number of varieties of beans which are known and cultivated

is, perhaps, more than 100, but they belong in general to the large

classes specified.

_Average Composition of Green, String, and Lima Beans._--

Lima beans:

Water, 68.46 percent

Ash, 1.69 „

Protein, 7.15 „

Crude fiber, 1.71 „

Carbohydrates, 20.30 „

Fat, .69 „

String beans:

Water, 87.23 percent

Ash, .76 „

Protein, 2.20 „

Crude fiber, 1.92 „

Carbohydrates, 7.52 „

Fat, .37 „

The above data are for green _Lima_ beans with the pod removed and

for _string_ beans including the pod. The latter, it is seen, are

composed largely of water, containing less than 13 percent of dry

matter. Of the dry matter almost 20 percent is protein. The soluble

carbohydrates, including the starch and sugar, are the most important

of the ingredients of the dry substance in so far as actual weight

is concerned. In the Lima bean the protein is more than three times

as great as in the string bean, and the starch and sugar almost

three times as much. As a nutrient, therefore, the Lima beans are

far more valuable than the string beans. These data may be taken as

representative of all varieties of green beans, hulled and unhulled,

the Lima beans being types of hulled beans and the string variety being

the type of beans including the pod.

_Composition of the Dry Bean._--

Water, 15.86 percent.

Ash, 3.53 „

Protein, 20.57 „

Fiber, 3.86 „

Sugar, starch, etc., 55.49 „

Fat, .69 „

The analyses show that the dry bean is much richer in protein than the

cereals.

=Beets.=--All the varieties of edible beets belong to the common

species _Beta vulgaris_ L. French, betterave; German, Salat-Rübe;

Dutch, Betwortel; Italian, barbabietola; Spanish, remolacha.

The most important of these beets, economically, is the variety which

has been cultivated for the purpose of producing sugar. By long years

of selection and improvement the sugar content of the natural beet,

which is not more than from four to six percent, has been brought up to

an average of about 14 percent, often reaching much larger quantities.

The sugar beet itself, in its earlier stages, makes an excellent

vegetable for the table, being particularly sweet and palatable. Its

tannin content, however, is very high, and before cooking, especially,

it has quite a bitter taste, at times. This disappears in the young

beets when they are cooked. The sugar beet has a perfectly white flesh,

inasmuch as the attempt was made in the early period of cultivation

to develop a beet without color in order to produce a white sugar

with as little trouble as possible. On the other hand the garden beet

is usually highly colored, the red beet being especially prized. The

number of varieties of beets in cultivation is very great. Among the

most important may be mentioned the long blood-red beet, which is the

common garden beet, the rough-skinned red beet, the pear-shaped beet,

the turnip-shaped beet, all of which are of the red color. There is

also cultivated for eating purposes a beet with yellow flesh, though it

is not by any means so common as the red garden beet.

_Composition of the Beet._--The following data represents the average

composition of the red beet used as a vegetable:

Water, 88.47 percent

Ash, 1.04 „

Protein, 1.53 „

Fiber, .88 „

Sugar, starch, etc., 7.94 „

Fat, .14 „

The above data show that the average garden beet has a little less than

12 percent of solid matter and a little more than 88 percent of water.

It is rather poor in protein, though it is not a vegetable which can be

classed as being excessively deficient in nitrogenous constituents. Its

chief food value, however, is in the sugar which it contains, which is

more than 7 percent. It is quite deficient in fat.

=Brussels Sprouts.=--Brussels sprouts is a variety of cabbage which is

grown over large areas in different countries and has a deservedly high

reputation on the table. The French name is chou de Bruxelles; German,

Brüsseler Sprossen-Kohl; Italian, cavolo a germoglio; Spanish, bretones

de Bruselas. The composition of Brussels sprouts is practically the

same as that of cabbage.

=Cabbage.=--The botanical name of the cabbage is _Brassica oleracea_

L. and it belongs to the family Brassicaceæ. It is a plant which is

indigenous to both Europe and Asia, and still grows wild in some parts

of the European continent. It is eaten both raw, in the form of salad,

slaw, etc., and cooked in various methods. It is also subjected to a

fermentation, producing the highly prized dish known as sauer-kraut.

Its French name is chou cabus; German, Kopfkohl; Italian, cavolo

cappuccio; Spanish, col repollo.

The cabbage is a plant which, as it approaches maturity, has its leaves

folded upon each other in a solid mass, producing the head. These

leaves naturally become bleached and are extremely crisp and tender.

The external, free leaves are not prized as a food. The varieties of

the cabbage are almost legion and are produced by different methods of

cultivation.

_Composition._--

Water, 90.52 percent

Ash, 1.40 „

Protein, 2.39 „

Fiber, 1.47 „

Starch, sugar, etc., 3.85 „

Fat, .37 „

The above data show that cabbage is composed chiefly of water,

amounting to as much as 91 percent of its weight. Its principal food

constituents are starch, sugar, and digestible fiber. Its most valuable

food constituent is most probably the protein, of which it contains a

large proportionate quantity. In all its forms cabbage is a wholesome,

if not very nutritious, dish.

=Carrot.=--The botanical name of the carrot is _Daucus carota_ L.

French, carotte; German, Mohre; Italian, carota; Spanish, zanahoria.

This plant is indigenous to Europe. The carrot is naturally a biennial

plant, though it is often produced in a single season, and especial

efforts are made to produce quick-growing carrots. This vegetable is

much more common in Europe than in the United States, and when grown

here at all it is used chiefly in soups and often for cattle food.

There is a large number of varieties of carrots, but practically all

belong to the same botanical species. The flesh is often of a yellow

tint, though blood-red carrots are grown and highly prized.

_Composition._--

Water, 88.59 percent

Ash, 1.02 „

Protein, 1.14 „

Fiber, 1.27 „

Starch, sugar, etc., 7.56 „

Fat, .42 „

It is seen from the above data that the carrot has almost exactly the

composition of the garden beet. Its principal food value is in the

sugar and other carbohydrates which it contains. It also has a notable

proportion of protein and has almost 12 percent of solid matter.

=Cauliflower.=--Cauliflower is a variety of cabbage the edible portion

of which is the extraordinarily modified and thickened flower cluster.

It is more tender and delicate in its structure than the common

cabbage. The French name is choufleur; German, Blumenkohl; Italian,

cavolfiore; Spanish, coliflor.

It is highly prized when prepared for the table with a sauce. It is a

dish which is much more common in Europe than in this country, where

it is not appreciated as it should be. There is a large number of

varieties produced, chiefly by the different methods of cultivation and

the effect of environment in which they are grown.

_Composition._--

Water, 90.82 percent

Ash, .81 „

Protein, 1.62 „

Fiber, 1.02 „

Sugar, starch, etc., 4.94 „

Fat, .79 „

The cauliflower is very close to the cabbage in composition, having,

however, a slightly larger proportion of digestible carbohydrates and

a much larger proportion of fat. Its dietetic value, however, is not

notably different from that of the cabbage.

=Celery.=--One of the most important vegetables upon the table in this

country is celery. The botanical name of celery is _Apium graveolens_

L. The French name is celeri; German, Sellerie; Italian, sedano;

Spanish, apio.

Celery is indigenous to Europe. It is eaten in its young state, and

is most valued when the stalks are bleached. This is accomplished by

hilling up the earth around them or protecting them from the light by

boards or otherwise. Kept in the dark in this way the green color fades

and the stalks becomes more crisp and brittle. There is a number of

varieties of celery, and these are chiefly due to the different methods

of cultivation. Celery is not only eaten raw but also stewed and is a

common constituent of soup. Celery seeds are supposed to have not only

a condimental but a medicinal value.

=Chicory.=--The botanical name of chicory is _Cichorium intybus_ L.

In French it is called chicorée sauvage; German, wilde or bittere

Chichorie; Italian, cicoria selvatica; Spanish, achicoria amarga o

agreste.

The wild chicory is used chiefly, even in its cultivated state, for

salad purposes, the roots not being of any value on account of their

smallness. The chicory, however, develops under cultivation a large

root like the carrot or turnip, and this variety of chicory is used

chiefly on account of the roots, which, when they are roasted properly,

are highly prized as a substitute for coffee. The common wild chicory

has been used from time immemorial as a salad. The leaves have rather a

bitter taste and are more highly prized for salad purposes when mixed

with lettuce or other leaves which have a less pronounced flavor. The

variety of chicory of which the roots are used as a substitute for

coffee is known as “Brunswick chicory,” or Magdeburg large-rooted

chicory.

_Composition of the Root._--

Water, 79.20 percent

Ash, 1.11 „

Sugars, .60 „

Inulin, 14.00 „

Fiber, 1.29 „

Protein and undetermined, 3.50 „

Starch does not appear to be among the carbohydrates in chicory but

inulin takes its place. In this respect chicory resembles the artichoke

in its composition.

_Roasted Chicory._--When chicory is used as a substitute for coffee or

as a substance added to coffee it is roasted, and its composition is

thus materially changed, as is represented by the following data:

Moisture, 13.3 percent

Ash, 5.9 „

Sugar, 12.4 „

Inulin, 4.3 „

Fiber, 6.9 „

Caramel and undetermined, 57.2 „

From the data of the above analysis the inulin does not appear to have

been very largely converted into levulose by roasting, but rather into

the insoluble carbohydrate matter. Whether or not, therefore, the

inulin exists in the large proportion given in the analysis of the

fresh chicory is a matter of some doubt.

=Cranberry.=--The cranberry is grown extensively in the swampy grounds

of the northern part of the United States, especially in New England,

New Jersey, and Wisconsin. It is a red, hard berry, not at all pleasant

to the taste in its fresh state, very acid, but greatly valued during

the autumn and winter months when stewed with sugar and served as a

sauce, especially with turkey. Its chief use, in fact, is to eat with

turkey or chicken. The cranberry is a fruit which contains naturally a

small quantity of benzoic acid.

_Composition._--

Water, 86.10 percent

Solids, 13.90 „

Soluble solids, 8.43 „

Acidity, 1.98 „

(Measured as grams of sulfuric acid per 100 grams of material.)

=Cress.=--The botanical name of cress is _Lepidium sativum_ L. French,

cresson alenois; German, Garten-Kresse; Italian, agretto; Spanish,

mastuerzo.

It is a plant which is indigenous to Persia. It grows in this country

in moist gardens and particularly in the warmer parts of the country.

The real water cress belongs to a different species, its botanical

name being _Rorippa nasturtium_. It grows only in water, in which it

differs from the preceding variety. It is highly prized as an aromatic

flavoring material and for table use. There are very many varieties in

cultivation.

=Cucumbers.=--The botanical name of cucumber is _Cucumis sativus_ L.

French, concombre; German, Gurke; Italian, cetriulo; Spanish, cohombro.

The cucumber is indigenous to East India, but is now cultivated in all

countries. It is a plant which develops vines which often run to great

distances. The cucumber is used almost exclusively in its green state,

and the very young cucumbers are most highly prized for making pickles,

though all sizes are used for that purpose, from the very smallest to

the giant variety. The number of varieties cultivated is extremely

great. The variety known as the gherkin is highly prized for pickling.

_Composition of the Cucumber._--

Water, 95.99 percent

Ash, .46 „

Protein, .81 „

Fiber, .69 „

Starch, sugar, etc., 1.83 „

Fat, .22 „

The above data show that the cucumber is not much more than solid

water, there being just enough of other material to give it a flavor

and consistence.

=Egg Plant.=--Another vegetable which is highly prized for the table

is the egg plant, _Solanum melongena_ L. French, aubergine; German,

Eierpflanze; Italian, petronciano; Spanish, berengena.

The egg plant is indigenous to India. Its name is derived from the

shape of some of its varieties, though many of them have ceased to

resemble the egg in appearance. There is a large number of varieties,

but the one which is known as the white egg plant looks more like an

egg both in shape and color than most of the others.

_Composition._--

Water, 92.93 percent

Ash, .50 „

Protein, 1.15 „

Fiber, .77 „

Starch, sugar, etc., 4.34 „

Fat, .31 „

The egg plant is a highly succulent vegetable containing only a little

more than 7 percent of solid matter, and this is chiefly sugar, starch,

and other digestible carbohydrates.

=Garlic.=--The botanical name of garlic is _Allium sativum_ L. French,

ail ordinaire; German, Gewöhnlicher Knoblauch; Italian, aglio; Spanish,

ajo vulgar.

This highly prized aromatic vegetable is indigenous to southern Europe.

It is a perennial plant, and the edible bulbous portion grows chiefly

underground. This part is used for spicing food. It is eaten in large

quantities by the Latin nations of southern Europe, and is employed

throughout the world as a seasoning or flavoring for many dishes. When

eaten in excess it makes the breath extremely disagreeable, as can be

witnessed by all who have traveled in the Latin countries of Europe and

even among the South Germans. Garlic is not eaten to any extent by our

native citizens, but is used by our first-class cooks extensively as a

seasoning. A little of it is known to go a great way. Its composition

is very much like that of the onion. A wild garlic grows in the United

States over wide areas. It is often eaten by cows, and it imparts to

the milk a very disagreeable flavor and smell.

=Gourds.=--Gourds themselves are not very much used for edible

purposes, but the varieties which include all the species of pumpkin

and squash belong to the important vegetable foods in the United

States. The most important member of this family is the pumpkin,

_Cucurbita pepo_ L., which grows often to an enormous size and has a

beautiful yellow color. The French name for the pumpkin is potirons;

German, Melonen oder Centner Kurbiss; Italian, zucca; Spanish, calabaza

totanera.

The pumpkin of California, especially, is noted for its gigantic

proportions. The pumpkin is used very extensively in New England, as

well as other parts of the country, for making pies, and is also used

as a sauce. The pumpkin is not eaten raw. As a cattle food it is highly

prized in all parts of the country, and when fed to milch cows it

imparts to the butter, even in the winter, a delicate amber tint.

_Composition of the Flesh of the Pumpkin._--

Water, 93.39 percent

Ash, .67 „

Protein, .91 „

Fiber, .98 „

Sugar, starch, etc., 3.93 „

Fat, .12 „

It is seen that the flesh of the pumpkin is essentially a watery food,

the chief ingredient of the solid matter being sugar. Its value,

therefore, as a food is more condimental than nutritive.

=Horse-radish.=--The botanical name of horse-radish is _Cochlearia

armoracia_ L. French, raifort sauvage; German, Meerettig; Italian,

rafano; Spanish, taramago.

The horse-radish is prized as one of the principal condimental

vegetable substances in common use in the United States. It is

particularly used with oysters and other foods of similar character

and as a sauce or spice in a salad. It is indigenous to Europe, but is

now cultivated everywhere. There are many varieties, but they are all

characterized by a sharp, pungent taste and odor.

_Adulteration of Horse-radish._--Other vegetable substances, as,

for instance, the more highly spiced aromatic turnips, are often

substituted for horse-radish.

=Jerusalem Artichoke.=--This is a plant of the aster family

(_Helianthus tuberosus_ L.) producing a heavy ovoid head the fleshy

parts of which, including the base to which they are attached, are

highly valued as food, being usually eaten with a sauce. This plant is

more largely cultivated in France and other European countries than in

the United States.

=Kale.=--Kale is a variety of cabbage which is somewhat different

botanically from the common cabbage. This form of cabbage does not make

a firm head, but grows only with free leaves. It is especially adapted

for use in much the same manner as the common substance known by the

housewife as greens. It is a hardy plant and grows well even in cold

climates. There are a great many varieties of kale, and the composition

is practically that of the cabbage.

=Leek.=--The leek is of the same variety of plant as the garlic. Its

botanical name is _Allium porrum_ L. French, poireau; German, Lauch;

Italian, porro; Spanish, puerro.

The leek is thought to be indigenous to Switzerland, though this is not

quite certain. It is closely related to the garlic and onion and is

valued for the same purposes, namely, its highly aromatic condimental

character.

=Lettuce.=--Among the most valued of the succulent vegetables is the

lettuce. Its botanical name is _Lactuca sativa_ L. French, laitue

cultivée; German, Lattich; Italian, lattuga; Spanish, lechuga.

Lettuce is thought to be indigenous to India or Central Asia. It has

been cultivated, however, for so long that its origin is a matter of

doubt. There is a legion of varieties of lettuce, but they all have

essentially the same characteristics and have little food value.

Lettuce is now found practically throughout the whole year in all

civilized countries, being grown under glass in winter so as to furnish

a continuous supply for the markets throughout the year. It is used

chiefly as salad, and among the varieties which are most highly prized

for this purpose are the cabbage lettuce and the variety known as

Romaine. The Romaine is distinguished from the common lettuce by the

shape of the leaves, which are much longer and narrower than those of

ordinary lettuce. The Romaine lettuce is more highly prized by most

connoisseurs as being more tender and brittle than the first variety.

_Composition._--

Water, 93.68 percent

Ash, 1.61 „

Protein, 1.41 „

Fiber, .74 „

Sugar, starch, etc., 2.18 „

Fat, .38 „

The data show that lettuce is a highly succulent vegetable. Its chief

food constituents are protein and sugar. Its real value as a food is

not shown by chemical analysis because it consists in a delicate,

aromatic flavor which is not revealed by the crucible.

=Melons.=--There are two kinds of melons eaten in the United

States,--the first the watermelon, and the second the cantaloupe or

muskmelon. In Europe the principal melon which is used is one having

deep yellow flesh resembling the color of a pumpkin and known as the

French melon. The botanical name is _Cucumis melo_ L. French, melon;

German, Melone; Italian, popone; Spanish, melon.

The French melon is indigenous to Asia, but only the cultivated

varieties are known now. The flesh is very sweet and is, as has already

been said, usually of a deep yellow color, though there are many

different varieties.

=Cantaloupe.=--This is a general name given to the melons of the

French type or varieties thereof growing in the United States. It is

supposed to have had its origin in Italy, though its history is so old

as not to be certain. The cantaloupe is of various sizes and shapes

and various degrees of sweetness. In the United States the variety

grown at Rocky Ford, Colorado, is noted for its sweetness and general

palatability. For this reason many melons not grown at Rocky Ford are

improperly sold under that name. There are a great many varieties of

cantaloupes. Generally the flesh of the cantaloupe is green instead of

yellow. The cantaloupe is often called muskmelon.

ANALYSIS OF JUICE OF MUSKMELONS.

FROM RIND OF MELON.

--------+-----+--------+--------+--------+--------

NO. |BRIX.| GEN. | ASH. |SUCROSE.| SUGAR.

--------+-----+--------+--------+--------+--------

495, | 11.5| .106 | 1.23 | 3.99 | 3.97

554, | 8.4| .018 | 0.66 | 2.47 | 3.62

587, | 5.0| .053 | 0.47 | 2.25 | 2.84

613, | 10.3| .156 | 0.93 | 2.77 | 3.64

| ----| ---- | ---- | ---- | ----

Average,| 8.8| .083 | 0.82 | 2.87 | 3.52

--------+-----+--------+--------+--------+--------

JUICE OF EDIBLE PORTION OF MELON.

--------+-----+--------+--------+--------+--------

NO. |BRIX.| GEN. | ASH. |SUCROSE.| SUGAR.

--------+-----+--------+--------+--------+--------

495, | 12.9| .130 | 1.20 | 6.60 | 2.88

554, | 8.2| .069 | 0.87 | 4.96 | 2.47

587, | 5.8| .043 | 0.50 | 2.26 | 2.57

623, | 11.5| .134 | 0.95 | 5.19 | 2.25

| ----| ---- | ---- | ---- | ----

Average,| 9.6| .094 | 0.88 | 4.75 | 2.54

--------+-----+--------+--------+--------+--------

=Watermelons.=--This is an entirely different variety from the French

melon or cantaloupe. Its botanical name is _Citrullus citrullus_ L.

French, melon d’eau; German, Wasser-Melone; Italian, cocomero, Spanish,

sandia.

The watermelon is said to be indigenous to Africa. It is grown

extensively in the United States, especially in the southern part. It

is a field crop of considerable importance, especially in the state

of Georgia. The watermelon grows best on a sandy soil, though it

requires it to be well fertilized. The vines, when they reach their

full growth, cover the entire field. The melons often grow to a very

large size,--specimens weighing from 50 to 60 pounds being not unusual.

The average size, however, is much less than that. The Georgia melon

is somewhat oval in shape, reaching generally from a foot to eighteen

inches in length and from a foot to fifteen inches in diameter. The

flesh is generally red and the seeds usually black. The watermelon

is in the market from early summer until the late autumn. It bears

shipping quite well, and is sent usually in box cars without crating,

and, if kept at a low temperature, will remain palatable for many

days or even weeks. The fresh ripe melon, however, is far superior in

quality to any that are harvested partly green and kept for a long

time. About forty or fifty varieties of watermelons grow in the United

States.

_Composition of Melons._--The following data show the composition of

the flesh of the muskmelon and the watermelon:

Muskmelon:

Water, 89.50 percent

Ash, .60 „

Protein, .60 „

Fiber, .92 „

Starch, sugar, etc., 8.20 „

Fat, .18 „

Watermelon:

Water, 91.87 percent

Ash, .33 „

Protein, .40 „

Fiber, .55 „

Starch, sugar, etc., 6.65 „

Fat, .20 „

The above data show that the edible portion of the muskmelon contains

more nutrient matter than that of the watermelon, the difference being

chiefly in the content of water and carbohydrates.

=Okra.=--The French name for okra is gombo; Italian, ibisco; Spanish,

gombo.

Okra is a vegetable grown very largely in the United States and

especially valued for use in soup making. For this purpose the young

seed-vessels are employed. The seed pods of the okra are long,

tapering, and rigid by reason of quite sharp angles. The okra is often

known as gombo or gumbo.

_Composition._--

Water, 87.41 percent

Ash, .74 „

Protein, 1.99 „

Fiber, 3.42 „

Starch, sugar, etc., 6.04 „

Fat, .40 „

=Onion.=--The botanical name of the onion is _Allium cepa_ L. The

French name is ognon; German, Zwiebel; Italian, cipolla; Spanish,

cebolla.

The onion is a plant which is valued for edible purposes throughout

the whole world. It is supposed to have been indigenous to Asia, but

its exact origin is not known with certainty. Both the pulp and the

part of the stem immediately attached thereto are edible. In fact

in very young plants the whole plant is edible. Its highly aromatic

character and flavor rather than its nutritive qualities give it its

chief value. The onion is eaten both raw and in various cooked forms.

Cooking the onion, especially boiling, expels a large part of its most

pungent character, so that the cooked onion does not manifest itself

so unpleasantly in the breath when eaten as is the case with the raw

onion. The onion is also very commonly eaten in this country fried,

especially with beefsteak. The variety of onions cultivated is legion,

but they are due rather to different methods of cultivation, etc., than

to botanical character.

_Composition._--

Water, 87.55 percent

Ash, .57 „

Protein, 1.40 „

Fiber, .69 „

Sugar, starch, etc., 9.53 „

Fat, .26 „

The onion, it is seen, is rather poor in protein but rich in sugar and

allied bodies.

=Parsnips.=--The botanical name of the parsnip is _Pastinaca sativa_

L. French, panais; German, Pastinake; Italian, pastinaca; Spanish,

chirivia.

The parsnip is nearly related to the carrot in its appearance and also

its properties. The root is usually long and straight and gradually

tapering. It, however, often has other shapes, as is the case with the

carrot and beet.

_Composition._--

Water, 80.34 percent

Ash, 1.03 „

Protein, 1.35 „

Fiber, .53 „

Sugar, starch, etc., 16.09 „

Fat, .66 „

The above data show that the parsnip is not much richer in nutrients

than most of the roots grown, except in sugar and starch content. The

large quantity of carbohydrates gives it its chief food value. These

carbohydrates are not by any means all sugar and starch, but include

a very considerable proportion of cellulose which is more or less

digestible.

=Peas.=--The botanical name of the pea plant is _Pisum sativum_ L.

French pois; German, Erbse; Italian, pisello; Spanish, guisante.

The pea is quite as highly valued for table use as the bean, and,

perhaps, is almost as extensively cultivated. The pea, however, is not

usually eaten in the pod. It is probably indigenous to Central Europe,

but has been so long cultivated that an exact history of its original

distribution is not known. There are many different varieties of the

pea, but the one most highly prized is a small and very sweet pea. The

larger variety does not have the palatability and other highly prized

edible qualities that distinguish the smaller variety. The pea is found

in the markets of the United States throughout the whole year, being

grown under cover in the winter time. It becomes an abundant crop from

early in the spring until very late in the autumn. Immense quantities

of peas are preserved by canning, and in this condition they retain

their edible properties almost without impairment throughout the entire

winter. The pea is valued as a food in many forms.

_Composition._--

STARCH,

SUGAR,

WATER. ASH. PROTEIN. FIBER. ETC. FAT.

Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent.

Green pea, 79.93 .78 3.87 1.63 13.30 .49

Dry pea, 12.62 3.11 27.04 3.90 51.75 1.58

The above data show that the pea is a markedly nitrogenous food,

especially the dry pea. Even in the green pea nearly four percent of

its weight is protein.

A comparison of the composition of the pea with that of the bean shows

that the pea is even more nitrogenous in character than the bean.

=Potatoes.=--One of the most important vegetables as well as food

products in general is that class of products to which the term

potato is given. The term strictly should apply only to that class

known as white or Irish potato (_Solanum tuberosum_ L.). The potato,

as indicated by the name, belongs to a family of plants which is

considered poisonous, but in the cultivated variety the poisonous

principle has been practically eliminated. The potato belongs,

essentially, to the starchy group of foods. If we assume, which is

very nearly correct, that the average content of water in different

varieties of potatoes at the time they are most suitable for edible

purposes is 80 percent, it is found that at least three-fourths of

the remaining solid dry matter is starch. The potato contains a trace

of sugar and notable quantities of other carbohydrates than starch

and sugar, namely, fiber. It also contains a very small proportion of

nitrogen and mineral matter.

The potato is grown chiefly in temperate climates. It flourishes

particularly well in the northern part of Europe, in England, Scotland,

and Ireland, and in the northern portion of the United States. The

northern part of Maine, especially, is noted for the production of

potatoes of high edible qualities. It grows very well also in the

southern part of the United States. The potato may be produced from

seed, but that method of propagation has long since ceased to be

practiced for agricultural purposes. The potatoes of commerce are

produced from the eyes of the tubers. The best results in the growth of

potatoes are secured in the loose somewhat sandy soil into which the

roots of the plant can easily penetrate and which gives way readily to

make place for the growing tuber. Hard, clay soils are unsuited to the

growth of this vegetable. The planting is accomplished in the early

spring after a thorough preparation of the seed bed by plowing to the

usual depth, often subsoiling and reducing the surface of the soil

to the proper tilth. The cuttings of potatoes or the whole potatoes

are planted in rows to a depth of two or three inches, where they may

sprout and even reach the surface at a temperature which at times may

fall below the frost point on the surface of the soil. The leaf of the

potato, when it has once appeared above the surface of the soil, is

very susceptible to the action of frost. If killed at an early stage

it may grow again without replanting. The potato is a crop which the

farmer may plant early in the spring. There are other varieties which

are planted later, even in the middle of summer, and produce good

results. The planting season may continue over a period of two or three

months. During the growth of the crop by the cultivation of the soil

the surface is kept in good tilth, the weeds and grass prevented from

growing, and the soil gradually drawn up around the growing tubers with

the hoe or plow in the form of ridges. This heaping up of the soil

tends to promote the development of the tubers, affording them a loose

and more abundant bedding and a greater supply of plant food.

The greatest enemies to which the potato crop is obnoxious are found

in the various forms of the potato bug (_Doryphora decemlineata_),

which feed upon their leaves. To prevent the ravages of these insects

it becomes necessary to dust over the leaves of the growing plants

some powerful insecticide which will destroy the life of the insects

feeding upon them. The active ingredient of these insecticides is

usually arsenic. Fortunately the growing tuber does not absorb, so

far as known, even traces of arsenic, or at least not more than the

merest trace, which may be used for insecticidal purposes. It is quite

impossible in most localities to secure a crop of potatoes without such

treatment. The alternative is a constant inspection of the growing

plant and the removal and killing of the bugs as they appear, but this

is only practicable over very small areas as its general application

would increase the cost of the product beyond the reach of the average

consumer.

_Yield._--Potatoes are produced in every state and territory of the

United States. The statistics for the year ended December 31, 1905,

show that the total area devoted to potatoes in the United States is

2,996,757 acres. The largest area in any one State is found in New

York, namely, 428,986 acres, and the smallest area, aside from Arizona,

not reported, is found in New Mexico, namely, 1,470 acres. The yield

of potatoes for the year is given as 260,741,294 bushels. The largest

total yield was in New York, the average yield per acre for the

country being 87 bushels. The largest yield per acre is reported from

Maine, namely, 175 bushels, and the smallest from Louisiana and Texas,

namely, 64 bushels per acre. The average price per bushel for the whole

country at the farm is 61.7 cents, making the total value of the crop

$160,821,080. The highest price per bushel was obtained in Florida,

namely, $1.20, and the lowest price per bushel in Nebraska, namely, 37

cents. The weight of a bushel of potatoes is 60 pounds. As the average

amount of fermentable matter in potatoes grown in the United States

is 20 percent, the total weight of fermentable matter in a bushel of

potatoes is 12 pounds, which would yield approximately 6 pounds or 3.6

quarts of alcohol.

_Composition.--Starch content:_ The quantity of starch in American

grown potatoes varies from 15 to 20 percent. Probably 18 percent might

be stated as the general average of the best grades of potatoes. In

this connection it must be remembered that at the present time potatoes

are grown in the United States chiefly for table use. Generally, only

the imperfect or injured samples are used for stock feeding or for

starch making, and this condition will probably continue as long as

good edible potatoes bring a higher price for table use than can be

obtained by utilizing them for starch or for feeding purposes.

Under the microscope the granules of potato starch have a distinctive

appearance. They appear as egg-shaped bodies on which, especially

the larger ones, various ring-like lines are seen. With a modified

(polarized) light under certain conditions of observation a black

cross is developed upon the granule. It is not difficult for an expert

microscopist to distinguish potato from other forms of starch by

its appearance, which is well shown in Figs. 39 and 40. Many of the

granules are quite large, and most of them are ovoid in shape.

The quantity of protein in the potato is quite low compared with that

of cereal foods; in round numbers it may be said to be 2.5 percent. The

potato contains very little material which is capable of fermentation

aside from starch and sugars.

_Sugar content:_ Although the potato is not sweet to the taste in a

fresh state, it contains notable quantities of sugar. This sugar is

lost whenever the potato is used for starch-making purposes, but is

utilized when it is used for the manufacture of industrial alcohol.

The percentage of sugar of all kinds in the potato rarely goes above 1

percent. The average quantity is probably not far from 0.35 percent,

including sugar, reducing sugar, and dextrin, all of which are soluble

in water. In the treatment of potatoes for starch making therefore it

may be estimated that 0.35 percent of fermentable matter is lost in the

wash water.

One German author, Saare, claims to have found much larger quantities

of sugar in potatoes than those just mentioned. The minimum quantity

found by this author is 0.4 percent, and the maximum 3.4 percent,

giving a mean of 1.9 percent. Ten varieties of potatoes used for the

manufacture of industrial alcohol were examined in the securing of

these data. It appears that some varieties have a greater tendency to

produce sugar than others. The German variety known as “Daber” contains

the smallest quantities of sugar, while the variety known as “Juno”

contains the largest quantities. The percentages of sugar, as reported

by Saare, however, are larger than those reported by other observers,

and probably are larger than are usually found.

[Illustration: FIG. 39.--POTATO STARCH (× 200).--(_Courtesy Bureau of

Chemistry._)]

[Illustration: FIG. 40.--POTATO STARCH UNDER POLARIZED LIGHT (×

200).--(_Courtesy Bureau of Chemistry._)]

_Average composition:_ Frazier, of the Cornell station, has collected

analyses of a large number of different varieties of potatoes, and

finds them to have the following average composition:

Water, 75.00 percent

Starch, 19.87 „

Sugars and dextrin, .77 „

Fat, .08 „

Cellulose, .33 „

Ash, 1.00 „

The following analyses show in detail the composition of potatoes from

different localities:

_Analysis of Maine potatoes:_ The Bureau of Chemistry a few years

ago made an investigation in connection with the experiment station

in Maine of the composition of potatoes grown in that state used for

table purposes and for starch making. Some of the best varieties grown

in different parts of the state were subjected to analysis, and the

following results show them to be of quite uniform composition:

ANALYSES OF MAINE POTATOES.[29]

---------------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+--------

| | | |× 6.25). | |GRAVITY.

---------------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+--------

Hebron, | 79.72 | 16.94 | 0.90 | 2.12 | 0.76 | 1.0604

Do. | 78.13 | 18.59 | .72 | 2.06 | .78 | 1.0795

White Elephant,| 76.81 | 19.96 | .84 | 2.19 | .99 | 1.0867

Do. | 76.92 | 20.38 | .90 | 2.31 | .87 | 1.0742

Do. | 78.74 | 15.96 | .64 | 2.25 | .92 | 1.0803

Do. | 75.21 | 19.31 | .61 | 2.12 | .83 | 1.1058

Do. | 75.88 | 18.81 | .56 | 2.25 | .96 | 1.0921

Do. | 77.44 | 18.12 | .63 | 2.06 | .88 | 1.0906

Do. | 75.56 | 18.14 | .56 | 1.81 | 1.04 | 1.1129

Do. | 78.13 | 18.62 | .63 | 1.75 | .98 | 1.0881

Delaware, | 76.02 | 19.20 | .61 | 2.06 | 1.01 | 1.0852

Do. | 76.93 | 18.63 | .61 | 2.19 | .94 | 1.0904

Do. | 75.72 | 18.63 | .55 | 2.31 | .95 | 1.0745

Do. | 77.64 | 16.26 | .61 | 2.56 | .91 | 1.1120

Carmen, | 76.87 | 18.03 | .66 | 2.06 | .90 | 1.0967

Do. | 76.57 | 17.07 | .59 | 2.38 | .76 | 1.0804

+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+--------

Average, | 77.02 | 18.29 | .66 | 2.16 | .91 | 1.0881

---------------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+--------

[29] Maine Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 57, p. 147.

_Analysis of Vermont potatoes:_ Analyses made in Vermont and published

in the report of the Vermont Experiment Station for 1901 show an

average content of starch considerably less than that above given,

namely:

Water, 79.41 percent

Starch, 14.51 „

Sugars and dextrins, 1.44 „

Cellulose, .36 „

Protein, 2.28 „

Ether extract, .06 „

Ash, 1.26 „

Undetermined, .68 „

_Composition of Potatoes used in France for Industrial Purposes._--The

following is regarded in France as an average composition of the potato

suitable for industrial purposes:[30]

Water, 71.00 percent

Starch, 18.00 „

Sugar, etc., 1.06 „

Cellulose, 1.65 „

Protein, 2.12 „

Fat, .11 „

Ash, 1.60 „

[30] “Encyclopédie Agricole,” E. Saillard.

The total fermentable matter, as seen above, is a little over 19

percent, not allowing anything for the cellulose which is fermented. As

a portion of the cellulose may also become a source of alcohol, it is

observed that the average percentage of fermented matter in the French

potato used for industrial purposes is not far from 20 percent.

The following varieties show a variation in starch content of 6.8

percent, the minimum being 15.9 and the maximum 22.7 percent:

Red starchy, 22.7 percent of starch

Shaw, 20.5 „ „

Institute of Beauvais, 17.7 „ „

Kernours, 17.9 „ „

White Elephant, 16.0 „ „

British Red, 16.0 „ „

Giant Blue, 15.9 „ „

_Analysis of Potatoes from German Sources._--_Average composition and

starch content:_ The content of starch in potatoes examined in the

laboratory of the Association of German Spirit Manufacturers during

the year 1905 varied from 12.1 to 25.1 percent. Eleven percent of the

total number examined contained between 12 and 14 percent of starch, 20

percent between 14 and 16 percent of starch, 13 percent between 16 and

18 percent of starch, 24 percent between 18 and 20 percent, 24 percent

also between 20 and 22 percent, and 8 percent between 22 and 25.1

percent.

These data show that 56 percent of the total number of samples

examined contained between 18 and 25 percent of starch. It is evident,

therefore, that the general average content of starch in the potatoes

used in the German distilleries is not far from 18 to 20 percent.

The mean composition of potatoes as given by three German authorities,

namely, König, Lintner, and Wolff, is as follows:

AVERAGE ANALYSIS OF POTATOES BY THREE GERMAN AUTHORITIES.

KÖNIG. LINTNER. WOLFF.

CONSTITUENT. Percent. Percent. Percent.

Water, 75.48 76.0 75.0

Protein, 1.95 2.1 2.1

Fat, .15 .2 .2

Starch and sugar, 20.69 19.7 20.7

Crude cellulose, .75 .8 1.1

Ash, .98 1.2 .9

The above data show the average content of fermentable matter in German

potatoes, as determined by three of their leading authorities, to be

about 20 percent. The potatoes used for the manufacture of alcohol in

Germany are not of the variety raised for edible purposes. In a large

number of experiment stations in Germany systematic efforts have been

made for many years to grow a potato rich in starch without respect

to its edible qualities. These potatoes are coarser in structure and

less palatable than those grown for the table. The object of the

cultivation of this class of potatoes is to produce as much starch and

other fermentable matters per acre as possible. It is evident that our

own experiment stations should undertake work of a similar character

if the potato is to be used to any great extent in the manufacture of

industrial alcohol. There is no doubt of the fact that success equal to

that attained by the German experimenters will attend any systematic

efforts of this kind in our country. Not only will larger crops per

acre of potatoes be grown, but these potatoes will contain larger

quantities of starch and other fermentable substances. If the crop of

potatoes is to remain at the present average, namely, less than 100

bushels per acre, profitable returns for alcohol making can not be

expected, either by the farmer or by the manufacturer. A much larger

quantity must be grown and, if possible, at less expense, in order that

encouraging profits may be realized.

Maercker, one of the most celebrated of German authors, states that

in certain instances the potato in Germany reaches a very high starch

content. Some varieties, in exceptional instances, have shown as high

as 29.4 percent, 28.1 percent, and 27.3 percent, respectively. In

warm, dry seasons potatoes often are found containing from 25 to 27

percent of starch. According to Maercker, the sugar content, including

all forms of sugar, varies greatly. Perfectly ripe potatoes contain

generally no sugar or only a fractional percentage. When potatoes are

stored under unfavorable conditions, large quantities of sugar may be

developed, amounting to as high as 5 percent altogether. In general, it

may be stated that the content of sugar of all kinds will vary from 0.4

percent to 3.4 percent, according to conditions.

While potatoes grown thus to increase the content of starch are not

generally used as food, yet they are nutritious but not as palatable as

those grown especially for table purposes.

_Ash analyses:_ The mineral matters which the potato extracts from the

soil or from the fertilizers which are added thereto consist chiefly

of phosphate of potash. The mean average composition of the ash of the

potato is shown in the following table:[31]

Potash (K₂O), 60.37 percent

Soda (Na₂O), 2.62 „

Lime (CaO), 2.57 „

Magnesia (MgO), 4.69 „

Iron oxid (Fe₂O₃), 1.18 „

Phosphoric acid (P₂O₅), 17.33 „

Sulfuric acid (SO₃), 6.49 „

Silicic acid (SiO₂), 2.13 „

Chlorin, 3.11 „

[31] Maercker, “Handbuch der Spiritusfabrikation,” p. 99.

This analysis was made upon the so-called pure ash, deprived of its

unburned carbon, and freed of sand and carbon dioxid.

_Effect of fertilization on the yield and starch content:_ Experience

in Germany has shown not only that liberal fertilization with nitrogen

is favorable to the production of a large crop of potatoes, but also

that this is accomplished without decreasing the percentage of starch

therein. The following table shows the increase in yield, percentage of

starch, and amount of starch obtained by nitrogen fertilization, the

results being expressed in hectares[32] and kilograms:

EFFECT OF NITROGEN FERTILIZATION ON YIELD AND STARCH CONTENT OF

POTATOES.

---------------+-------------------------+-------------------------

| WITHOUT NITROGEN. | WITH NITROGEN.

+-------+--------+--------+-------+--------+--------

| | of | of | | of | of

VARIETY OF | | per | per | | per | per

---------------+-------+--------+--------+-------+--------+--------

---------------+-------+--------+--------+-------+--------+--------

Seed, | 18.01 | 20,900 | 3,780 | 18.17 | 24,870 | 4,507

Champion, | 21.33 | 19,510 | 4,152 | 21.48 | 24,470 | 5,233

Imperator, | 19.00 | 22,560 | 4,235 | 18.70 | 26,830 | 5,007

Magnum Bonum, | 18.41 | 19,170 | 3,522 | 18.07 | 22,510 | 4,057

Aurelie, | 19.47 | 18,950 | 3,653 | 19.75 | 23,550 | 4,609

Reichskanzler, | 22.78 | 14,300 | 3,236 | 22.61 | 17,250 | 3,875

Juno, | 19.33 | 17,590 | 3,422 | 19.92 | 20,900 | 4,199

Amaranth, | 22.47 | 16,180 | 3,619 | 22.84 | 18,310 | 4,188

Charlotte, | 19.42 | 17,041 | 3,305 | 19.67 | 20,774 | 4,081

Zwiebel, | 19.97 | 19,888 | 3,946 | 19.91 | 21,772 | 4,323

Dabersche, | 21.82 | 17,377 | 3,778 | 21.80 | 20,313 | 4,399

Zwiebel, | 20.51 | 16,877 | 3,442 | 20.58 | 19,501 | 3,936

Schneerose, | 18.84 | 19,653 | 3,724 | 18.66 | 22,343 | 4,186

Nassengrunder, | 19.08 | 19,701 | 3,725 | 22.12 | 21,889 | 4,813

Gelbe Rose, | 21.09 | 16,847 | 3,547 | 20.60 | 20,177 | 4,129

Hortensie, | 17.72 | 22,416 | 3,907 | 17.45 | 26,381 | 4,532

Weisse, | 19.37 | 22,134 | 4,267 | 19.19 | 24,490 | 4,664

Rosalie, | 18.27 | 19,866 | 3,557 | 18.25 | 22,186 | 4,003

Achilles, | 21.02 | 18,886 | 3,962 | 20.93 | 20,913 | 4,376

Alcohol, | 16.47 | 16,270 | 2,673 | 16.31 | 20,339 | 3,327

+-------+--------+--------+-------+--------+--------

Average, | 19.77 | 18,806 | 3,673 | 19.85 | 21,998 | 4,332

---------------+-------+--------+--------+-------+--------+--------

[32] 1 hectare = 2.471 acres. 1 kilogram = 2.205 pounds.

It is evident from the data given in the table that the liberal

application of nitrogenous fertilizers increases the yield per

acre of tubers and of starch to a very marked extent, although the

average percentage of starch present is increased very little.

Converting the average data given in the foregoing table into their

equivalents in pounds per acre, we have the following results: Without

nitrogen--yield of tubers, 16,781 pounds per acre; yield of starch,

3,277 pounds per acre. With nitrogen--yield of tubers, 19,629 pounds

per acre; yield of starch, 3,856 pounds per acre.

The following varieties of potatoes are considered in Germany the best

for the manufacture of alcohol: Wohltman, Silesia, Agricultural Union,

Athenena, Prince Bismarck, Richter’s Imperator, and Maercker. The

latest consular report on the potato as a source of alcohol in Germany

shows the following yields per acre and percentages of starch:

YIELD AND STARCH CONTENT OF POTATOES GROWN IN GERMANY FOR ALCOHOL

PRODUCTION.

YIELD PER STARCH.

VARIETIES. ACRE.

Kilograms. Percent.

Professor Wohltman, 3,420 16.3

Iduna, 2,845 16.4

Topaz, 3,260 17.3

Sas, 3,990 18.3

Leo, 4,120 17.0

Richter’s Imperator, 4,760 15.4

Silesia, 3,675 16.3

Professor Maercker, 4,280 14.5

_Use of the Potato._--In addition to its value as human food the potato

has other economical relations. It is used in many countries almost

exclusively in the production of starch for the laundry and for general

domestic uses.

The potato is not very extensively used for starch production in the

United States except in the state of Maine and perhaps in one or two

other localities. The starch of the potato has a particular value for

use in the textile industry in the sizing of cloth. Practically all of

the potato starch which is produced in the United States is devoted to

that purpose, and for this reason it brings a higher price than the

ordinary starch made of Indian corn.

_Technique of the Production of Starch from Potatoes._--There is

scarcely any manufacturing process which is more simple in its method

than the manufacture of starch from potatoes. The process consists

simply in the rasping or grinding of the potato to a fine pulp, which

is afterward placed upon sieves in a thin layer and sprinkled with

water which detaches the starch granules from the pulp matter, carries

them through the sieve, and thus separates them from the fibrous

portion.

It will be interesting to the general reader, on account of the

importance of this product, to give a brief description of the method

employed and the results obtained.

_Potato Starch._--In this country potato starch is manufactured

chiefly in Maine, Wisconsin, and Colorado. The factories are of a

very primitive type, the machinery consisting of a rasper constructed

usually by wrapping a wooden cylinder with sheet-iron punctured so

that the ragged edges of the hole are on the exterior surface as shown

in Fig. 41. Water is added at the time of rasping, and the starch

pulp goes onto gauze shaking tables where the starch grains are washed

through the sieve, as indicated in Figs. 42 and 43. The separated

starch and water go into settling tanks. Where the starch has settled

into a firm mass it is broken up and sent to the drying kiln. Potato

starch is highly prized as a sizing in the textile industry.

[Illustration: FIG. 41.--RASPING CYLINDER FOR MAKING STARCH.--(_Courtesy

Department of Agriculture._)]

[Illustration: FIG. 42.--SHAKING TABLE FOR SEPARATING THE STARCH FROM

THE PULPED POTATO.--(_Courtesy Department of Agriculture._)]

_Use of the Potato in the Manufacture of Spirits._--A much more

important technical use of the potato is in the manufacture of

distilled spirits. Distilled spirits made from the potato are not

generally used for potable purposes but are devoted to industrial

uses. In the United States, very little if any distilled spirits are

made from the potato. In Europe, however, especially in Germany, the

industry is one of great magnitude. Practically all of the industrial

spirits used in Germany and in many parts of Europe are made from

the potato. The process is a simple one. The pulp of the potato, or

starch, separated therefrom is subjected to the action of malt or other

diastatic action for the purpose of converting the starch into sugar.

In some cases this conversion takes place by more strictly chemical

means, namely, by heating the pulpy matter or the starch separated

therefrom in a proper state of dilution, in contact with an acid at

a high temperature and pressure. Hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid

is usually employed for this purpose. The action of the acid converts

the starch into fermentable sugar, namely, dextrose, a form of sugar

differing in its quality and character from that produced by malt

known as maltose. Both sugars, however, are fermentable to the same

degree and produce, for equal quantities of sugar, the same quantity of

alcohol. When the starch is converted into sugar by one or the other

of these methods it is subjected to fermentation by an appropriate

quantity of yeast which is of the same family as that used in the

alcoholic fermentation of other saccharine products.

[Illustration: FIG. 43.--THE POTATO RASPING CYLINDER ARRANGED FOR

WORK.--(_Courtesy Department of Agriculture._)]

Special characters of yeast, however, are reserved for special

purposes, since the variety of yeast determines to a certain extent

the character of the secondary products which are formed during

fermentation and thus determine the character, flavor, and aroma of the

finished product. After the fermentation has been completed the residue

is technically known as beer, and is subjected to distillation for the

separation of the spirit.

A description of the process of distillation will be found in the

second volume of this manual and is therefore omitted here.

=Radish.=--The botanical name of the radish is _Raphanus sativus_ L.

The French name is radis; German, Radies; Italian, ravanello; Spanish,

rabanito.

The radish is a vegetable which is found throughout the whole year in

all the principal markets of the United States, being grown under cover

during the cold weather. It is ready for market within a short time

after sowing, so that crop after crop can be grown during the year on

the same soil. It is most highly prized when it is young, as it tends

to acquire a pungent and bitter taste as it approaches maturity. The

two principal varieties grown, as respects the roots, is the one having

a long, tapering root, and the other a short, spherical bulb. The

latter are more prized for eating purposes. There are many varieties

grown.

_Composition of Edible Portion._--

Water, 91.8 percent

Protein, 1.3 „

Fat, 0.1 „

Sugar, and other carbohydrates, 5.8 „

Ash, 0.7 „

=Rhubarb.=--The botanical name for rhubarb is _Rheum_ L. The French

name is rhubarbe; German, Rhabarber; Italian, rabarbaro; Spanish,

ruibarbo.

Rhubarb is a vegetable which is widely distributed in the United

States and grows generally very early in the spring. It is a highly

acid plant, and is used chiefly as a sauce and for making pies. It

requires a very large addition of sugar to make it palatable. It has

medicinal properties which give it additional value. There are many

varieties grown. It is a plant that is ready for use very early in the

spring, being available in the farmer’s garden almost before any other

vegetable, and this makes it of still greater value.

_Composition of the Edible Stem._--

Water, 92.67 percent

Ash, .94 „

Protein, .83 „

Fiber, 1.11 „

Sugar, starch, etc., 3.26 „

Fat, 1.19 „

The above data show that the rhubarb is practically valueless as food

and is chiefly condimental. In regard to its nutrients the fat is in a

larger proportion than in that of almost any other succulent vegetable.

=Squash.=--Another variety of the gourd family which is highly prized

as a food product is the squash. It is used in the same manner as the

pumpkin, and is highly valued both as a food for man and domesticated

animals.

_Composition of the Flesh of the Squash._--

Water, 88.09 percent

Ash, 1.72 „

Protein, .92 „

Fiber, 1.04 „

Sugar, starch, etc., 8.05 „

Fat, .18 „

The above data show that the squash is a much more nutritive substance

than the pumpkin. In other respects it is little different in its

composition, being only a dryer form of pumpkin.

=Sweet Potato.=--The vegetable known as sweet potato is known

botanically as _Convolvulus batatas_ L.

From the name it is seen that the sweet potato does not belong to the

same botanical family as the potato itself. By reason, however, of its

similar condition of growth and, to a certain extent, its chemical

composition and uses, the term potato has, in this country at least,

become to be universally applied to both, although the prefix “sweet”

is quite commonly used with the sweet potato, whereas if any prefix is

used with the potato, properly so-called, it is the word “white” or

“Irish.” The sweet potato is grown extensively in the United States and

in other respects, agriculturally, may be regarded as complemental to

the potato.

While the potato grows best in the northern parts of the country and in

mild climates, the sweet potato flourishes in the greatest abundance in

the southern and warmer portions. In respect to the character of the

soil the two vegetables are quite similar, both doing best in a sandy

or loose soil, provided it is sufficiently supplied with plant food for

the use of the growing plant. The sweet potato is a thickened root, and

is propagated almost exclusively by means of shoots called “slips.”

_Planting and Cultivation._--There is a very distinct difference

between the planting of the sweet potato and that of the potato. The

former are rarely planted in the field where the crop is to mature. It

is quite a universal custom to plant the sweet potato in beds where

the young growth can be forced both by means of artificial heat and

by a generous mulch of highly nutritious soil. The plants can then

be set very early in the spring and by the time they are ready to be

transplanted to the field have acquired a considerable size. When ready

for transplanting the seed bed is prepared with the same care as that

required for the potato. The ridging of the rows, which in the case

of potatoes takes place during cultivation, is accomplished in the

case of sweet potatoes before planting. If the soil is moist and the

temperature not too high the young plants are removed from the seed bed

and set on top of the apexes in the formed rows. The cultivation of the

field during the growth of the crop is sufficient to keep the surface

in good tilth and prevent the growth of weeds, grass, etc. Care must

be exercised in the cultivation not to draw the earth away from the

ridges which have been formed, but to increase their size by drawing

the earth more and more toward the apex of the ridge. The cultivation

is continued until the growing vines practically cover the surface of

the soil and thus form a natural mulch, which not only conserves the

moisture and tilth of the soil but also prevents the growth of weeds

and grass. The sweet potato, in respect of its flavor, is particularly

sensitive to the influence of frost, also the leaves are more sensitive

to frost than those of the potato. If a heavy frost is experienced

before the tubers are harvested it is apt to impart an unpleasant taste

to the potato and injure its edible qualities. For this reason, if it

is not possible to harvest the potato before the advent of frost, it

is advisable to cut the vines at the point where they emerge from the

soil. When this has been done the injurious effects of the frost, above

mentioned, are not experienced. In the southern portion of the country

the sweet potato is often allowed to remain in the soil during the

greater part of the winter, and, if the vines are removed, it keeps in

excellent condition.

_Yield and Composition of the Sweet Potato._--As has already been

mentioned, there is a general resemblance, in so far as chemical and

nutritive properties are concerned, between the sweet potato and the

potato. The sweet potato is usually colored a yellowish tint, due to

the distribution of more or less xanthophyll throughout its substance.

The sweet potato also contains notable quantities of cane sugar, to

which its name is due. It, however, contains large quantities of starch

and fiber and small quantities of protein, resembling in this general

manner the potato itself. The sweet potato has not been used in the

United States for the making of alcohol. In the Azores great quantities

of sweet potatoes are grown for this purpose, and make an alcohol of

fine quality, which is used to a large extent in fortifying port wines.

There are large areas in the United States, especially in the Southern

States, where the sweet potato can be grown in great abundance. The

experiments at the South Carolina station show that as high as 11,000

pounds of sweet potatoes can be grown per acre. The percentage of

starch is markedly greater than in the white or Irish potato. In all

cases over 20 percent of starch was obtained in the South Carolina

sweet potatoes, and in one instance over 24 percent. As high as 2,600

pounds of starch were produced per acre.

In addition to starch, the sweet potato contains notable quantities

of sugar, sometimes as high as six percent being present, so that the

total fermentable matter in the sweet potato may be reckoned at the

minimum at 25 percent. A bushel of sweet potatoes weighs 55 pounds, and

one-quarter of this is fermentable matter, or nearly 14 pounds. This

would yield, approximately, 7 pounds, or a little over one gallon of 95

percent alcohol. It may be fairly stated, therefore, in a general way,

that a bushel of sweet potatoes will yield one gallon of industrial

alcohol. The average yield of sweet potatoes, of course, is very

much less than that given in the South Carolina reports, where heavy

fertilization was practised. On plots to which no fertilizer was added

the yield was about 8,000 pounds of sweet potatoes per acre, yielding

in round numbers 1,900 pounds of starch. The quantity of sugar in the

8,000 pounds is about 350 pounds, which, added to the starch, makes

2,250 pounds of fermentable matter per acre. This will yield 1,125

pounds of industrial alcohol of 95 percent strength, or approximately

160 gallons per acre.

The yield of sweet potatoes in the above computation must be regarded

as exceptionally high. A safer calculation will be based upon the

yield of 100 bushels of sweet potatoes per acre, a little above

the average of the yield of the potato, or a total of 5,500 pounds

per acre. One-quarter of this amount is fermentable matter--about

1,400 pounds--which would yield, approximately, 700 pounds of 95

percent alcohol, or 100 gallons of 95 percent alcohol per acre. In

addition to the sugar in the form of sucrose, or common sugar, which

the sweet potato contains, there is also an appreciable amount of

non-crystallizable sugars. The total sugars in the sweet potato have

not been overstated in the above estimate. In fact, the contrary,

rather, is true, since the two sugars together probably average about

six percent of the weight of the potato. If the average quantity

of starch in the sweet potato is 20 percent, which is rather a low

estimate, the total fermentable matter in the sweet potato is 26

percent instead of 25 percent, as estimated above.

CHANGES IN COMPOSITION OF THE SWEET POTATO OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES ON

STORING.[33]

FIRST LOT (November 28).

-----------------+-----------------------------------+

| ORIGINAL. |

+--------+--------+--------+--------+

-----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

Georgia Buck | 75.35 | 13.13 | 0.77 | 4.31 |

Bunch Yam | 72.37 | 15.12 | 1.09 | 4.45 |

Do. | 67.99 | 19.58 | .56 | 4.49 |

Horton Yam | 70.29 | 15.06 | 1.05 | 6.23 |

Georgia Buck | 71.56 | 14.35 | .73 | 6.61 |

Vineless Yam | 70.03 | 16.85 | .54 | 5.01 |

Hanover Yam | 76.16 | 13.61 | 1.10 | 4.22 |

Georgia Yam | 70.01 | 18.87 | 1.00 | 4.08 |

+--------+--------+--------+--------+

Average | 71.72 | 15.82 | .86 | 4.93 |

-----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

-----------------+-----------------------------------+

| AIR-DRY. |

+--------+--------+--------+--------+

-----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

Georgia Buck | 6.79 | 49.65 | 2.93 | 16.31 |

Bunch Yam | 6.67 | 51.06 | 3.67 | 15.04 |

Do. | 7.24 | 56.70 | 1.61 | 13.02 |

Horton Yam | 6.24 | 47.52 | 3.31 | 19.67 |

Georgia Buck | 6.88 | 46.98 | 2.40 | 21.63 |

Vineless Yam | 7.90 | 51.78 | 1.67 | 15.40 |

Hanover Yam | 7.37 | 52.89 | 4.29 | 16.40 |

Georgia Yam | 7.57 | 58.17 | 3.07 | 12.59 |

+--------+--------+--------+--------+

Average | 7.08 | 51.84 | 2.87 | 16.26 |

-----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

-----------------+--------------------------

| WATER-FREE.

+--------+--------+--------

NAME OF | | Invert |

VARIETY. | Starch.| sugar. |Sucrose.

-----------------+--------+--------+--------

|Percent.|Percent.|Percent.

Georgia Buck | 53.27 | 3.14 | 17.50

Bunch Yam | 54.71 | 3.93 | 16.11

Do. | 61.18 | 1.74 | 14.04

Horton Yam | 50.68 | 3.53 | 20.98

Georgia Buck | 50.45 | 2.58 | 13.23

Vineless Yam | 56.22 | 1.81 | 16.72

Hanover Yam | 57.10 | 4.63 | 17.70

Georgia Yam | 62.93 | 3.32 | 13.62

+--------+--------+--------

Average | 55.82 | 3.09 | 16.16

-----------------+--------+--------+--------

SECOND LOT (January 7).

-----------------+-----------------------------------+

| ORIGINAL. |

+--------+--------+--------+--------+

-----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

Georgia Buck | 69.74 | 12.72 | 1.75 | 9.25 |

Bunch Yam | 67.31 | 13.66 | 2.02 | 9.90 |

Do. | 67.29 | 13.83 | 2.40 | 9.43 |

Horton Yam | 71.39 | 9.57 | 2.57 | 9.69 |

Georgia Buck | 67.63 | 14.43 | 2.12 | 7.85 |

Vineless Yam | 67.33 | 12.03 | 2.90 | 10.09 |

Hanover Yam | 70.13 | 14.13 | 1.66 | 6.58 |

Georgia Yam | 71.78 | 11.21 | 2.26 | 8.10 |

+--------+--------+--------+--------+

Average | 69.08 | 12.70 | 2.21 | 8.86 |

-----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

-----------------+-----------------------------------+

| AIR-DRY. |

+--------+--------+--------+--------+

-----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

Georgia Buck | 8.80 | 38.34 | 5.27 | 27.87 |

Bunch Yam | 9.49 | 37.83 | 5.60 | 27.40 |

Do. | 10.00 | 38.04 | 6.61 | 25.94 |

Horton Yam | 7.18 | 31.05 | 8.35 | 31.43 |

Georgia Buck | 8.46 | 40.80 | 6.00 | 22.21 |

Vineless Yam | 7.90 | 33.90 | 8.19 | 28.44 |

Hanover Yam | 9.29 | 42.90 | 5.05 | 19.99 |

Georgia Yam | 8.62 | 36.30 | 7.31 | 26.24 |

+--------+--------+--------+--------+

Average | 8.72 | 37.40 | 6.55 | 26.19 |

-----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

-----------------+--------------------------

| WATER-FREE.

+--------+--------+--------

NAME OF | | Invert |

VARIETY. | Starch.| sugar. |Sucrose.

-----------------+--------+--------+--------

Georgia Buck | 42.04 | 5.78 | 30.56

Bunch Yam | 41.80 | 6.19 | 30.27

Do. | 42.27 | 7.34 | 28.82

Horton Yam | 33.45 | 9.00 | 33.86

Georgia Buck | 44.57 | 6.55 | 24.26

Vineless Yam | 36.81 | 8.89 | 30.88

Hanover Yam | 47.29 | 5.57 | 22.04

Georgia Yam | 39.72 | 8.00 | 28.72

+--------+--------+--------

Average | 40.99 | 7.17 | 28.68

-----------------+--------+--------+--------

[33] South Carolina Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 63, p. 25.

_Effect of Storage on Composition._--Experiments have shown that the

quantity of starch diminishes and the quantity of sugar increases on

storing. Further, it may be stated that in the varieties of sweet

potatoes which are most esteemed for table use there is less starch

and perhaps more sugar than are stated in the above examples. In one

instance of an analysis made on the 7th of January of stored potatoes,

the starch had fallen to a little less than 13 percent, while the

sugars had increased to over 11 percent in less than six weeks. The

total quantity of fermentable matter, however, as will be seen, had not

been greatly changed, although there was probably a slight loss. In the

southern agricultural work referred to, the yam and the sweet potato

are considered together. The composition and the changes on keeping are

well illustrated by the preceding data.

The above data apparently are sufficient to show the high value which

attaches to the sweet potato and the yam, not only as edibles, but

especially for the purpose of making alcohol. It is also seen that the

sweet potato would not be a valuable material for making starch alone,

because in starch making the sugar which the sweet potato contains is

lost, whereas in the manufacture of alcohol the sugar and the starch,

as well as any fermentable celluloses or gums in the potato, are

utilized. The following table shows the extent to which this crop is

grown in the United States:

ACREAGE AND PRODUCTION OF SWEET POTATOES (INCLUDING YAMS) IN THE UNITED

STATES BY STATES, IN 1899, AS REPORTED BY THE TWELFTH CENSUS.

--------------------+-------+----------+

STATES. | ACRES.| BUSHELS. |

--------------------+-------+----------+

United States |537,447|42,526,696|

+=======+==========+

Alabama | 50,865| 3,457,386|

Arizona | 51| 4,299|

Arkansas | 13,271| 998,767|

California | 1,607| 239,029|

Colorado | 20| 2,291|

Connecticut | 2| 130|

Delaware | 2,265| 222,165|

District of Columbia| 5| 19,936|

Florida | 22,791| 2,049,784|

Georgia | 70,620| 5,087,674|

Hawaii | 135| 9,284|

Idaho | 6| 413|

Illinois | 7,534| 511,695|

Indiana | 3,989| 239,487|

Indian Territory | 1,064| 80,364|

Iowa | 2,688| 24,622|

Kansas | 4,570| 74,810|

Kentucky | 14,178| 925,786|

Louisiana | 27,372| 1,865,482|

Maryland | 6,469| 677,848|

Massachusetts | .....| 23|

Michigan | 71| 3,242|

Minnesota | 4| 136|

Mississippi | 38,169| 2,817,386|

Missouri | 9,844| 743,377|

Nebraska | 551| 48,224|

Nevada | 5| 923|

New Hampshire | 1| 6|

New Jersey | 20,588| 2,418,641|

New Mexico | 47| 6,180|

New York | 73| 8,681|

North Carolina | 68,730| 5,781,587|

North Dakota | .....| 1|

Ohio | 3,796| 249,767|

Oklahoma | 2,512| 195,799|

Oregon | 27| 2,825|

Pennsylvania | 3,443| 234,724|

Rhode Island | 1| 102|

South Carolina | 48,831| 3,369,957|

South Dakota | 3| 105|

Tennessee | 23,374| 1,571,575|

Texas | 43,561| 3,299,135|

Utah | 40| 4,958|

Vermont | 4| 306|

Virginia | 40,681| 4,470,602|

Washington | 52| 4,672|

West Virginia | 3,393| 202,424|

Wisconsin | 4| 86|

--------------------+-------+----------+

_Average Composition of Sweet Potatoes._--The mean composition of

varieties of sweet potatoes as determined by the California and Texas

Experiment stations is shown in the following data:

CALIFORNIA STATION TEXAS STATION

(17 varieties). (21 varieties).

Water, 69.00 percent 70.27 percent

Ash, 1.15 „ 1.14 „

Protein, 2.08 „ 2.41 „

Fat, 1.00 „ 0.99 „

Total sugars, 5.55 „ 6.81 „

Starch, etc., 24.23 „ 24.00 „

Crude fiber, 2.62 „ 1.26 „

Included in the starch of the above data are the substances soluble in

boiling dilute acid and alkali.

=Turnip.=--The botanical name of the turnip is _Brassica napus_ L. The

French name is navet; German, Herbst-Rübe; Italian, navone; Spanish,

nabo.

The turnip is grown very largely in the United States both as a

vegetable and as a field crop for feeding purposes. The turnip used as

a vegetable usually has a spherical bulb. It is a crop that grows late

in the autumn. In the central part of the country it is usually sown as

a field crop after the harvesting of some of the early crops as, for

instance, early potatoes, and is ready for harvest late in the autumn,

just before freezing weather begins. Grown as a vegetable, however, it

is grown early as well as late. It has a spicy, pungent taste which

makes it extremely palatable. It is sometimes eaten raw, but generally

stewed.

_Composition._--

Water, 90.46 percent

Ash, .80 „

Protein, 1.14 „

Fiber, 1.15 „

Sugar, starch, etc., 6.27 „

Fat, .18 „

The above data show that the turnip is not a very nutritious vegetable

and that its chief nutrients are carbohydrates.

=Yam.=--Another variety of edible root or substance belonging to the

sweet potato class is known as the yam. It is also, like the sweet

potato, particularly suited to growing in the subtropical or warm

climates. The name yam properly belongs to a tropical root similar

in appearance to the sweet potato but produced by various species of

vines of the genus _Dioscorea_, not belonging even to the same family

as the sweet potato. In the southern United States, however, the name

yam is applied to certain varieties of the sweet potato with large

coarse stems. It is cultivated extensively in the southern part of the

United States, and is valued both as a food for man and specially for

domesticated animals. The character of the soil, method of planting,

and cultivation are the same as in the case of the sweet potato. It

is particularly valued for fattening the variety of swine so common

in the South, known as the “razor-back” hog. This animal does his own

harvesting, and thus removes from the agriculturist a portion of his

labor which is not of the most agreeable kind.

_Composition of Yams._--The composition of yams does not differ to any

notable extent from that of the sweet potato.

_Other Uses of the Yam and Sweet Potato._--In addition to the use of

the yam and sweet potato for human food, reference has already been

made to their value as food for domesticated animals. These bodies are

particularly relished by hogs and cattle. The feeding of sweet potatoes

or yams to milk cows insures a healthy condition of the body, and also

imparts to the milk, cream, and butter the distinct amber tint which

is regarded as a mark of excellence. Thus even in the winter months

the butter which is made from milk produced in this way will have the

light amber tint, which should distinguish it from the highly tinted

artificially colored product which does so much to bring good butter

into bad repute. Both sweet potatoes and yams are capable of yielding

abundant supplies of distilled spirits. It is probable that under the

new law which permits the use of denatured alcohol free of taxation in

the arts an abundant supply of this product can be secured from the

sweet potato and the yam. There are millions of acres of cheap land of

a sandy character in the South Atlantic and Gulf states where potatoes

and yams can be successfully grown under scientific principles of

agriculture. If not needed for food purposes as above mentioned, the

residue can be very profitably devoted to the manufacture of industrial

alcohol.

CANNED VEGETABLES.

It probably will excite no opposition to state that if fresh, succulent

vegetables can be placed upon the table of the consumer they are to be

preferred to the same kind of vegetables preserved in any manner. There

are many circumstances, however, which render it difficult, if not

impossible, to secure a regular supply of fresh, succulent vegetables

upon the consumer’s table. Those who possess abundant wealth may have

a proper supply of vegetables at all seasons of the year without

resorting to any preserving process other than the refrigeration

incident to transportation. But the great majority of consumers must

of necessity adapt themselves to the conditions of the market and

the proximity of supply. Succulent vegetables properly harvested

and refrigerated may be sent long distances and over a considerable

period of time, and reach the consumer in practically the same state

of freshness and palatability as when first harvested. Owing to the

exigencies of intermediary supply and the cost of transportation the

great industry of keeping succulent vegetables by sterilization has

been founded. Commonly vegetables prepared in this way are known

as “canned” vegetables in this country and “tinned” in England. By

availing himself of this process the consumer, even of moderate means,

is able to command at all seasons of the year and in all locations an

abundant supply of wholesome, fresh, succulent vegetable materials.

=Principles and Process of Canning.=--The sterilization of succulent

vegetables depends upon the same principles as that of meat, already

described. The decay of these vegetable substances is due to the

action of certain ferments, either organic or inorganic, which act as

agents in securing the oxidation and decay of the organic material. If

the action of these organisms can be prevented or inhibited the food

material will remain for a certain length of time, not yet definitely

determined, in an excellent, almost perfect state of preservation and

without losing, notably, any of its nutritive or palatable properties.

It is not the purpose of this manual to describe the technique of

canning, further than to illustrate the principles thereof in their

relations to wholesome and nutritive food.

=Selection of Materials.=--It is of the highest importance in the

canning industry, both for the reputation of the manufacturer and the

health and comfort of the consumer, that the vegetables selected for

canning be fresh, free from disease, and prepared in such a way that

all adhering dirt or other foreign substances be excluded. The process

of preparation for canning should begin as soon as possible after the

harvesting of the vegetables, since a delay, especially at the high

temperature which usually prevails at the time of canning, produces

rapid deterioration, both as respects the quality of the vegetable

and its flavor. After the proper cleaning and preparation of the

fresh vegetables they are next subjected to the process of canning.

It is then the vegetables are heated to a temperature of, or above,

that of boiling water for a sufficient length of time to thoroughly

destroy all the living germs and spores contained therein. The degree

of temperature and the length of time of heating depend upon the

nature of the vegetable substance, the size of its particles and of

the package and the relative difficulty of preservation. Where only

living organisms are present the proper temperature is that which will

destroy the life of the germ. It is well known that spores from which

fermentative germs may be developed are more resistant to the action

of heat than the germ itself. When, therefore, spores of this kind

are present, the temperature of heating must be higher and the time

more prolonged, or, in lieu of this, the food should be heated on two

or three consecutive days during which time any spores which may have

been present will have developed into organisms and been killed. Some

forms of vegetable materials are sterilized much more readily than

others. For instance, the kernels of green Indian corn are of such a

character and degree of hardness as to resist, with a considerable

degree of success, the influence of heat on the life of the germs

which they contain. In such cases it is customary to previously cook

the vegetable substance before placing it in the cans. The cans should

contain enough water to fill the interstices between the particles of

vegetable matter. It is the practice in many instances to add a little

salt and sometimes also sugar to this liquid. When the can is filled

and closed the sterilizing is best completed by placing it in a strong

boiler, which is then closed and heated by steam under a pressure of

two or three atmospheres or even higher, namely, from 30 to 45 pounds

and over per square inch. By heating under pressure in this way the

development of any pressure in the can due to the production of steam

is counterbalanced by the pressure without the can, so that a swelling

or cracking of the can cannot take place. If the cans are heated

in an open bath of water or brine it is customary to leave a small

perforation in the top of the can through which the combined gas of the

interior of the can may escape, and this vent is closed by a small drop

of solder applied before or at the time of taking the cans from the

bath. The canning of vegetables may also be done in a small way in the

household and the principle on which this process is based is exactly

the same as that set forth. The vegetables must be properly prepared,

placed in the cans, and heated a sufficient length of time to destroy

germs and spores, and the vent in the can stopped with solder. For

family purposes the use of closed boilers for heating is not practical

on account of the expense of securing such apparatus. All kinds of

vegetables which are eaten in a cooked state can be preserved by the

canning process. This cannot be applied, however, to those forms of

vegetables which are eaten raw, such as lettuce, radishes, etc.

The principal forms of canned vegetables are described below:

=Canned Beans.=--Fresh, green beans used for canning purposes are

generally preserved in the pod and not shelled, as is the case with the

pea. The raw material should be selected with the same care as that

which attends the selection of other vegetable products intended for

preserving purposes. If the pods are small they may be placed whole

in the can. Sometimes they are cut into small lengths in order to fit

better in the package. As in the case of peas, the interstices between

the particles of beans are filled by the addition of a sufficient

quantity of brine of the proper strength to fill the can to the top.

The process of sterilization is the same as that for other vegetable

substances. Cooked beans are also preserved by canning and are often

improperly called baked beans.

=Composition of Typical Samples of Canned Beans.=--The composition of

typical samples of canned beans is shown in the following table:

-------------+------+-----+------+------+-----+------+-----

| | | | AND |PRO- | |

-------------+------+-----+------+------+-----+------+-----

| Per-| Per-| Per-| Per-| Per-| Per-| Per-

String beans,|94.33 | .06 | .51 | 3.03 | .92 | 1.16 | .80

beans, |93.91 | .07 | .58 | 2.91 |1.14 | 1.40 | .92

Lima beans, |79.68 | .30 | 1.16 |13.24 |4.00 | 1.62 | .77

beans, |67.19 |3.18 | 2.46 |17.88 |7.14 | 2.15 |1.03

-------------+------+-----+------+------+-----+------+-----

As in the case of peas it is noticed that the beans in the hull are

not a particularly nutritious vegetable in proportion to the quantity

consumed and that the protein is the most valuable constituent in the

dry matter.

_Adulteration of Canned Beans._--The same adulterations may be found in

canned beans as in canned peas. No additional remarks, therefore, are

needed on this point.

Both canned peas and beans form condimental, palatable, wholesome, and

desirable forms of these leguminous vegetables. The great cheapness

with which they can be grown and the improved method of canning make

it possible to produce these articles of food in quantities, and for

a price which bring them within the reach of those even in the most

humble circumstances.

[Illustration: FIG. 44.--VIEW OF INDIAN CORN CANNING FACTORY, SHOWING

ACCUMULATION OF HUSKS AND COBS.]

As soon as the manufacturer restores absolute confidence in the purity

of his products by completely excluding all adulterations the trade

in these articles will be greatly increased and immensely greater

quantities thereof consumed.

Foods and Their Adulteration Origin, Manufacture, and Composition of Food Products; Description of Common Adulterations, Food Standards, and National Food Laws and Regulations · 第 10 / 19 章