been intimated, is measured largely by the quantity of gluten which
it may contain. The separation of gluten may be accomplished by any
one, even without a chemical training, by a little practice. It is,
therefore, one of the tests for the value of a wheat flour which can be
easily and generally applied. The principle of separation of the gluten
rests upon the fact that when wheat flour is moistened and kneaded into
a sticky mass it may be washed with pure water with constant kneading
until nearly all the starch has been removed from the mass. Meanwhile
only that portion of the protein is removed which is soluble in the
water and the gluten which is formed by the process of kneading remains
as a sticky mass. When this moist mass is kneaded and rolled until all
the moisture is taken out of it that can be removed in this way, it may
be weighed and the proportion of moist gluten in the sample determined.
It may then be placed in an oven and dried, and then the proportion
of dry gluten secured. The following method is one which is easily
applied. Place 10 grams of the sample in a porcelain dish and moisten
with from 6 to 7 cubic centimeters of water, knead, and allow to stand
for an hour. Work into a ball, being careful that none of the material
adheres to the dish. Holding the mass in the hand knead it in a slow
stream of cold water until the starch and all soluble matter are washed
out. Place the ball of gluten thus formed in cold water and allow to
stand for one hour; remove from water, press as dry as possible between
the hands, roll into a ball, and weigh in a flat-bottomed dish. After
weighing, place the ball of moist gluten in the drying oven for twenty
hours; cool and weigh.
[Illustration: FIG. 34.--KEDZIE’S FARINOMETER SHOWING THE
PARTS.--(_Bulletin 13, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture._)]
=Gluten Tester.=--A simple test for determining the approximate
percentage of gluten in flour may be used, based upon the principle
that the viscosity of dough is a measure of its practical gluten
content. The name applied to a gluten tester is farinometer.
A convenient form of farinometer devised by Kedzie is shown in the
accompanying figure. It is patterned somewhat upon the plan of Jago’s
viscometer. The instrument is shown in parts in Fig. 34. The instrument
as in use is exhibited in Fig. 35. Parts shown in Fig. 34 are as
follows: No. 1 is the stand or support of the parts. No. 2 is the cap
of No. 1, and discloses the half-inch opening (half closed by the
slide) through which the dough is forced by the pressure of the rod No.
4. The slide by which this opening is closed is plainly shown; also
the socket for holding No. 3. No. 3 is a brass tube 3 inches high and
1 inch internal diameter, with a small knob to fit into the notched
opening in the side of the socket seen in No. 2, to hold No. 3 firmly
in place. No. 4 is a steel rod ¹⁵⁄₁₆ inch in diameter and 12 inches
long, with a thin brass cap 1 inch in diameter, beveled slightly so
that the front edge fills the barrel of No. 3 without friction, and is
yet dough-tight. Near the top the rod is marked into inch spaces.
In using the farinometer two points are considered:
1. The water-absorbing power of a flour, or the percentage of water it
will take up to form a dough of a certain consistency.
2. The viscosity of such dough, or its resistance to change of form
under a uniform force; _e. g._, the length of time in seconds required
to force a cylinder of dough 1 inch high through a hole one-half inch
in diameter under the pressure of a vertical steel rod 13 inches long
and weighing 2¹⁄₂ pounds avoirdupois.
[Illustration: FIG. 35.--KEDZIE’S FARINOMETER IN USE.--(_Bulletin 13,
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture._)]
=Bleaching of Flour.=--At the present time flour is extensively
bleached for the purpose of making an inferior article resemble a
superior one. By this means a greater percentage of the flour produced
can be rated as of first quality. Ozone and oxids of nitrogen developed
by electrical discharges are the principal bleaching agents employed.
Bleached flour should bear a label indicating to the purchaser the
character of the manipulation to which it has been subjected.
=Adulterations of Flour.=--The adulteration of wheat flour is not
practiced to any extent in this country. The most common adulteration
arises from grinding with wheat foreign seeds and other foreign
matter, rust, smut, etc., which may be present in the grain. Other
adulterations are the mixture with wheat flour of the starch or
flour of maize and other cereals. The adulteration with any form of
terra alba or white powdered earthy substance is exceedingly rare.
Although some attempts have been made to introduce such adulterations
in this country they have not reached any commercial success. The
adulterations, with the exception of those with white earthy powders,
are most readily ascertained by microscopic examination for foreign
matters and other varieties of starch than grow naturally in the wheat.
=Standard.=--The United States standard for flour is as follows:
=Flour= is the fine, sound product made by bolting wheat meal and
contains not more than thirteen and one-half (13.5) percent of
moisture, not less than one and twenty-five hundredths (1.25) percent
of nitrogen, not more than one (1.0) percent of ash, and not more than
fifty hundredths (0.50) percent of fiber.
=Graham flour= is unbolted wheat meal.
=Whole wheat flour=, entire =wheat= flour, improperly so called, is
fine wheat meal from which a part of the bran has been removed.
=Gluten flour= is the product made from flour by the removal of starch,
and contains not less than five and six-tenths (5.6) percent of
nitrogen and not more than ten (10) percent of moisture.
=Age of Flour.=--The freshly ground flour is most highly esteemed by
many consumers on account of palatability and freedom from all danger
of mold and ferments. Older flours are likely to lose flavor, become
moldy and infested with weavil and other insect pests. The last-named
evils are avoided by the use of wheat containing no fungus, none of the
eggs of the weavil, nor of other insects, and enclosing the freshly
ground flour in packages not accessible to infection. Even then it
is advisable to consume the flour as soon as convenient after the
milling process. Many manufacturers and experts contend that flour is
improved by keeping for a certain length of time, and this contention
is based on the assumption that the flour assumes a lighter color and
improves in flavor on keeping. There is of course a certain limit to
improvements of this kind.
=Substitutes for Flour.=--Wholesome ingredients are used in part
instead of flour in bread making, and when that fact is clearly made
known the admixture of these substances with flour is not considered
an adulteration. Bread which is made of an admixture of Indian corn
meal with flour or rye flour with flour or other cereal products is
well liked by many people. Potatoes are also used very often in bread
making. Acorns, buckwheat, and other farinacious and oily substances
are also employed. The admixture of inert substances with flour merely
to increase the bulk and weight of the loaf, even if notified, cannot
be regarded as other than an adulteration.
In times of famine such admixtures are sometimes made in order to
increase the size and weight of the loaf. Such substances are known
in times of famine as “hunger bread.” Finely ground straw, bark, the
hulls of nuts, etc., are often used for this purpose. These bodies
practically have no nutritive value and serve no useful purpose except
to deceive the eater respecting the quantity of bread he consumes.
BREAD.
The term “Bread” when used alone is understood in this country to apply
to bread made from wheat flour or some form of wheat. If made from
other cereals a prefix is used to distinguish this fact, as Indian
corn bread, rye bread, etc. The term bread includes also the materials
which are used necessarily therewith in the ordinary process of baking.
Thus, the term bread would apply to a loaf which contains not only
the wheat flour as the base and chief part of its mass but also the
yeast or other leavening agent employed, together with salt, lard, or
butter used in its preparation. The presence of these bodies, used in
the sense above described, is not regarded as an adulteration. The
term “bread,” however, is not to be used to include those other forms
of nutriment made from wheat flour in which condimental substances,
especially sugar, are used to such an extent as to give the dominant
taste of the condiment or condiments employed. Thus, the ordinary cake
of all descriptions, tarts, puddings, and other edible substances made
largely from wheat flour, but to which the condiment or condiments
impart a distinct taste, are not included under the term bread.
In the generic sense the term bread may be used in the largest
signification to signify food in general.
=Varieties of Bread.=--In general all forms of bread may be divided
into two great classes, leavened and unleavened. By far, the greater
quantity of bread consumed belongs to the former class. Unleavened
bread is used chiefly for certain religious festivals, in the form
of biscuits or in certain varieties of Indian corn bread such as hoe
cake, johnnie cake, etc. Of the leavened bread there are two distinct
classes, namely, bread which is baked and eaten cold and bread which
is consumed hot from the oven. Bread intended to be consumed cold is
generally eaten within twenty-four or forty-eight hours from the time
of making though some varieties may be kept for an indefinite period.
The use of hot bread is not commended by hygienists though it is
difficult to see why, when properly made, the consumption of a good hot
roll can be regarded as injurious. The apparent injury which may result
therefrom is probably due to the larger quantity eaten on account of
greater palatability than is the case with cold bread. That variety
of bread which is baked so as to present a maximum of crust and made
of flour which gives a tough consistency to the loaf is most highly
regarded both for palatability and nutritive purposes. This form of
bread is improperly called French or Vienna rolls in this country.
Unleavened bread is particularly advisable for use in emergency rations
for marching soldiers, in logging camps, etc. This bread is compact,
comparatively free of moisture and has a high nutritive value. The
leavened bread may be divided into distinct classes in respect of the
leavening agent employed.
Class 1 is bread in which the leavening agent is yeast. Class 2 is
bread in which the natural ferments residing in the flour or wheat are
utilized for the leavening agent as in the making of that variety known
as salt rising bread. Class 3 includes that form of bread in which the
leavening is secured by chemical reagents mixed with the dough. Class
4 includes that variety in which a leavening reagent such as carbon
dioxid or air is mechanically incorporated with the dough during the
kneading process.
Unleavened bread is also divided into several technical forms. The
first class includes the biscuit of commerce, sometimes incorrectly
called crackers, and intended to be used soon after preparation. The
second class includes biscuits which are intended for long storage
and transportation. The third class includes wafers and other
delicate forms of unleavened bread for special use. Class 4 is the
unleavened loaves which are made most frequently from Indian corn
meal and intended to be eaten while still hot. Class 5 includes any
miscellaneous unleavened loaves or cakes made in various ways and for
different purposes.
In nearly all forms of unleavened bread made from wheat flour the dough
is thoroughly beaten, and mechanically mixed or kneaded, in order to
make it lighter in color and more crisp and hard after baking.
=Yeast.=--Bakers’ yeast is one form of the ordinary yeast ferments
or a mixture thereof producing alcoholic fermentation under proper
conditions. All flour contains a certain quantity of sugar which is
easily fermented. By the action of the yeast upon this sugar carbon
dioxid and alcohol are formed. The particles of carbon dioxid become
entangled in the gluten of the wheat flour when it is mixed into a
dough and thus make the mass spongy and light. When placed in the oven
to be baked these minute particles of carbon dioxid expand still more
and produce additional lightness and sponginess of the loaf. The yeast
may be propagated from one mass of dough to another, may be used in a
moist state or, as is very commonly the case, manufactured in large
quantities, and sold either moist or more commonly in a partially dried
and pressed cake.
=Spontaneous Ferments.=--All cereals contain ferments of a character to
produce alcoholic fermentation spontaneously under proper conditions.
It is possible even to ferment dough by seed from one loaf to another
or by developing a spontaneous fermentation. This method is quite a
common one in the rural districts, and all bread made in this way is
known as salt rising bread. It may be made according to the following
receipt:
A quarter of a pint of fresh whole milk is slowly heated to near the
boiling point, but not allowed to boil. This process will sterilize the
milk and prevent the development of a too rapid lactic fermentation
in the subsequent processes. The heated milk is added to a quantity
of maize meal sufficient to make with the milk a stiff batter, and
the whole is thoroughly mixed. The vessel containing the batter is
wrapped with paper and then with a heavy flannel cloth, and kept in a
warm place at a uniform temperature of about blood heat for several
hours, until fermentation is fully established and the batter assumes
a definite sour odor. At this point a teaspoonful of salt is stirred
into a pint of blood-warm water and into this a sufficient quantity of
high-grade wheat flour is stirred to make a moderately stiff batter.
This is thoroughly mixed with the sour mass obtained by the previous
fermentation and the mixture exposed for from three-fourths to one
hour to a blood heat as before. If the fermentation has been well
conducted the mass will now be in a sufficiently active state to secure
a proper porosity of the loaf. The salt rising thus prepared is mixed
with a wheat flour dough made with warm water in sufficient quantities
to make from four to six loaves, the whole mass well kneaded, molded
into loaves and put aside at a temperature of blood heat until the
fermentation has proceeded far enough to make the loaf light and
spongy. The loaf is then baked in the ordinary way.
=Chemical Aerating Agents.=--In this country a very common method of
aerating bread is practiced, based upon the use of certain chemical
reagents which when mixed in the dough set free carbon dioxid. These
reagents are known as baking or yeast powders and are especially prized
by reason of the fact that it is possible with their aid to prepare
in a few moments a light spongy loaf or roll which would require from
10 to 24 hours to make by the ordinary fermenting with yeast. The
principal objection to the use of baking powder lies in the fact that
the residues arising from the chemical reaction are necessarily left in
the loaf. While these residues may not have any specific or poisonous
properties they increase the quantity of mineral matter in the bread,
and this mineral matter is in the inorganic state and as such does not
take any part in the process of nutrition. It can only be regarded as a
waste product, burdening, to that extent, the excretory organs of the
body.
=Constituents of Baking Powder.=--The essential constituents of baking
powder are a carbonate of some kind and an acid reagent capable of
decomposing this carbonate and setting the carbon dioxid free. The
common carbonate of a baking powder is bicarbonate of soda. The
classification of baking powders rests upon the acid elements which
they contain. They may be classified as follows: (1) Cream of tartar
baking powder, in which the acid constituent is cream of tartar
which is known chemically as acid potassium tartrate. Other forms of
tartaric acid may be used in baking powders of this class but they
are not common. (2) Phosphate powders, in which the acid constituent
is phosphoric acid usually in the form of the acid phosphate of lime.
(3) Alum powders in which the acid constituent is alum or some form of
aluminium sulfate, usually the basic sulfate of alumina.
The acid and basic constituents of these powders may be kept in
separate containers and mixed together at the time of making the dough.
A more common form is to use them in such a way that until they mix
with the dough they do not exert any notable effect upon each other.
For instance, perfectly dry bicarbonate of soda and perfectly dry acid
potassium tartrate may be mixed together and kept for quite a while
without any notable decomposition of the bicarbonate taking place.
In order to render any such possible action minimum in its effect it
is customary to add to the mixture a small quantity of starch, milk
sugar, or some other diluent. These materials tend to keep apart the
particles of acid and base and render it possible to make a mixture
of them which may be kept for a long while without any notable loss
of leavening power. When a cream of tartar baking powder is mixed
with dough the moisture of the dough gradually dissolves the two
ingredients and in this state a chemical reaction occurs between them.
The carbon dioxid is set free as a gas, commonly known as carbonic
acid. The mineral substance which results is a tartrate of sodium and
potassium that is a union of tartaric acid with potash and soda. This
compound is commonly known under the term of Rochelle salts. If there
be a sufficient quantity of water in the bread to allow the Rochelle
salts to crystallize in the usual way a portion of the water becomes
incorporated with the salt. Two teaspoonsful of a tartrate baking
powder leave a residue of about 11 grams (165 grains) of crystallized
Rochelle salts in the loaf.
=Phosphate Powders.=--As has already been said, the acid constituent
of phosphate powder is chiefly acid phosphate of lime. In this case
the acid phosphate of lime decomposes the bicarbonate of soda with
the production of carbon dioxid and leaves a residue consisting of
a mixture of sodium and lime phosphate. If in two teaspoonsful of
phosphate powder there are approximately 16 grams (250 grains) there is
formed a crystallized residue, about an equal weight of phosphate of
soda and lime, which is left in the loaf.
=Alum Powders.=--Perhaps by far the largest part of baking powders used
contain alum in some form as the acid constituent. Formerly the common
substance known as alum or burnt alum was employed but in late years an
aluminium basic salt known as basic sulfate of aluminium has largely
succeeded the old form of alum. When the reaction takes place in the
dough between these two constituents of alum baking powder there
is formed an equivalent quantity of sulfate of soda and hydroxid of
alumina if the acid constituent be basic aluminium sulfate.
The quantity of residue left in the loaf if two teaspoonsful of baking
powder be used is about 11 grams (165 grains).
=Harmfulness of Baking Powder Residues.=--The question of the
harmfulness of the residues left by the various forms of baking powder
is one which has been of much interest to the hygienist and physician.
It is not claimed in any case that these residues are beneficial. The
principal question which has been discussed is which of them is the
least harmful. This is a question which it is not proper to enter into
in this manual. It might, however, not be out of place to say that the
use of chemical reagents for leavening bread is not as advisable as the
use of the ordinary fermentation. It would be better, evidently, if all
people used more yeast bread and less baking powder rolls. At the same
time the utility and convenience of baking powder cannot be denied, and
this is a factor which must be taken into consideration in the general
discussion and final resolution of the question.
=Character of Alum Residues.=--Every one is agreed that the substance
known as alum, namely, the sulfate of alumina in conjunction with
another mineral or base, such as soda, potash, or ammonia, is not
a desirable constituent of food products. In the manufacture of
baking powders containing alum an effort is made to so balance the
constituents that when the reaction is completed no undecomposed
alum remains. If this condition is secured in every instance the
materials which remain in the bread are not alum but the residues above
mentioned, consisting of aluminium hydrate, and sulfates of soda,
potash, or ammonia.
The residue of chief importance is the hydroxid or hydrate of
alumina, which is the form in which the alumina itself should appear
when a complete reaction like that defined above takes place. When
the hydroxid of alumina is dried and especially when ignited it is
converted into an oxid of alumina which is highly insoluble in water
and only slightly soluble in a very dilute acid solution. The claim is
made by the manufacturer of alum powders that the aluminium residue
which is formed is insoluble in the digestive juices and therefore
cannot produce any effect usually ascribed to the soluble salts of
aluminium. It is important that the conditions which are found in the
baking of a loaf are such as to produce this highly desirable result.
The temperature of the interior of the loaf during baking does not rise
much above that of boiling water, although the exterior temperature,
which is sufficient to produce the browning of the crust, is very much
above that temperature. It is evident that as long as any considerable
proportion of water remains in the loaf it will be difficult to raise
the interior of the loaf to the temperature just mentioned, and if this
were done the caramelization would take place throughout the whole
loaf. Unfortunately, from a scientific point of view the investigation
of this subject has not been always undertaken under conditions which
are wholly beyond criticism. Many of the investigations have been in
the interest of rival baking powder companies, and it is very desirable
that this matter should be undertaken in a wholly unbiased way and
conducted in such a manner as to lead to results which all will accept.
Chemical and physiological investigations, which have even as a remote
object the promotion of the sale of one compound and the repression
of the sale of another, lose at the outset much of that claim upon
the public confidence which such investigations made from a purely
scientific point of view should have.
_General Statement._--In respect of the use of chemical leavening
agents in general it may be said that they introduce an extraneous
product into the bread which is not likely to promote the health and
which, therefore, on general principles should be excluded. On the
other hand, large experience has shown that the consumption of bread
made by these leavening agents does not produce any general effect
upon the public health which is noticeable. This, it is understood,
is not any valid argument in favor of the process. It must also be
acknowledged that a fermentation of a bread with yeast also introduces
extraneous matter into the food, viz., alcohol and congeneric products
of fermentation, and hence this process may be open to a certain
extent to the same objection as the one above. It is too early yet to
formulate definite principles either of inclusion or exclusion of these
products, and the purpose of this manual is secured when the general
character and effects thereof are briefly outlined.
=Composition of Bread.=--Because of the many different methods of bread
making which are practised it is not possible to give in a chemical
form an analysis which would do more than represent in general the
character of the bread in common use. For instance, the quantity of
water which is found in bread varies greatly and the nature of bread
itself must be influenced by the character of the flour from which it
is made. The flour depends upon the quality of the wheat used in its
manufacture. Hence the same brand of bread prepared in the same way
and baked in the same manner must necessarily vary in composition from
season to season and even from day to day. It must be understood also
that it is a very common custom in the United States to use milk in
the mixing of dough, and thus a food product is introduced which of
itself is not of constant character. Some bakers use whole milk, others
skimmed, and others sour milk.
A very good formula for mixing dough for bread making consists in using
the following proportions of ingredients mentioned:
Flour, 2,000 grams
Whole milk, 500 „
Water, 650 „
Salt, 25 „
Yeast cake, 10 „
When properly leavened and kneaded and baked these quantities of
materials will make a loaf of bread weighing 2750 grams.
_Average Composition of Bread._--In the following tables are given the
average composition of bread of different classes. Class 1 is composed
of loaves of the so-called Vienna or French type; Class 2 consists of
what is known as home made bread or bread baked at the home and not in
the bakery; Class 3 consists of bread made from graham flour; Class
4 consists of bread made largely of rye flour; Class 5 is a second
collection of home made bread which may be very properly compared with
Class 2; Class 6 consists of bread of miscellaneous origin bought on
the open market. The data given represent the mean composition of
numbers of samples (Bull. 13, Bureau of Chemistry):
MOIS- ETHER
TURE. PROTEIN. EXTRACT. FIBER.
_Perct._ _Perct._ _Perct._ _Perct._
CLASS 1.
38.71 8.09 1.06 .62
In the dry substance, .. 13.23 1.73 .97
CLASS 2.
33.02 7.24 1.95 .24
In the dry substance, .. 10.80 2.91 .36
CLASS 3.
34.80 8.15 2.03 1.13
In the dry substance, .. 12.51 3.13 1.74
CLASS 4.
33.42 7.88 .66 .62
In the dry substance, .. 11.86 1.02 .95
CLASS 5.
36.16 7.10 1.14 .26
In the dry substance, .. 11.17 1.75 .41
CLASS 6.
34.41 6.93 1.48 .30
In the dry substance, .. 10.59 2.21 .46
STARCH
AND CALO-
ASH. SUGAR. SALT. RIES.
_Perct._ _Perct._ _Perct._
CLASS 1.
1.19 53.72 .57 ..
In the dry substance, 1.95 83.10 .93 4458
CLASS 2.
1.05 56.75 .56 ..
In the dry substance, 1.55 84.75 .84 4497
CLASS 3.
1.59 53.40 .69 ..
In the dry substance, 2.29 82.06 1.07 4434
CLASS 4.
1.84 56.21 1.00 ..
In the dry substance, 2.79 84.36 1.50 4395
CLASS 5.
1.06 54.53 .58 ..
In the dry substance, 1.68 85.41 .92 4395
CLASS 6.
1.00 56.18 .49 ..
In the dry substance, 1.53 85.66 .76 4401
_A Typical American High-grade Yeast Bread._--In conjunction with
the actual analyses given above it is of interest to combine as many
analytical data as can be conveniently secured for the purpose of
determining what the average composition of a high-grade typical yeast
bread is. This comparison leads to the following composition:
Moisture, 35.00 percent
Protein, 8.00 „
Ether extract, .75 „
Starch and sugar, 54.45 „
Fiber, .30 „
Ash, 1.50 „
Of the ash mentioned in the above analysis .50 percent may be ascribed
to the natural mineral ingredient of flour and 1 percent to added salt.
The chief variations from the typical composition of bread made from
high-grade flour are found in the moisture and ether extract. The
moisture may rise above 40 percent in breads made of flour rich in
gluten or sink to 30 percent or under when flour of an inferior gluten
content is employed. The quantity of ether extract depends chiefly upon
the amount of milk which is used in the making of bread and the amount
of fat employed either in the bread itself or in greasing the pan in
which it is baked. There is great difficulty in extracting a fatty
body which has been mixed with a glutinous material like flour. The
analytical data, therefore, do not represent in the ether extract all
the fat naturally present in the flour plus that added in the making of
dough or in baking.
The quantity of moisture in bread may also be determined largely by
the time of baking and the temperature of the oven. A bread baked for
a long while at a low temperature will be much drier than a bread
baked quickly at a high temperature. The high temperature solidifies
the exterior of the loaf so as to make it difficult for the interior
moisture to escape. By quickly baking the bread the temperature of the
interior does not reach so high a temperature as in an oven with a low
temperature and a long-continued heat.
_Standard for Moisture._--The quantity of moisture in bread of standard
quality in the District of Columbia may not exceed 31 percent.
The average temperature of the baking oven is about 240° C. (464° F.).
=Quantity of Sugar in Bread.=--The quantity of sugar found in fermented
bread is always less than that present in the flour, added in milk,
or otherwise introduced in the preparation of the dough. The sugar
disappears largely under the influence of the fermentation due to the
yeast.
=Quantity of Ash.=--The quantity of ash in bread is uniformly higher
than the content of mineral matter in the flour. This is due to the
addition of common salt which is uniformly employed in all bread, and
in the case of bread made from baking powder the retention of the
mineral residues in the loaf increases to that extent the content of
ash. With the exception of the ash, the ether extract or fat, the
sugar, and the dry material of bread correspond in quantity to the same
materials in the flour from which it is made, except the loss due to
the caramelization of the crust.
_Acidity of Bread._--The development of the lactic acid ferments is
important in regard to hygienic conditions and to palatability. Flour
contains practically no acid in a free state, and the acidity of bread
is itself due to the changes which take place in its preparation
under the influence of the ferments therein. Bread baked in the usual
manner after the yeast ferments have exerted their activity shows the
presence of acetic acid, lactic acid, and other acids and salts. The
acidity of bread adds to its palatability and also, doubtless, to its
digestibility. Bread, containing, as it does, a large percentage of
protein, is digested in an acid medium. The natural acidity of bread,
therefore, must be regarded as beneficial.
=Comparative Nutritive Properties of Indian Corn Bread and Wheat
Bread.=--There is a widespread opinion that the products of Indian
corn are less digestible and less nutritious than those of wheat. This
opinion amounts to a conviction in most European countries, where the
products obtained by the milling of Indian corn are not regarded as fit
for human food in an unmixed state. The above opinion, it appears, has
no justification either from the chemical composition of the two bodies
or from recorded digestive and nutritive experiments.
A study of the analytical data of the whole grain shows that in so
far as actual nutrition is concerned the maize is fully as nutritious
as wheat. In respect of its content of fat Indian corn and its direct
products easily take precedence of all the other cereals, with the
exception of hulled oats. In round numbers Indian corn flour or bread
made therefrom contains twice as much fat or oil as wheat, three times
as much as rye, twice as much as barley, and nearly as much as hulled
oats. In regard to digestible carbohydrates, that is digestible starch,
sugar, dextrin, and fiber, Indian corn flour possesses a higher content
than hulled oats and almost the same content as wheat. In regard to
digestible protein Indian corn has nearly the same quantity as the
other leading cereals, except oats. What it lacks, however, in its
quantity of protein in so far as nutrition is concerned is more than
made up in its excess of fat.
=Comparative Digestibility and Nutrition of Wheat and Indian Corn from
Experiments Made in South Dakota Station, Bulletin 38.=--Pigs were fed
with Indian corn and wheat, or rather the ground Indian corn and ground
wheat, and it was found that pound for pound there was a greater gain
in the case of Indian corn flour than wheat. For 100 pounds of flour
fed the average gain with Indian corn was 21.83 pounds and where wheat
flour was used 20.79 pounds. These experimental data show that in
regard to nutritive properties Indian corn flour cannot be considered
inferior to wheat flour. Indian corn bread is particularly well suited
for persons engaged in hard manual labor. A ration which is composed
largely of Indian corn products and oatmeal is found to be particularly
valuable for those engaged in lumbering, harvesting sugar-cane, etc.
_Indian Corn Flour Pudding._--Various forms of pudding are prepared
from Indian corn flour. Among the most important is that known in
the New England States as hasty pudding and in the west and south
as mush. A simple method of preparing Indian corn pudding, hasty
pudding, or mush is to stir into water, very slowly, the Indian corn
flour in such a way as to avoid the formation of lumps. The flour
should be sifted into the water either cold or at boiling temperature
and the mixture vigorously stirred meanwhile. By this means a thin,
uniform paste is secured which is allowed to cook slowly until quite
thick in consistence and until all the starch granules are thoroughly
disintegrated. The product is improved by allowing to stand for several
hours at near the boiling point after the cooking is finished, provided
precautions are taken not to allow the mass to become too solid. This
product is eaten hot with butter, milk, or cream, or is much prized
when allowed to cool, cut into thin slices and fried. A very important
dish for the children of working people and farmers of the south and
west is mush and milk, namely the product above mentioned eaten with
skim milk. This mixture forms a palatable and wholesome diet. Various
other forms of pudding are made into which Indian corn enters to a
greater or less degree.
=Composition of Biscuits.=--The composition of a biscuit or dry
unleavened bread does not differ essentially from that of the ordinary
bread except in the content of moisture. The biscuits are usually baked
in thin cakes or loaves which become heated throughout and sometimes
caramelize throughout a large part of their substance. This favors
the expulsion of the greater part of the moisture which the dough
originally contained. The average composition of biscuits is shown in
the following data:
Moisture, 7.13 percent
Protein, 9.43 „
Ether extract, 8.67 „
Fiber, .47 „
Ash, 1.57 „
Salt, .99 „
Starch and sugar, 73.77 „
In the dry substance:
Protein, 10.18 percent
Ether extract, 9.33 „
Fiber, .53 „
Ash, 1.70 „
Salt, 1.08 „
Starch and sugar, 78.79 „
Calories, 4,755
The above data show that biscuits vary in composition from bread
chiefly in their content of moisture and fat or oil. The moisture, as
is noted, is very low, while the quantity of fat which the biscuit
contains is from 8 to 10 times as great as that contained in flour
from which they are made. The salt content and the mineral ingredients
of the biscuit are often higher than in bread or flour. Inasmuch as a
large quantity of fat and salt are used commonly in the manufacture of
biscuits the presence of these bodies cannot in any sense be regarded
as an adulteration. In forty-eight samples examined only four were free
of notable quantities of added fat. In one case over 16 percent of fat
was found, and as it has been shown that all the fat which is added is
not extracted by ether it is evident that in this case an amount of fat
equal to 20 percent of the weight of the flour may have been used.
It appears, from a study of the composition of biscuits, that it is
advisable to use them as a relish or delicacy for eating with cheese,
etc., in ordinary daily life, while they become almost a necessity in
some form or other in the preparation of emergency rations for marching
armies, on shipboard, in logging camps, etc. It is not advisable to
employ them in the daily diet to the exclusion of bread. Their nutrient
contents have, in comparison with bread, a lower coefficient of
digestibility, due largely to the added fat.
=Amount of Sugar Lost in Fermentation.=--The total quantity of sugar
and other carbohydrates lost in fermentation amounts to about 2 percent
of the weight of flour used. Sometimes it is much greater and sometimes
less than this. The nutritive value of the product is diminished in
proportion to the extent of the loss of sugar. The carbon dioxid
produced during fermentation has no food value, and the alcohol is
largely lost in the form of vapor during the process of baking. About
half the loss is due to carbon dioxid and half to alcohol. The alcohol,
although lost mostly during the baking, serves a useful purpose,--in
the expansion of the vapor it aids the carbon dioxid in making the
bread more porous. The hydrolysis which takes place in baking converts
some of the starch to dextrinoid or saccharoid conditions. It is
evident that from 6 to 8 percent of total starch present in the flour
is changed during the fermentation and baking into more or less soluble
forms.
[Illustration: FIG. 36.--COMPARATIVE APPEARANCE OF BREADS OF DIFFERENT
KINDS.]
=Texture and Size of Loaves Made from Different Kinds Of Flour.=--The
variations in bread and size of loaves made from different kinds of
flour when the conditions of fermentation and baking are the same
depends upon the texture and quantity of the gluten material in the
flour. The difference in the appearance and size of loaves is shown by
a photograph of the cross-sections of three loaves of bread in Fig. 36.
It is seen that the loaves made from graham flour and entire wheat
flour are somewhat coarser in structure and are less in size than those
made from the same quantity of standard patent flour.
MACARONI.
The preparation of wheat flour of a high glutenous character and molded
into various forms, usually tubes, cylindroids, or fine shreds, is
known in the trade under various names such as noodles, spaghetti, and
macaroni. An examination of a number of these bodies shows them to have
the following average composition:
Moisture, 9.66 percent
Protein, 12.02 „
Ether extract, .42 „
Crude fiber, .56 „
Ash, .78 „
Starch and sugar, 77.12 „
In the dry substance:
Protein, 13.33 percent
Ether extract, .47 „
Crude fiber, .62 „
Ash, .86 „
Starch and sugar, 85.34 „
Calories, 4,428
These bodies, it is seen, do not have a composition very different from
that of a first-class bread except in their content of moisture and
protein. They are made from various kinds of wheat, especially hard
wheat which forms a tenacious gluten product well suited to molding
into the different forms which these bodies have. Their nutritive
value is practically the same as that of good wheat bread of the same
moisture content.
=Domestic Macaroni.=--The introduction of varieties of wheat with the
properties suitable for making macaroni has been thoroughly exploited
by the Department of Agriculture. The macaroni wheat grown as a
subvariety is known botanically as _Triticum durum_. The durum wheats
are not regarded as of equal value to the ordinary wheats for general
milling purposes and command a lower price. The French name is Blé dur
and the German name is Hartweizen. The wheat of this subspecies grows
rather tall, having broad, smooth leaves of a whitish green color
and a very hard cuticle. The heads are comparatively slight in most
varieties, compactly formed, and occasionally very short. All the durum
wheat is bearded and the beards are exceptionally long. The kernels
are hard and glassy, often partly translucent. They are generally
yellowish white in color, occasionally inclined to red, and the grains
are generally rather large. In other aspects this wheat resembles
barley and for this reason in Germany it is often called Gerstenweizen.
The general appearance of these wheats both in the field and in the
individual heads is shown in the accompanying figures.
[Illustration: FIG. 37.--A FIELD OF DURUM WHEAT.--(_Courtesy of Bureau
of Plant Industry._)]
[Illustration: FIG. 38.--DROUGHT-RESISTANT MACARONI WHEATS (HEADS AND
GRAINS).
1, Kubanka; 2, Nicaragua; 3, Velvet Don; 4, Black Don; 5, Wild
Goose.--(_Bulletin No. 3, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of
Agriculture._)]
Macaroni wheats are well adapted to semi-arid regions; in fact it
may be said that they are the product of such an environment rather
than adapted to it. For this reason they are wheats which are able to
resist continued dry weather and high temperature. These wheats do not
grow well in acid soils but flourish best in an alkaline soil of fine
texture and well supplied with humus and the necessary plant foods. The
largest quantity of macaroni wheat is grown in east and south Russia.
These wheats have given very good results in the semi-arid regions of
the United States. The appearance of the wheat as it grows in the field
is shown in the accompanying plate.
The domestic macaroni is now made in many factories in the United
States and there is a continually increasing demand for the domestic
article. The hardiest varieties of wheat are used in the manufacture of
this article in the United States, especially the hard Kansas winter
wheat.
_Composition of Domestic Macaroni._--In the table below is given the
mean composition of twenty samples of macaroni of domestic origin, made
from domestic wheat. In the second column is given the mean composition
of five samples of imported macaroni.
DOMESTIC FOREIGN
PRODUCT. PRODUCT.
Moisture, 10.27 10.32
Fat or ether extract, .40 .35
Crude fiber, .49 .53
Protein, 11.61 12.27
Starch and sugar, 76.52 76.10
_Preparation of Flour for Macaroni._--The term Semolina or Semola
(Italian) or Semoule (French) is usually applied to the flour used
in the manufacture of macaroni. In the United States the flour which
is used is obtained by selecting the hardest wheat and preparing the
flour in the usual manner. In France and Italy the preparation of
semolina is accomplished in separate mills. The devices for grinding
are essentially the same as those for producing the best grade flour,
the main difference being that the wheat is moistened slightly before
grinding and the flour is less fine than ordinary baking flour.
Evidently very slight changes in the method of milling would enable the
ordinary mill to produce a fine grade of macaroni flour either from
the macaroni wheat or from any very hard glutinous wheat grown in the
United States.
=Manufacture of Macaroni.=--As practiced in the best districts of
Italy, macaroni is manufactured according to the following method:[27]
[27] Fairchild, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin
25.
The durum wheat is ground into semola and sieved to remove the starchy
part of the grains and leave the clear, light amber, or glutinous part.
Three or four grades of quality are made, and these depend on the size
of the sieve meshes.
The semola is put into a special iron mixer, shaped like an
old-fashioned artillery mortar, except that it is square instead of
cylindrical, and furnished in the bottom with special screw-shaped fans
with which to stir the paste or dough. Boiling water is added to the
semola and the dough is mixed for about seven minutes. The mass is then
put on a flat, circular kneading board and kneaded by two sharp-edged
parallel beams which rise and fall as the table turns and press into
the dough as they descend. A few minutes of kneading are sufficient
and the homogeneous dough is then put into the cylinder and the piston
descends upon the mass, forcing it in strings slowly through the
perforated plate at the bottom. Fifteen minutes are required to convert
the gallons of dough into thousands of feet of yellow macaroni. The
yellow color is produced by the use of saffron or of a coal tar dye of
which a very small quantity is put into each batch of dough. This is a
reprehensible practice.
As soon as the strings of fresh paste which issue continually from
the die are of the proper length they are cut and thrown over a reed
pole and carried into the sunlight, if the weather is fair, or into
sheltered terraces, protected by curtains from the rain, if the weather
is unfavorable. On bright days the strings of macaroni are exposed
to the sunlight only two hours. They must be dried out only slightly
before being cellared for the night in dungeon-like underground vaults
similar to the Bavarian beer cellars.
For twelve hours or more the poles of macaroni are kept in these damp
places, until the dough has become moist and pliable again and the
strings have lost the brittleness that the exposure to the sunlight
has given them. From the cellars the poles are carried to shaded
storehouses open on all sides to the air but not lighted from above.
Here, in great masses of millions of strings, they hang for several
days, from eight to twenty being required, depending upon the dryness
of the atmosphere. According to the statements of a manager of a
factory this process of drying is necessary to give to the brittle
paste a horn-like toughness and fit it to withstand the rough handling
to which it will be subjected without breaking into small pieces.
In all this simple process the one point at which bacteria might have a
chance to play a rôle is in the first drying, cellaring, and subsequent
slow drying in the shade. The theory that the water is responsible for
the flavor must rest, it seems to the writer, on other than bacterial
grounds, for from the appearance of the tank which supplied the hot
water the inference is easy that the water is chalybeate, for the tank
was incrusted with iron.
ROLLS.
The term rolls is given to bread usually leavened with yeast or baking
powder, and usually eaten warm, or hot. The term biscuit is generally
but improperly used in this country for hot bread made with baking
powder. The composition of rolls varies greatly with their method
of preparation. Those made with yeast have practically the same
composition as ordinary fermented bread, while those made with a
baking powder or with exceptionally large additions of milk, butter,
or lard vary in composition accordingly. In the making of hot rolls
with baking powder, lard or butter is commonly used to a very large
extent as “shortening.” These fatty bodies render the gluten less
tenacious, and the roll is thus easily broken and is without toughness
or elasticity. Owing to this irregular use of shortening and of mineral
matter, including salt, the composition of rolls of commerce is
extremely variable. In eleven samples of rolls analyzed, for instance,
the content of moisture varied from 7 to 34. Evidently the sample sold
as a roll which contained only 7 percent of moisture was in point of
fact a biscuit and not a roll. The percentage of ether extract in these
samples varied from .43 to 7.55. The average composition of the eleven
samples is as follows:
Moisture, 27.98 percent
Protein, 7.48 „
Ether extract, 3.41 „
Crude fiber, .60 „
Ash, 1.31 „
Salt, .69 „
Starch and sugar, 59.82 „
In the dry substance:
Protein, 10.46 percent
Ether extract, 4.74 „
Crude fiber, .77 „
Ash, 1.81 „
Salt, .81 „
Starch and sugar, 82.99 „
Calories, 4,538
CAKES.
Wheat flour is one of the principal constituents of that class of
sweetened bread known generally as cake. The kind and character of
cake vary so greatly that no general statement of any very great value
can be made respecting the average composition. In addition to the
sugar and flour which are used in the manufacture of cake various
flavoring ingredients or essences are employed, and usually excessive
quantities of butter or lard for shortening purposes. In addition to
this, other forms of cake are cooked in oil after the dough is made,
thus adding an additional quantity of fatty matter to the material.
Eggs are also a common constituent of cakes and these introduce into
their composition additional quantities of protein and fat. Baking
powder is very generally used in this country instead of yeast for the
leavening of the cake and thus an additional quantity of mineral matter
is introduced into their composition.
In the manufacture of sweetened cakes the flour is mixed with eggs and
sugar and butter or lard to the proper consistency with or without
the use of milk or cream. The cakes are baked in all kinds of sizes
and shapes and may be eaten plain or in layers separated by a jelly,
marmalade, or some other preserve. The exterior of the cake is often
frosted with a mixture consisting of the white of egg beaten up with
white sugar. The methods of mixing the ingredients of these cakes as
well as the method of frosting are so various that it would not be
possible to undertake any minute description of them.
For flavoring various materials are employed, either the real article
or the imitation thereof, such as artificial strawberry, vanilla, etc.
The cake or sweet cake is a very common dainty which is served at
dessert. The ordinary cane sugar of commerce is the common sweetening
matter usually employed in the refined state although sometimes yellow
sugar is used. Honey is not so commonly used as a sweetening agent in
this country as it is in European countries.
In the manufacture of one of the common varieties known as ginger cake
sugar-cane sirup or molasses is a common ingredient.
An examination of a large number of samples of cake shows the following
average composition:
Moisture, 11.65 percent
Protein, 6.29 „
Ether extract, 9.81 „
Crude fiber, 0.50 „
Ash, 1.17 „
Salt, 0.39 „
Sugar, 24.57 „
Starch, 46.01 „
In the dry substance:
Protein, 7.29 percent
Ether extract, 11.41 „
Crude fiber, 0.57 „
Ash, 1.30 „
Salt, 0.44 „
Sugar, 27.84 „
Starch, 51.59 „
Calories, 4,805
A study of the individual data shows extremely wide variations from the
mean. The ether extract in the moisture samples in some cases amounted
to over 19 percent and in the dry substance to over 24 percent. The
moisture in one case was over 64 percent while in the dry cake of
biscuit character it sinks below 5 percent and in one case below 4
percent. The average data, therefore, are to be considered only as
a representative of this class of bodies and not as a type of any
particular variety.
=Adulterations.=--It is difficult to speak of adulterations of a
substance of the composition of cake. Any wholesome flavoring or
sweetening ingredient or other wholesome ingredient may be used in the
manufacture of a cake of this kind without being an adulterant. From
this class of bodies, however, there is excluded artificial colors
and artificial flavoring essences bearing the name of genuine. A
yellow cake which does not owe its color to the eggs or other normal
ingredients employed must be regarded as an adulterated article,
especially if the dye used in producing the yellow is one of the coal
dyes or coal tar derivatives such as naphthol yellow. The use of
imitation fruit flavors such as the so-called strawberry, blackberry,
raspberry, vanilla, etc., is also to be regarded as an adulteration.
The adulteration of cakes may be regarded as confined particularly to
these two classes of article assuming that all the other ingredients
are wholesome and without injurious effects upon the digestion. The
eggs used in cake making should be fresh and palatable. Too often passé
storage eggs and eggs broken and preserved with borax or formaldehyde
and unfit for consumption have been used by the bakers of cakes.
Mineral coloring matters have sometimes been found in cakes and
these are more objectionable by far than the artificial colors above
mentioned. Where molasses from sugar-cane factories is used in the
manufacture of cake a considerable trace of chlorid of tin or of
zinc salts may be found therein, derived from the wash used in the
centrifugal when drying sugar crystals or from the process of bleaching
the molasses. This must be regarded as a very serious adulteration and
molasses of this kind should never be used in the manufacture of cake
nor for edible purposes upon the table. Sulfurous acid may also be
absorbed during the process of bleaching the sugar-cane juices.
It is needless to add that cake with its complex character should be
eaten as a relish rather than a diet. There is no hygienic or dietetic
objection to the mixture of sugar with the flour in the making of
ordinary sweetened bread. Such bread must be regarded as highly
nutritious and as differing from ordinary bread only in a disturbance
of the natural food content of the loaf caused by the addition of a
carbohydrate to the bread. Many of the cakes which are sold contain
so small a quantity of sugar that they ought not to be classed with
the sweet cake. Out of the whole number of samples used in the making
up of the above average only four contained so little sugar as to be
ineligible to bear the name of sweet cake or sweetened bread.
=Breakfast Foods.=--A very large variety of cereal preparations
are on the market under the general name of breakfast foods. These
preparations are made directly from the cereals more or less completely
ground by subjecting them to certain manipulations of a fermentative or
culinary character by means of which the preparations are made ready
for immediate consumption or at least with only a moderate degree of
additional cooking. The changes which take place in the preparation
of cereals for breakfast foods are of two general characters, namely,
those produced by fermentative action with malt, yeast, or other
ferments, and, second, changes produced by heating, either in the
moist or dry state. Often both sets of changes are produced in the
same product. The general difference, therefore, between a so-called
breakfast food and the raw material from which it is made is found in
the conversion of more or less starch into sugar and the change in the
composition of the material produced by moist heat or dry heat. In the
latter case the temperature may be raised to the state of considerable
caramelization.
Breakfast foods may also contain added condimental substances, such
as salt, sugar, etc., sometimes used in their preparation. Nearly all
the cereals or mixtures of cereals are represented in these prepared
foods. Oats probably occupy the first rank and the preparations of
oatmeal have to a large extent in the United States taken the place
of home-prepared oatmeal for the breakfast table. Wheat, barley, and
Indian corn are not far behind oats in their contributions to the
numerous varieties of breakfast foods.
The particular methods of preparation are usually trade secrets and at
any rate the description of the extensive technical processes would be
improper in this manual. The secrets, however, are merely methods of
manipulation, since it is certain that the changes of a chemical nature
which take place are of the general character or class described above.
Breakfast foods are usually sold under trade-mark names which may or
may not give an indication of their origin or character. Sometimes, in
fact, the trade name gives a false indication and the use of such trade
names must be considered as entirely reprehensible. Whenever a name
used is descriptive it should be used in a practical sense and not for
the purpose of misleading or deceiving. Breakfast foods may represent
practically the whole grain or the grain with a removal of a proportion
of the outer covering or they may represent the refined flour from
which all or a considerable proportion of the germ and some of the rich
nitrogenous ingredients have been removed.
The attempt to give a list of the names which have been applied to
breakfast foods would consume many pages and be of little value.
=Composition of Breakfast Foods.=--In so far as possible the breakfast
foods noted in the following tables have been arranged in accordance
with the raw material from which they have been produced and the data
given represent the average composition of breakfast foods of the
classes mentioned. Individual variations from the average are often
very great.
Class I.--Breakfast foods made from Indian corn products.
Class II.--Breakfast foods made from wheat products.
Class III.--Breakfast foods made from oat products.
Class IV.--Breakfast foods made from starch and tapioca.
Class V.--Breakfast foods made from noodles, spaghetti, and
macaroni.
Class VI.--Breakfast foods made from barley.
Class VII.--Breakfast foods of miscellaneous origin, that is
consisting of those compounds of raw material not
specified.
COMPOSITION OF BREAKFAST FOODS.[28]
ETHER
MOIS- PRO- EX-
TURE. TEIDS. TRACT. FIBER.
CLASS I, _Indian Corn Products:_
_Perct._ _Perct._ _Perct._ _Perct._
In the original substance, 12.33 7.92 0.58 0.67
In the dry substance, .. 9.02 0.66 0.76
CLASS II, _Wheat Products:_
In the original substance, 10.08 12.01 1.80 1.48
In the dry substance, .. 13.36 2.01 1.65
CLASS III, _Oat Products:_
In the original substance, 7.66 15.32 7.46 1.20
In the dry substance, .. 16.60 8.08 1.38
CLASS IV, _Starch and Tapioca Products:_
In the original substance, 11.29 .39 .03 .13
In the dry substance, .. .43 .04 .15
CLASS V, _Noodles, Spaghetti and Macaroni:_
In the original substance, 9.66 12.02 .42 .56
In the dry substance, .. 13.33 .47 .62
CLASS VI, _Barley Products:_
In the original substance, 10.92 7.50 .89 .67
In the dry substance, .. 8.42 1.00 .75
CLASS VII, _Miscellaneous Products:_
In the original substance, 6.41 12.81 1.05 .99
In the dry substance, .. 13.68 1.12 1.04
STARCH
AND CALORIES.
ASH. SUGAR. Per Gram.
CLASS I, _Indian Corn Products:_
_Perct._ _Perct._
In the original substance, 0.66 78.51 ..
In the dry substance, 0.75 98.57 4385
CLASS II, _Wheat Products:_
In the original substance, 1.55 75.62 ..
In the dry substance, 16.73 84.08 4462
CLASS III, _Oat Products:_
In the original substance, 1.79 67.61 ..
In the dry substance, 1.94 73.20 4875
CLASS IV, _Starch and Tapioca Products:_
In the original substance, .14 88.15 ..
In the dry substance, .16 99.37 4193
CLASS V, _Noodles, Spaghetti and Macaroni:_
In the original substance, .78 77.12 ..
In the dry substance, .86 85.34 4428
CLASS VI, _Barley Products:_
In the original substance, .86 80.35 ..
In the dry substance, .97 90.19 4344
CLASS VII, _Miscellaneous Products:_
In the original substance, 1.06 78.68 ..
In the dry substance, 1.13 84.07 4449
[28] U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Chemistry, Bull. 13, Part IX, p.
1345.
=Remarks on Table of Analyses.=--
_Class I, Indian Corn Products._--The analytical data show that in
the breakfast foods made from Indian corn products the germ has been
quite uniformly removed. The quantity of fiber also shows that the
maize flour produced has been very carefully bolted. The ash is almost
normal, showing only a small addition, probably of salt. The mean
quantity of protein is that which would be predicted of an Indian
corn product ground by the most approved milling process in order to
make as white a flour as possible. These methods of preparing the
flour, although so common, are not to be preferred either by reason of
palatability or nutritive properties of the products. The old-fashioned
milling process makes a more palatable and more nutritious diet and
affords a higher degree of heat and energy.
The analysis of the Indian corn products show that they are very much
lower in protein than would be expected from an analysis of the whole
kernels. The low content of fat in the products is doubtless due to
the complete degermination of the grain during the milling and to the
further fact that the baking and other preparation of the material tend
to occlude the fat particles, making their extraction quite difficult.
_Class II, Wheat Products._--The study of wheat products used as
breakfast foods shows that the wheat germ is not removed to any very
great extent during the preparation of the raw material. In fact the
quantity of ether extract appears somewhat greater than would be
expected in pure wheat products, and this leads to the supposition
that oatmeal or Indian corn must be mixed with the food product
in small quantities, since the ether extract in the case of wheat
products is more than three times as great as in the case of Indian
corn products of a similar character. This is an indication either of
the use of mechanical methods as stated above or else to the admixture
of other bodies without mention. There does not appear to have been
any notable quantity of mineral substance, common salt or otherwise,
added during the process of preparation. The quantity of protein in the
product is that which would be predicted from the composition of wheat
flour from which the samples are supposed to be made.
_Class III, Oat Products._--The oat products have evidently been made
without any extensive degermination, as is shown by the high content of
fat or oil. The average composition of oat products shows that genuine
oatmeal is used in their preparation and the probability is that little
adulteration is practiced. The high content of oil and protein produces
a corresponding depression in the quantity of carbohydrates. The high
nutritive value of the product, both in respect of fat and of proteins,
is fully illustrated by the analytical data obtained. The calories, as
will be noticed, are very much higher than in the corresponding product
from Indian corn, wheat, or in fact of any other of the breakfast foods.
_Class IV, Products made of starch and tapioca_ show, in the analytical
data, that very high-grade starch materials are employed in the
preparation of these bodies. The protein, ether extract, fiber, and ash
almost disappear. As shown in the data for the dry substance, more than
99 percent of the whole material consists of carbohydrates, chiefly
starch. The calories are correspondingly diminished since starch and
sugar have the least heat value of any class of food products, except
those of a mineral character. Foods of this kind are highly unbalanced,
that is, contain a large excess of starch and sugar, and are often very
prejudicial to the health of persons whose ability to digest starch and
sugar has been lessened by disease.
_Class V, Noodles, spaghetti, and macaroni_ are often used as breakfast
foods, though not by any means so universally as many others in this
category. The analytical data show that these bodies correspond very
well to the material, that is to the flour, rich in gluten, from
which they are supposed to be made. The protein content is high,--the
ether extract, fiber, and ash low, and the calories correspond to the
chemical composition of the material.
_Class VI, Barley Products._--Barley products are not very commonly
used as breakfast foods, but the malt used in the preparation of other
breakfast foods is usually made of barley, since the barley malt has
the highest diastatic value of any of the cereals.
_Class VII, Miscellaneous breakfast foods_ are so called because the
character of the materials of which they are made is not known or no
statement is made by the manufacturer or dealer concerning them. The
analytical data, of course, do not lead to any decision regarding
the nature of the raw material employed. The percentage of protein,
however, taken in conjunction with the rather low ether extract,
indicates that they are probably made chiefly from wheat products.
Much may be said in favor of the use of prepared breakfast foods,
for, in so far as I know, they are usually palatable, wholesome, and
nutritious. There are many points which may be urged against their
general use, chief of which is in regard to their cost. There is no
cereal now in general use for edible purposes which is worth as much
as two cents per pound in the markets of this country, yet breakfast
foods, which are only prepared cereals, are often sold for 10 or 15
cents per pound. This is a high price in comparison with the cost
of the raw material, but it must not be forgotten that the cost of
manufacture is to be considered. In the second place the cereal foods
are undoubtedly best at the moment they are prepared. Unless carefully
packed, they may become infected with insects of various kinds, which
certainly add nothing to their value and detract very much from their
desirability. In moist climates they become infested with mould and
even with bacterial growths. Inasmuch as necessarily a large proportion
of the prepared cereals remain for an indefinite time unsold, the
consumer is liable at any time to come into possession of one of these
deteriorated packages. In the third place there is no reason to believe
that a prepared breakfast food is any more digestible, nutritious,
or favorable to the health of the healthy individual than the broken
cereal itself properly cooked. Further than this it may be stated that
there is no preparation of cereals better than those which are freshly
made from the freshly broken or ground grain. If, therefore, one has
the time to properly prepare the fresh grains of the cereals they will
be more palatable and more nutritious and equally as digestible as
any of the prepared articles. On the other hand, there are cases of
diseased or disordered digestion in which the prepared cereals will
be more digestible, but this is certainly not the case in a state
of health. There is reason to believe, therefore, that the demand
for prepared cereals will continue, but the old-fashioned method of
preparation of the cereal from the grain will still have its advocates.
I think it may be said with certainty that the proper home preparation
of a cereal as a breakfast food will not cost any more than the
original cereal itself, and hence the price of this food ought not to
be much more than 4 cents per pound without counting the added water in
its preparation.
I believe, therefore, that our people of limited means can be safely
advised on the score of economy, palatability, and nutrition to prepare
their own cereals for ordinary breakfast purposes.