----------------------------------------_Foods and Their Adulteration Origin, Manufacture, and Composition of Food Products; Description of Common Adulterations, Food Standards, and National Food Laws and Regulations

COMPOSITION OF ORIGINAL MATERIAL.

+--------+--------+--------+

| | | |

+ | | |

| | | |

| | Sodium | |

DESCRIPTION. | Ash. |chlorid.| Total. |

---------------------------+--------+--------+--------+

|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|

Sliced Star ham, | 3.86 | 3.29 | 97.60 |

Boneless ham, | 5.43 | 4.34 | 97.54 |

Gold Band sliced ham, | 5.03 | 4.10 | 98.07 |

Boneless cooked ham, | 4.33 | 3.66 | 98.25 |

Prosciutto Scelto in Fette,| 8.37 | 7.51 | 97.38 |

Lunch ham, | 3.84 | 3.08 | 98.26 |

Huckins sandwich ham, | 1.75 | .. | 99.79 |

Ham, “Coin Special,” | 3.55 | 2.39 | 99.09 |

Sliced Star bacon, | 15.02 | 13.28 | 96.28 |

Beechnut bacon, | 19.90 | 17.84 | 99.63 |

Sliced breakfast bacon, | 3.06 | 2.37 | 99.41 |

Gold Band sliced bacon, | 2.57 | 2.27 | 98.55 |

Fresh pork, rib and loin, | .78 | Tr. | 98.88 |

---------------------------+--------+--------+--------+

---------------------------+-----------------------------------

| COMPOSITION OF DRY MATERIAL.

+--------+--------+--------+--------

| | | |

| Protein| | |

| (N × | | | Sodium

DESCRIPTION. | 6.25). | Fat. | Ash. |chlorid.

---------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------

|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._

Sliced Star ham, | 23.00 | 68.01 | 6.87 | 5.85

Boneless ham, | 50.19 | 36.06 | 11.63 | 9.29

Gold Band sliced ham, | 34.06 | 57.58 | 9.72 | 7.93

Boneless cooked ham, | 32.38 | 59.17 | 7.40 | 6.26

Prosciutto Scelto in Fette,| 30.12 | 56.60 | 13.24 | 11.88

Lunch ham, | 38.81 | 53.26 | 6.48 | 5.19

Huckins sandwich ham, | 20.13 | 77.77 | 2.76 | ..

Ham, “Coin Special,” | 37.37 | 53.77 | 7.23 | 4.86

Sliced Star bacon, | 49.31 | 32.82 | 17.74 | 15.69

Beechnut bacon, | 44.06 | 36.35 | 24.44 | 21.91

Sliced breakfast bacon, | 8.44 | 87.13 | 3.86 | 2.99

Gold Band sliced bacon, | 10.87 | 85.60 | 3.20 | 2.83

Fresh pork, rib and loin, | 27.87 | 70.25 | 1.62 | Tr.

---------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------

=Adulteration of Canned Ham and Bacon.=--From the above data it is seen

that the products are probably true to name, and are actually ham and

bacon. The principal adulterations which are found in these articles

are preservatives and coloring matters. The coloring matter usually

found is saltpeter which, in one instance, was present in quantities

of one-tenth of one percent and the average quantity found was

one-twentieth of one percent. Saltpeter is not used as a preservative,

although it is often claimed by packers that such is the case. In the

minute quantities in which it is employed it has little or no effect as

a preservative if, indeed, it could be deemed a germicidal substance.

The principal preservative which is found is boric acid. In fourteen

cases examined, however, only two contained this preservative, which

shows that there is no necessity for its use on any occasion. Under

the new meat inspection law all meat products prepared for interstate

and foreign commerce are packed under direct supervision of the

Department of Agriculture, and contain no harmful color and no chemical

preservative.

=Canned Tongue.=--Several varieties of canned tongue are found upon

the market known as ox tongue, lamb tongue, luncheon tongue, etc. The

tongues of calves, steers, sheep, lambs, and swine are the ones which

are usually canned, and they may be previously pickled before canning.

The average composition of the canned tongue upon the market is shown

from the following data based upon the examination of seventeen samples:

Water, 55.17 percent

Fat, 20.23 „

Protein, 19.43 „

Meat bases, 1.23 „

Glycogen, .24 „

Total ash, 3.71 „

Of which common salt, 2.90 „

The data show that in the canning of tongue a large quantity of fat is

present, more than the true part of the tongue contains. Nearly all of

the samples examined contained saltpeter, the largest quantity found

being .15 percent.

=Adulteration of Canned Tongue.=--It is not probable that any meat,

except the tongue itself, is used for canning, but the contents may

not be true to name. The fat dressing employed is not specified, and

probably its character and amount rest alone with the ideas of the

manufacturer relative thereto. Presumably the fat should be of the same

animal as the tongue. A critical examination of the fat will, however,

reveal whether or not this is the case.

Saltpeter is the most common adulteration, and is used solely to

impart or preserve the red color of the fresh meat. Boric acid is also

occasionally employed. One of the samples contained boric acid.

Without inspection of the process of manufacture, it is not possible

to be assured of the sanitary conditions of the meats which are sold

as canned tongue and also of the sanitary conditions of the canning

itself. These are all matters of the highest importance to the

consumer, and should be attested by proper inspection certificates.

Under the new meat law only the proper articles can be certified by the

officials in charge of inspection.

=Examination of Fat as a Test for Adulterations.=--It is evident, from

what has already been said, that the character of the fats which are

used in the canning of preserved meats is not always the same as that

of the meat to which they are added. A careful study has been made in

the Bureau of Chemistry of the fats extracted from different canned

meats. The chemical and physical characteristics of these fats are

given in the following table:

-------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------------

-------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------------

| C.° | C.° | | C.° |

beef, |36.5-43.9|27.8-37.0|36.1-50.6|35.6-36.0| 47.0-55.5

beef, |37.7-41.8|22.0-29.0|50.9-57.5| .. | 51.0-58.5

and bacon, |23.6-30.5|17.5-24.0|48.5-68.2|39.8-43.5| 49.0-58.2

Fowl, |28.0-34.0|12.0-36.5|67.0-86.4|38.9-52.0| 49.0-62.5

-------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------------

It has been noticed that the crystals deposited by the evaporation

of the ether solution of chicken fat resemble beef stearin in shape,

but are much smaller and more delicate. It is seen that the melting

point of fat in ham and bacon is rather lower than in leaf lard. It is

evident, therefore, that this fat is not lard or, at least, not wholly

composed of the best lard, but probably consists of the fat not usually

employed for lard making.

=Potted Meats.=--There is found on the market a large number of

varieties of potted meat. It is difficult to describe in any scientific

way these potted meats because the term “potted” is employed by all

manufacturers to describe a mixture of a great many different articles,

the exact composition of which is usually a trade secret. There is,

apparently, an understanding among manufacturers that the labels of

potted goods are not intended in any way to indicate the variety of

meat or principal meats contained in the package. In the absence of any

trade, sanitary, or chemical standard it is difficult to make any just

criticism of the character of the potted goods upon the market.

The principal object of mentioning them here is to inform the consumer

of the probable character of the potted goods which he may consume, and

to let him understand that it is by no means certain that the name of

the meat upon the label describes the character of the meat which he

is actually eating. The chief object in the manufacture of potted meat

is to make a supply of uniform character and consistency, and properly

spiced and flavored to attract and hold the patronage of the consumer.

A certain degree of consistency is established by each manufacturer

for each variety of potted goods made, and to obtain this consistence

more or less fat meat of some kind is added. It may thus be of some

advantage to add the fat of pork rather than the fat of beef or

mixtures of the two. It is claimed by many manufacturers that a single

kind of meat does not give the desired flavor in potted and deviled

goods. Therefore, meats of different origin are finely ground and mixed

together, and a sufficient quantity of oil or fat added to secure the

required physical consistence. For this reason cured meats, such as

beef and pork, are often preferred for making potted and deviled meats

because of the agreeable flavor and aroma which they impart thereto.

These meats are therefore used in potting, although they cost more

than corresponding quantities of fresh meat. In a character of goods

so variegated as these it is impossible to lay down any rule which may

guide the consumer in his choice. The widest latitude is left to the

manufacturer, and the only real protection is in a strict inspection

of the factory or factories where such goods are made. It is there

only that the character of the materials employed and the quality of

the condiments or other substances added can be determined. The day

is doubtless rapidly approaching when consumers will be perfectly

protected in this matter, and when no canned, potted, or deviled meats

of any description will be allowed to enter into commerce without

bearing the certificate of competent inspection officers as to the kind

of meats used, their sanitary character, etc.

Potted meats should always be carefully sterilized and the contents of

the tins should be consumed as soon as possible after they are opened.

=Potted Beef.=--Potted beef, more than any other product bearing the

label of potted, corresponds more closely to the character of the

meat named on its label. Of four samples of commercially potted beef

examined in the Bureau of Chemistry only one appeared to contain any

other meat than beef. The composition of the potted beef is shown in

the table on page 53.

=Adulteration of Potted Beef.=--From the average data given above it

is seen that the principal adulteration in potted beef, assuming that

the meat is beef, is starch. Two of the four samples contained starch,

one more than 14 percent and one more than 11 percent. The admixture

of starch is evidently solely for fraudulent purposes, to increase the

weight and bulk with a very much cheaper substance and one for which

no necessity for the addition can be claimed. It also increases the

quantity of water which the product will carry. Saltpeter was found

in one of the four samples and boric acid in two. One of the samples

contained a large quantity of tin, due probably to the action of the

potted meat upon the tin lining of the can.

=Potted Deviled Meats.=--The term “deviled meat” is applied to a

mixture of finely ground meat with spices, condiments, and other

substances, and, like the term “potted,” is used rather to indicate a

miscellaneous mixture than any single compound.

All that has been said respecting the composition of potted meat

applies with equal force to deviled meat. If there be any difference

at all it is understood by the term deviled that the spices and

condiments are more pronounced in character and greater in quantity

and the miscellaneous character of the goods more pronounced. Under

the terms of “deviled” and “potted” may be found every kind of mixed

and miscellaneous finely comminuted meat, flavored with all kinds of

condimental substances and prepared so as to appeal as strongly as

possible to the taste and desire of the consumer.

COMPOSITION OF POTTED BEEF.

-----+---------------------------------------------

| COMPOSITION OF ORIGINAL MATERIAL.

+--------+--------+--------+-----------------+

| | | +--------+--------+

| | | | | |

SAM- | | sub- | | | Meat |

-----+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|

| | | | | |

1, | 28.24 | 50.33 | 43.89 | 3.76 | 0.56 |

2, | 51.80 | 64.40 | 19.58 | ... | ... |

3, | 54.92 | 62.20 | 12.70 | 2.87 | .64 |

4, | 65.51 | 72.92 | 10.26 | 3.14 | .42 |

-----+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

---------------------------------------------------------------------

COMPOSITION OF ORIGINAL MATERIAL.

+-----------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+

+--------+--------+--------+--------+ | | |

| | | noids | | | gen, | |

SAM- | (N × | in hot | by | Meat | | mate- | Salt- |

-----+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|

| | | | | | | |

1, | 23.50 | 19.50 | 0.50 | 1.75 | ... | 0.32 | 0.05 |

2, | ... | ... | ... | ... | 14.26 | ... | ... |

3, | 17.94 | 12.88 | 1.06 | 2.00 | 11.56 | .22 | ... |

4, | 19.62 | 15.06 | 1.94 | 1.31 | ... | .25 | ... |

-----+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

-----------------------------------------------------+

COMPOSITION OF ORIGINAL MATERIAL.

+--------+--------+---------+----------+--------+

| | | | | |

| | | per | | |

-----+--------+--------+---------+----------+--------+

|_P. ct._|_P. ct._| _Milli- | |_P. ct._|

1, | 3.31 | 2.43 |Tin 145.1| None | 97.24 |

2, | ... | ... | ... ... |Boric acid| ... |

3, | 4.50 | ... | ... ... | do | 99.69 |

4, | 2.30 | ... | ... ... | None | 96.44 |

-----+--------+--------+---------+----------+--------+

-----+-----------------------------------

| COMPOSITION OF DRY MATERIAL.

+--------+--------+--------+--------

| | | |

| Protein| | |

SAM- | (N × | | | Sodium

PLES.| 6.25). | Fat. | Ash. |chlorid.

-----+--------+--------+--------+--------

|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._

| | | |

1, | 32.75 | 61.19 | 4.61 | 3.39

2, | ... | 40.62 | ... | ...

3, | 39.81 | 28.17 | 9.98 | ...

4, | 36.88 | 29.75 | 6.67 | ...

-----+--------+--------+--------+--------

It may be said, in connection with these goods, that there is no

objection whatever to their manufacture and sale provided the meat

used in their preparation is sound and sanitary, the conditions of

manufacture clean and free of infection, and provided the fraudulent

additions for the purpose of increasing bulk and weight are excluded,

together with injurious preservatives and coloring matters, such as

borax, saltpeter, sulfite of soda, etc.

Potted and deviled are not the only terms, however, which are used to

express miscellaneous mixtures of meat products. The term “pâtés” is

also employed for a large class of goods, among which the principal

ones are the familiar pâté de foie gras, which should be made largely

of fatty goose livers.

=Composition of Pâtés.=--The result of the examination of large

quantities of pâtés in the Bureau of Chemistry indicates that they

are made up principally of the meat of beef and pork. It is not quite

certain in any case that the highly prized livers of fat geese have

been employed at all to any considerable extent. There are no forms of

comminuted meats of any description which are so objectionable in name

as those that are sold under the name of pâtés, especially when they

are ascribed to a particular composition, as is the case with pâté de

foie gras. As has been remarked before, there is certainly no objection

to the manufacture of these mixtures, but misleading statements

concerning them are to be condemned. The manufacturer and consumer of

pâté de foie gras should establish some standard of the percentage of

goose livers which they should contain, and each package should be

accompanied by an official certification that it has been inspected and

found to be up to the standard. It is only in this way that the public

can be protected against fraud and imposition. Where no descriptive

word at all is used with the word pâté there is no reasonable limit

to be placed upon the kind of meat used, provided it is of a sound

and sanitary character. The term pâté itself means a mixture and,

therefore, it is no deception and imposition upon the public to sell a

pâté of a miscellaneous character, provided it does not bear any false

statement regarding origin or character.

The mean composition of forty-three samples of pâtés and purées is

found in the following data:

Water, 45.87 percent

Water in fat-free substance, 71.18 „

Fat, 35.41 „

Protein, 11.92 „

Meat bases, .82 „

Starch, 7.44 „

Total ash, 2.88 „

Of which sodium chlorid, .97 „

From the above data it is seen that the pâtés are characterized by

a very high percentage of fat and a correspondingly low percentage

of protein. A very large majority of the samples examined contained

starch, the highest quantity found being 15.80 percent. Only two of the

samples were found to contain saltpeter; six contained boric acid and

three benzoic acid. Tin and zinc were found in a few cases.

=Principal Adulterations of Mixed, Miscellaneous, Potted, Deviled,

and Comminuted Meats.=--As has been observed in the analyses of the

commercial articles which have been submitted it is evident that

no detection of the adulteration of these minced meats with impure

fragmentary, diseased, or unwholesome articles is possible in so far

as chemical analysis is concerned. A microscopic analysis also often

fails to reveal the true character of the meats which have been used

in the preparation of these bodies. Hence the adulteration of these

bodies with diseased, unwholesome, unfit, and unsanitary meats cannot

be controlled nor even positively affirmed after the meats are prepared

and canned. Such adulterations are doubtless frequent and are the most

objectionable. The only protection to the consumer is in a certificate

of inspection before preparation and packing. The consumer, by refusing

to purchase such comminuted meats in the absence of such a certificate,

would soon compel the manufacturer to secure official inspection and

certification of his products.

=Adulteration with Starch.=--One of the chief adulterants in sausages

and prepared meats is starch. It has been said by some hygienists

that starch is not an objectionable adulterant on hygienic grounds.

This, however, is not strictly true. The injection of large quantities

of starch into meat tends to unbalance a ration which is fixed with

certain quantities of other food and tends to increase the proportion

of starchy matter therein. There are many conditions of disordered

digestion in which such increases of starch, unknown to the physician

or patient or even known, are highly objectionable. Hence the use

of starch as an adulterant in meat of this kind is reprehensible on

hygienic grounds. The principal purpose for using starch is deception.

Starch increases the bulk and weight of goods, and, in the process of

cooking, prevents undue shrinkage. The consumer, therefore, thinks that

he has secured a larger quantity and better quality of meat than he

really has, and is, to this extent, defrauded and deceived.

=Preservatives.=--The preservatives which are principally used in

meat are borax, boric acid, sulfite of soda, and benzoic acid. All of

these preservatives have been shown, by researches in the Bureau of

Chemistry, to be deleterious to health. They should be rigidly excluded

from all meat as well as other food products.

=Coloring Matter.=--Dyes are frequently used for coloring sausage and

other minced meats. All such dyeing materials are reprehensible, both

on account of the danger to health and deception. Preserved meats

gradually lose the natural red tint of the fresh meat, and to that

extent the color is an index of the time during which they have been

preserved. Inasmuch as consumers prefer fresh meats preserved as short

a time as possible, they are deceived and to that extent injured by the

use of dyestuffs which impart to preserved meats a fresh appearance.

=Indirect Coloring Matter.=--Certain chemicals, which of themselves

have no color, serve to fix and hold, or even accentuate, the natural

color of meat. The two principal chemicals used for this purpose

are saltpeter and sulfite of soda. Saltpeter is used generally in

preserved meats to retain and accentuate the red color thereof. Sulfite

of soda is used principally on fresh meats, where it acts both as a

preservative and as a retainer of color. Sprinkled over the freshly

cut surface of fresh meat, sulfite of soda preserves the red tint, and

the customer thinks it has just been cut. In this way he is deceived.

Both of these substances are highly objectionable not only on account

of deception but on account of being injurious to health. In the case

of saltpeter, the general opinion concerning its therapeutic action is

that it is not a proper substance to mix with foods. It would be highly

desirable on the part of the packer, if he deemed it necessary to use

bodies of this kind, to plainly state upon each package the character

and quantity of preservatives and coloring matter employed. The

consumer is then left to judge for himself whether or not he desires to

eat these bodies.

The principal objection to notifications of this kind is that the

consumer, not being an expert as a rule, cannot form any intelligent

opinion respecting the desirability of these substances in food. He is

more apt to be guided by common practice in this matter and by his own

opinion than by any general principles of chemistry and hygiene.

=Potted Tongue.=--The term “potted tongue” may apply equally to tongue

of a single character, such as beef, lamb, pork, or swine, or the

mixture thereof. The examinations which have been made of the potted

tongues of commerce do not indicate whether they are of a single

character or whether the tongues are derived from a variety of sources.

The mean composition of twenty-one samples bought in the open market,

as found in the Bureau of Chemistry, is given in the following table:

Water, 52.50 percent

Water in the fat-free substance, 67.67 „

Fat, 22.99 „

Protein, 17.80 „

Meat bases, .75 „

Total ash, 5.46 „

_Adulteration of Potted Tongue._--In the samples examined above starch

was found in four cases, the largest amount being 11.6 percent.

Saltpeter was found in eighteen cases, the largest amount being .06

percent. Tin was present in thirteen cases and zinc in eight cases.

Boric acid was found in fourteen cases.

From the above it is evident that the principal adulterations in

potted tongue, aside from the use of meats which are not tongue, and

which chemical analysis cannot disclose, are the addition of starch,

saltpeter, tin, and zinc, the two latter derived either from the solder

or from the can in which the goods are placed.

=Canned Poultry.=--Other fresh meats, in addition to beef and pork, are

canned in a fresh state. In the case of poultry the fowls are dressed

and drawn and the whole carcass boiled until the meat is sufficiently

cooked to facilitate the separation from the bones. The bones are then

removed and the meat is canned and sterilized by practically the same

method as practiced with canned beef. Game and wild fowl meats are also

subjected to the same process of canning as the domesticated chickens,

geese, ducks, turkeys, etc. In general it may be said that there are no

differences in the processes employed, but the important question to

the consumer is the character of the raw materials used, the sanitary

conditions which attended their preparation, and their freedom from

admixtures of other meats cheaper in price and of different dietetic

values.

=Adulteration of Canned Fresh Meat.=--Fortunately the process of

sterilization is of such a character, when properly carried out, as to

exclude all necessity for the addition of any preservative substances

to canned fresh meat. The use of ordinary condimental substances in

moderate quantities cannot be regarded as an adulteration. Hence, the

addition of small quantities of salt, sugar, vinegar, and the ordinary

spices, when used solely for the improvement of the taste and flavor

and not for preservative purposes, is regarded as unobjectionable.

The common preservatives used in canned meat are, first, those which

give color to the meat and preserve its natural red tint. For this

purpose saltpeter and sulfite of soda are most commonly employed. Red

dyes of any description are rarely, if ever, found. The preservative

which is used most frequently in canned meat is borax or boric acid.

That this use is not necessary is evident from the investigations which

have been made in the Bureau of Chemistry which show that in most

cases no preservatives at all are used. The addition of any chemical

preservative is, therefore, to be regarded as unnecessary and as an

adulteration.

The use of any diseased, tainted, decomposed, or filthy meat, even if

it is of the same origin as that in the can, is an adulteration of the

most serious character and which can only be effectually controlled

by the inspection mentioned above. The adulteration of the meat of

fowls of all descriptions by cheaper meats, such as pork or veal, even

if they be of wholesome and sound character, is an adulteration said

to be often practiced and one which it is difficult to detect if the

particles of meat are finely comminuted.

=Standard for Preserved Meats.=--The standard for preserved meat is the

same as that for fresh meat which is given in the Appendix (Circular

19, Office of Secretary, Department of Agriculture). The meat must be

sound, wholesome, clean, freshly taken from the slaughtered animal, and

not one that has died from disease, suffocation, or otherwise, and must

conform in name and character to the meat of the animal.

=Frequency of Adulteration.=--The examination made of numerous samples

of canned meat in the Bureau of Chemistry shows that the adulteration

of these foods is rather common but by no means general.

=Canned Horse Meat.=--Horse meat is commonly used for human food in

many European countries, although it is believed that it is not used

to any extent in the United States. When procured from healthy animals

in a proper way there is no hygienic objection to its use, though it

is considered to be somewhat tougher than the flesh of other animals

more commonly employed as food, but that is probably due to the fact

that horses are not raised for food purposes and are usually not used

for such until they are worn out in domestic service. There are many

sentimental and often religious objections to the use of horse meat,

but experience has shown that it is wholesome and nutritious. Horse

meat is characteristic in containing more natural sugar, commonly

known as glycogen, than any of the other ordinary meats used for

human consumption. It approaches in its content of sugar some of the

shell-fish flesh, such as that of the lobster. Practically all of the

horse meat which is prepared in this country is exported to Europe.

There are cases, however, on record of the sale of horse flesh to

domestic consumers. Especially could it be used in this way in the form

of sausage or other finely comminuted products without much danger of

detection.

=Composition of Horse Meat.=--A number of samples of horse meat of

undoubted origin and wholesomeness have been examined in the Bureau of

Chemistry and the data tabulated. The average composition of sixteen

samples of horse meat, representing different parts of the carcass, is

shown in the following table:

Water, 69.81 percent

Water in fat-free substance, 76.91 „

Fat, 9.61 „

Protein, 19.47 „

Protein insoluble in water, 14.83 „

Gelatinous protein, 1.23 „

Meat bases, 1.70 „

Glycogen, 1.82 „

Ash, 1.01 „

_Composition of Dry Material._--

Protein, 67.98 percent

Fat, 27.71 „

Ash, 3.18 „

Undetermined, 1.13 „

The high percentage of glycogen in horse meat is one of the safest

methods of determining its character when comminuted or cut up into

pieces so small as not to be identified by the usual anatomical

characteristics. Very few other kinds of edible flesh contain as much

as one percent of glycogen. Glycogen is a transitory product which

tends naturally to be broken up into other substances, and, hence,

even in horse meat after slaughter, it may rapidly disappear and thus,

unless the meat is examined at once, very little glycogen may be found

in it. A safer test for horse meat is in the nature of the fat therein.

This fat does not tend to change as the glycogen does, and, therefore,

in a pure preparation of horse meat even in a finely comminuted state

the separation and examination of the fat will lead to a determination

of the character of meat employed. The fats of horse meat have a lower

melting point, a higher iodin number, and a higher heat value when

mixed with sulfuric acid than those of beef.

Indeed, these differences are so marked as to afford a ready means of

detection to the practical chemist. Even in the mixture of horse meat

with other meat the variation in the character of the fats will be such

as to lead to a correct judgment respecting the approximate amount of

horse meat which has been used, provided it forms any notable amount of

the mixture.

=Canned Cured Meats.=--Sterilization is such a certain method of

preventing the decay of meats that it has now come into use to a large

extent in the final preservation of shipments of cured meats. The

object of curing, as has already been stated, is not merely to prevent

the meat from decaying, nor is it intended to inhibit entirely enzymic

action. On the contrary, if the method of curing were such as to

entirely stop fermentative action, the flavors and aromas of preserved

meats, upon which their value so much depends, would be eliminated,

and we would simply have a mass of tasteless meat, preserved from

decay by the application of chemical preservatives of a character

to impart neither flavor nor aroma to the meat and at the same time

prevent the activity of the various ferments above described. Such

methods of preparation, naturally, should never be of general use,

because in cured meats the consumer demands the flavor which naturally

proceeds from the ordinary method of curing. After curing and when

subjected to transportation the meats may undergo decomposition and

reach their destination in a spoiled state. To avoid this it has been

a customary practice to pack the meat in a chemical preservative, such

as borax. This is, however, a very objectionable practice because

even in the cured state the meat is still absorptive, and the borax,

which is packed externally upon it, as a precaution during transit,

must necessarily penetrate to a certain extent to the interior of

the meat. By packing cured meat in tins and subjecting these tins to

sterilization complete immunity from decay may be secured and there is

no damage done to the aroma or flavor. We, therefore, find upon the

market at the present time in tinned, canned, or potted form almost

every variety of meat that is used either in a fresh state or after the

usual method of curing.

=Canned Sausage.=--One of the most important of cured meats which is

offered for sale is sausage. Sausage may be canned either in the fresh

or cured state and, of course, may be adulterated in both conditions.

Canned sausage should have a clean bill of health from the local

inspector the same as any other meat food.

There is, perhaps, more room for deception in the manufacture of

sausage than in almost any other form of comminuted meat. When properly

treated with condimental substances, such as salt, spices, vinegar,

etc., sausages are highly prized as a food product, and justly so.

In the canned state sausage should undergo no other manipulation

than spicing and sterilization at a temperature necessary to kill all

fermentative germs and prevent decay.

_Composition of Canned Sausage._--Twenty-five samples of canned

sausage examined in the Bureau of Chemistry had the following average

composition:

Water, 58.51 percent

Water in fat-free substance, 75.59 „

Fat, 21.82 „

Protein, 13.92 „

Protein insoluble in water, 11.37 „

Gelatinous protein, 1.21 „

Meat bases, .67 „

Ash, 2.86 „

Sodium chlorid, 1.02 „

The above data show that canned sausage differs from fresh meat largely

in its composition, especially in the much higher content of fat and

lower content of water which is found therein.

_Adulteration of Canned Sausage._--The principal adulteration, as

has already been stated, is in the admixture of meats of unknown and

miscellaneous origin and possibly inedible in character. The degree of

comminution to which sausage is subjected renders it difficult in the

inspection of sausage itself to determine the character of the animal

from which it is made. The study of the fat is the most useful guide in

such cases. Presumably sausage is made almost exclusively of beef and

pork, but, as a matter of fact, much which is not eaten under its own

name may be found in sausage.

Next to the introduction of meat of an improper character the most

important adulteration is the common use of starch. Starch is very much

cheaper than meat, and its abundant use enables a greater profit to be

made. It is highly esteemed, also, as a “filler,” on the ground that it

prevents the shrinkage of sausage when fried. Starch granules under the

influence of heat are gelatinous, holding moisture with tenacity and

preventing shrinkage in bulk.

The presence of starch in sausage must be regarded as an unjustifiable

adulteration unless the amount therein is plainly marked on the label

of the package.

The use of preservatives in the curing of sausage is a very common

practice and, hence, canned sausages are found to often contain boric

acid or borax and sulfite of soda especially. Dyes of various kinds are

also used in coloring sausage or its covering, largely of a coal tar

origin.

The proper safeguard for the consumer in regard to the character of

sausage is in the inspection of the factory. It is highly important

that each municipality and state should have a rigid system for the

inspection of sausage, and the sausage thus inspected should bear the

certification of the kind of meat used and its general character.

The presence of inspectors in factories would prevent the use of

preservatives which, it has been shown by the researches of the Bureau

of Chemistry, are prejudicial to health.

=Magnitude of the Meat Industry.=--According to the census of 1905,

showing the results of the tabulation of the statistics of slaughtering

and meat packing and slaughtering, wholesale, for the calendar year

1904, forming a part of the census of manufactures of 1905, which

was taken in conformity with the act of Congress of March 6, 1902,

the figures indicate that there has been a normal increase in the

slaughtering and meat packing industry in the United States, as

compared with the statistics of 1900, which covered the fiscal year

ending May 31st.

Comparative figures for 1905 and 1900 are shown in the following

summary:

PERCENT OF

1905. 1900. INCREASE.

Number of establishments, 929 921 .8

Capital, $237,699,440 $189,198,264 25.6

Salaried officials, clerks,

etc.:

Number, 12,075 10,227 18.0

Salaries, $13,377,908 $10,123,247 32.1

Wage-earners:

Average number, 74,132 68,534 8.2

Wages, $40,447,574 $33,457,013 20.9

Miscellaneous expenses, 30,623,108 24,060,412 27.3

Materials used:

Total cost, $805,856,969 $683,583,577 17.9

Animals slaughtered:

Beeves, $289,040,930 $247,365,812 16.8

Sheep, 44,359,804 37,137,542 19.4

Hogs, 329,763,430 278,736,961 18.3

Calves, 12,666,942 7,356,560 72.2

All other, 61,905 559,839

All other materials, 129,963,958 112,426,863 15.4

Products:

Total value, $913,914,624 $785,562,433 16.3

Beef--

Sold fresh, $247,135,029 $211,068,934 17.1

Canned, 7,697,815 9,167,531 17.1[14]

Salted or cured, 8,107,952 9,661,834 16.1[14]

Mutton--

Sold fresh, $36,880,455 $32,963,219 11.9

Veal--

Sold fresh, $12,856,369 $7,812,714 64.6

Pork--

Sold fresh, $91,779,323 $84,019,387 9.2

Salted, 116,626,710 88,674,016 31.5

Hams, smoked bacon, etc., 132,210,611 148,666,859 11.1[14]

Sausage, fresh or cured, 25,056,331 21,472,413 16.7

All other meat sold fresh, 9,579,718 7,813,078 22.6

Refined lard, 74,116,991 52,620,348 40.8

Neutral lard, 8,423,973 8,588,350 1.1[14]

Oleomargarine oil, 10,201,911 11,482,542 11.2[14]

Other oils, 2,595,951 3,440,358 24.5[14]

Fertilizers, 4,397,626 3,300,132 33.3

Hides, 44,137,802 33,925,911 30.1

Wool, 5,229,521 3,335,824 56.8

All other products, 76,880,536 47,548,983 61.7

[14] Decrease.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

It is evident, from the foregoing description of the methods of

preparing and sterilizing meat, that it is a process which commends

itself both on account of the economy in the use of meat which it

secures and because of the nutritive value of the products obtained.

The real value of the products must necessarily depend upon the

selection of the raw materials and the sanitary conditions which attend

their manipulation. Experience has shown that it is not safe to leave

these matters to the packers themselves. While, doubtless, the greater

number of packers will exercise all possible care in the selection

of the materials and in their preparation, human nature is of such a

character that when opportunity for deception, fraud, and illegitimate

gains are presented there are always some who take advantage of them.

Hence, it may be safely said that no tinned or canned or sterilized

meat of any description should be allowed to enter into consumption

except when prepared under the inspection of qualified municipal,

state, or national officers. The health of the animal furnishing

the meat should be ascertained by inspection both before and after

slaughter. This inspection should be of the most rigid kind, and

all diseased animals should be excluded from entering into standard

products. If it be claimed that there are certain diseases which are

local only in character and which do not affect the wholesomeness

of the whole carcass, special provisions can be made for this kind

of meat. If admitted into consumption at all, it should be under a

permanent label or tag by which the intended consumer would be informed

of the character of the contents of the package.

There is a reasonable doubt respecting the suitability for human

food of carcasses of animals afflicted in a moderate degree with

tuberculosis, pleuro-pneumonia, lumpy jaw, or other contagious or

epidemic diseases. In all such cases the rights of the consumers

demand that the benefit of the doubt should be given to them and not

to the owner, manufacturer, and dealer in any of the products they

consume. Such meat would then enter the market under a separate grade

and command a lower price, and when consumed no one would be deceived

respecting its character.

It must be admitted, even if such meat be regarded as wholesome, that

it is of inferior character, and cannot in any justice demand the

right to pass under the name of higher grades of the article. The

sanitary conditions under which such meats are prepared are of the

highest importance. The slaughter house should be clean, and provided

with good ventilation and natural light. The workmen should be free

of disease, neatly dressed, and required to observe all necessary

sanitary precautions. The débris and fragments of the packing house

should be carefully removed and so disposed of as to prevent any

suspicion that any part of them enters any of the products of the

factory. Municipal, state, or national inspection should be frequent,

thorough, and entirely removed from any possible influence of the

packing business itself. Competent veterinary experts should pass

upon the state of health of each carcass, and any one found diseased

in any way should be subjected to a further careful inspection to see

whether it should be admitted, under proper label and notification,

as human food or consigned to the fertilizer heap. It is only by such

inspection as this that the consumer can secure adequate protection.

After the meat is once in the can inspection will only reveal whether

or not preservatives and coloring matter have been used, or whether the

contents of the can are spoiled or in a state unfit for consumption. No

examination of the contents of the can will reveal in a satisfactory

manner the state of health of the carcass from which the meat has been

secured or the sanitary conditions under which it has been prepared. It

is hoped the new methods of inspection established by the Secretary of

Agriculture will secure the desired purity of meat products.

LARD.

The fat of swine, properly separated from the other tissues, is known

as lard. The process of separation is termed “rendering.” Various

methods of rendering are practiced, all depending, however, upon the

use of heat, which liquefies the fat and gradually frees it from its

connective tissues.

=Parts of Fat Used for Lard Making.=--In the making of lard the highest

grades are produced from the fat lining the back of the animal and that

connected with the intestines. The sheets of fat which are found lining

the back of the animal furnishes a variety known as leaf lard. All

parts of the fat of the animal not used in the meats themselves may be

used in the manufacture of lard. In the preparation of the carcass, the

parts cut off in trimming the pieces and containing fat are sent to the

rendering tank. The leaf lard is also removed by tearing it off from

the back of the animal, and the intestinal fat is separated from the

viscera in like manner. There is probably no question of wholesomeness

between the lards made from different parts of the carcass. The lard

differs in its chemical composition and its physical consistence as

determined by its location in the body. Inasmuch as it is important

that lard should have a certain degree of consistence even in summer

time and not become too soft or liquid in character, the lard which has

a high melting point is preferred, especially during the summer. The

lards made from the feet and some other parts of the hog have lower

melting points. The different kinds of fat from all parts of the animal

might be mixed together and a lard made therefrom representing the

average consistence of the fat of the whole body. A small quantity of

stearin is often added to raise the melting point, but the addition of

this substance without notice must be regarded as an adulteration.

=Names of Different Kinds of Lard.=--The names applied to the different

kinds of lard may be referred principally to the parts of fat used,

such as leaf lard, intestinal lard, etc., or to the method of preparing

it. The old-fashioned method of preparing lard for family use consisted

in placing the fat in an open kettle and heating usually over the open

fire. The rendering takes place as the mass increases in temperature,

so that the residual tissues become browned by the high temperature

reached. Lard made in this way is of most excellent quality and, of

course, being made under family supervision, its character is well

understood and the parts of the body used are well known. In the large

packing establishments the lard is usually rendered by the application

of heat in the form of steam under pressure, of a suitable temperature

to make the character of lard uniform. Large yields can be secured in

this way with less charring of the residual tissues, and consequently

a finer and whiter color in the lard itself. Lard of this kind is

sometimes known as steam rendered lard.

=Uses of Lard.=--The fat of swine prepared as above mentioned, and

known as lard, finds a very extended use in every kitchen. It is

mixed with various forms of bread making materials, cake, etc., and

is often known in this sense as “shortening.” It is also employed

for lubricating the pans and other culinary utensils used for baking

purposes. It is sometimes employed for the purpose of cooking by

the process of frying or of introducing the substance to be cooked

directly into the hot lard, as in the frying of oysters, the making of

doughnuts, and similar operations. Lard has come to be looked upon as a

necessity in every kitchen, even of the humblest citizen.

Many objections are made to the use of lard on hygienic grounds, and

probably on account of its cheapness and general utility it is more

freely used in American cooking than it should be. In other words,

American cooking is under the reproach of being too greasy. There is no

reason to question the digestive and nutritive value of lard when used

in proper quantities and in proper conditions. It is a typical fat food

composed of materials which are almost wholly oxidized in the body and

which upon combustion produce a higher number of units of heat than

that of any other class of food substances.

COMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF AMERICAN LARD.

-----------+-----+-------+------+-----+-------+--------+-------+------

-----------+-----+-------+------+-----+-------+--------+-------+------

| | | | | | | Per- | Per-

| | | C. ° | C. °| C. ° | C. ° | cent | cent

Leaf lard, |.9057| 272.64| 41.6 | 43.0| 40.40 | 39.7 | 59.60 | .165

lard, |.9028| 281.01| 44.9 | 42.8| 40.40 | 37.1 | 53.04 | .025

lard, |.9052| 279.06| 38.4 | 41.8| 39.53 | 33.7 | 63.84 | .040

-----------+-----+-------+------+-----+-------+--------+-------+------

=Adulteration of Lard.=--The principal adulteration to which lard

is subjected is admixture with other and cheaper fats. Among the

fats which are used for this purpose may be mentioned beef fat and

cottonseed oil. Beef fat has a higher melting point than lard and

cottonseed oil a much lower melting point, being liquid at ordinary

temperatures. A mixture of beef fat and cottonseed oil may, therefore,

be made, having approximately the same melting point as lard itself.

The addition of this mixture to lard would not alter its melting

point to any sensible extent. Instead of using the whole cottonseed

oil for the purpose mentioned it may be previously chilled and its

product of a higher melting point, or as it is sometimes called, the

stearin of cottonseed oil, may be used for admixture with lard. Large

quantities of these mixed fats were formerly made in this country under

the name of “compound lard” in which the above adulterants were the

chief constituents. The laws of the various states are happily of a

character which forbids the sale of a mixture of a compound of lard

and other fats under the name of lard, although there is no objection

to such admixture from a hygienic and dietetic point of view. There

are many hygienists who are of the opinion that the more extended use

of vegetable oils instead of lard would be of value to the health of

the public. If this be true, the admixture of a vegetable oil with

lard would improve it from a hygienic standpoint. The principal,

perhaps the sole, objection to such admixtures is their fraudulent

character. Vegetable oils, especially cottonseed oil, being very much

cheaper than lard, their use in lard without notification cheapens

the product and defrauds the customer. Lard may also be adulterated

with its own stearin. In the manufacture of lard oil a residue is left

of a much higher melting point and this residue may be mixed with a

vegetable oil, such as cottonseed, in the production of a compound

of approximately the same melting point as lard itself. In a case of

this kind both constituents are fraudulent, in as much as neither the

cottonseed oil nor the lard stearin may be regarded in any sense as

lard.

=Detection of Adulterations.=--The presence of cottonseed oil in any

form in lard is at once determined by the application of a simple color

test known as the Halphen test. This is not a reliable test in those

cases where the animal has been fed cottonseed.

_Halphen Reaction for Cottonseed Oil._--Carbon disulfid, containing

about one percent of sulfur in solution, is mixed with an equal volume

of amyl alcohol. Mix equal volumes of this reagent and the oil under

examination and heat in a bath of boiling brine for fifteen minutes. In

the presence of as little as one percent of cottonseed oil an orange or

red color is produced, which is characteristic.

Lard and lard oil from animals fed on cottonseed meal will give a faint

reaction; also the fatty acids thereof.

This test is more sensitive than the Bechi test (nitrate of silver)

and less liable to give unsatisfactory results in the hands of an

inexperienced person. It is not affected by rancidity. The depth

of color is proportional, to a certain extent, to the amount of oil

present, and by making comparative tests with cottonseed oil some idea

as to the amount present can be obtained, but it must be remembered

that different oils react with different intensities, and oils which

have been heated from 200° to 210° C. react with greatly diminished

intensity. Heating ten minutes at 250° renders cottonseed oil incapable

of giving the reaction.

Cottonseed oil also has the property of reducing silver in silver

nitrate to a metallic state. When mixed with a solution of silver

nitrate under proper conditions a blackening or precipitation of black

metallic silver is observed. This is known as the Bechi test which is

conducted as follows:

_Bechi or Silver Nitrate Test for Cottonseed Oil._--_Reagent_: Dissolve

2 grams of silver nitrate in 200 cubic centimeters of 95 percent

alcohol and 40 cubic centimeters of ether, adding one drop of nitric

acid.

Mix 10 c.c. of oil or melted fat, 5 c.c. of reagent, and 10 c.c. of

amyl alcohol in a test tube. Divide, heat one-half in a boiling water

bath for ten minutes, and then compare with portion not heated. Any

blackening due to reduced silver shows presence of cottonseed oil.

Other oils which have become rancid, and lards which have been steamed

or heated at high temperature, contain decomposition products which

have a reducing action on silver nitrate. There were found in testing

a large number of salad oils some which contained no cottonseed oil,

according to the Halphen test, but gave a brown coloration with Bechi

reagent, and in some cases reduced silver. These same oils on being

purified gave no reaction. Hence the oils or fats should be purified

before testing.

To purify the oils and fats, heat from 20 to 30 grams on water bath for

a few minutes with the addition of 25 c.c. of 95 percent alcohol, shake

thoroughly, decant as much of the alcohol as possible, and wash with

two percent nitric acid, and finally with water. The oil or lard thus

purified will give no reduction at all if it contains no cottonseed

oil. Heating the oils or fats to 100° C. or simple washing with two

percent nitric acid is not sufficient, except in a few cases.

With oils the use of the Halphen and Bechi tests will be found to

be useful as a means of approximately determining the amounts of

adulteration present. If Halphen gives a reaction and Bechi does not,

the adulteration with cottonseed oil is probably less than 10 percent.

The admixture of beef fat with lard is best detected by means of

the microscope. The fat is dissolved in ether and allowed to slowly

crystallize. If it is composed of pure lard the crystal assumes a form

which is represented in Fig. 8.

If, on the other hand, beef fat be mixed with lard, the crystals will

assume a radiated fan-shaped appearance shown in Fig. 9. Even one

who is an expert with the microscope may not be able without some

difficulty to detect these adulterations by the simple tests above

mentioned.

[Illustration: FIG. 8.--LARD CRYSTALS. × 140.--(_Bureau of Chemistry._)]

[Illustration: FIG. 9.--BEEF FAT CRYSTALS. × 140.--(_Bureau of

Chemistry._)]

=Commercial Classification of Lards.=--In addition to the kinds of lard

mentioned above other varieties are known in commerce.

=Neutral Lard.=--This, which is one of the best varieties of lard, is

made from the fat derived from the leaf lard of the slaughtered animal

in a perfectly fresh state, that is, taken immediately after slaughter

and before the carcass is cold. The leaf lard, when it is removed from

the animal, is at once placed in cold storage or put into cold water,

in order to rapidly remove the animal heat. As soon as it is thoroughly

chilled it is reduced to a pulp in a grinder and sent at once to the

rendering kettle. The fat is rendered at a very low temperature, from

105 to 120 degrees F. (40-50 degrees C). It is evident that only a part

of the lard is separated at this temperature, and this part is regarded

as being of the best quality, almost tasteless, free of acids and

other impurities. The residue from the making of neutral lard is sent

to other kettles, where it is subjected to a higher temperature and

the remainder of the lard extracted, which is sold under the name of

another grade. Neutral lard, obtained as above, while still liquid, is

washed with water containing a trace of sodium carbonate, common salt,

or a dilute acid. The product thus formed is almost neutral in its

reaction to litmus paper containing not to exceed .25 percent of free

acid, but it has more water and mineral matter than is found in the

pure rendered untreated lard. The neutral lard made in this way is not

used so commonly for culinary purposes but chiefly in the manufacture

of oleomargarine.

=Leaf Lard.=--The residue of lard obtained by rendering the unseparated

part of lard from the above process at a higher temperature is also

of a high quality and is sometimes improperly designated leaf lard, a

term which should be reserved for the whole product instead of a part

obtained by rendering the residual leaf fat.

=Choice Kettle-rendered Lard.=--The amount of neutral lard which is

demanded in the manufacture of oleomargarine does not by any means

exhaust the supply of leaf lard. For making choice kettle-rendered lard

the leaf lard together with the fat cut from the back of the animal is

rendered in steam-jacketed open kettles and produces a lard of a high

quality known as kettle-rendered or choice kettle-rendered lard. The

hide is removed from the fat portion of the back used for this purpose

before the rendering. Both the leaf and pieces of the back are passed

through a fine sausage grinder before they enter the rendering kettle.

According to the requirements of the Chicago Board of Trade, choice

lard, which is another term for the above variety, is to be made from

leaf and trimmings only, either steam-rendered or kettle-rendered, and

the manner of rendering to be branded on each package.

=Prime Steam Lard.=--The prime steam lard of commerce is made as

follows: The whole head of the hog, after the removal of the jowl,

is used for rendering. The heads are placed in the bottom of the

rendering tank. The mesenteric fat adhering to the small intestines is

also used in the tank. Any fat that may be attached to the heart or

other organs of the animal may also be used. In those factories where

kettle-rendered lard is not made the scrap fat from the back of the

animals and trimmings are also used. When there is an excess of leaf it

is also put in the rendering tank and, in general, all the fat portions

of the body which are removed in the trimming process. It is thus seen

that prime steam lard is a term which may practically represent the

average fat of the whole animal.

Prime steam lard is thus defined by the Chicago Board of Trade:

“Standard prime steam lard shall be solely the product of the

trimmings and other fat parts of hogs, rendered in tanks by the direct

application of steam, and without subsequent change in grain or

character by the use of agitators or other machinery except as such

change may unavoidably come from transportation. It shall have proper

color, flavor, and soundness for keeping, and no material which has

been salted shall be included. The name and location of the renderer

and the grade of the lard shall be plainly branded on each package at

the time of packing.” All the lard which is made is subjected to the

approval of inspectors both as to the material employed and the method

of procedure, together with the character of the final product.

=Disposition of the Intestines of the Hog.=--In the term intestines

is included all of the abdominal viscera of the animal but not the

thoracic viscera, namely, the heart and lungs. The material is

handled in the following way: When the animal is opened the viscera

are separated, including the flesh surrounding the anus and a strip

containing the external genito-urinary organs. The heart is thrown

to one side and the fatty portions trimmed off for lard. The rest of

the heart is used for sausage or for fertilizer. The lungs and liver

are either used in the manufacture of sausage or for fertilizer. The

rectum and large intestines are separated from the intestinal fat

and peritoneum and, along with the adhering flesh and genito-urinary

organs, sent to the trimmer. All flesh from the above-mentioned organs

is cut away and the intestine proper is used for sausage casings. The

trimmings, including the genito-urinary organs, are washed and placed

in the rendering tank where lard is made. The small intestine is also

separated from the fatty membrane surrounding it and prepared for

sausage casings. The remaining material, consisting of the peritoneum,

diaphragm, stomach, and adhering membranes, together with the

intestinal fat, constitutes the “guts” which are subjected to washing

in three or four different tanks. In the first tank the stomach and

peritoneum are split open, and also any portion of the intestines which

still adhere to the peritoneum. The portions then go from tank to tank,

usually four in number, and are then ready for the rendering tank. The

omentum fat is cut from the kidneys, and the kidneys with any adhering

fat go into the rendering vat. The spleen, pancreas, vocal cords,

trachea, and œsophagus also go into the tank.

In general it may be said that everything connected with the viscera

go into the rendering tank with the following exceptions: First, that

portion of the intestines which is saved for sausage casings; second,

the liver and lungs; third, that part of the heart free from fat.

In the killing of small hogs, where the intestines are not of

sufficient size to be suitable for sausage casings, they also go into

the rendering tank. It should be stated here that the grease or lard

obtained by the rendering of the above described viscera, according to

the statements of the manufacturers, is used solely in the manufacture

of lard oil and soap, and does not enter into the lard of commerce.

When the processes of manufacture are properly controlled by official

inspection the public may be assured that this disposition of the fat

obtained by the rendering of the intestinal viscera is secured.

=Butchers’ Lard.=--A considerable quantity of lard is made for

commercial purposes by the small butcher for family use, etc. This lard

is made almost exclusively by rendering in the open kettle. In the

country where butchering is conducted for family use the ordinary open

kettle is placed over an open fire. All parts of the fat of the animal

which can be easily separated and the scraps derived from trimming the

animal are used for rendering. The offal and refuse of the animal are

also rendered separately and the product used for soap grease. The

lard made in this way is regarded as perfectly wholesome, but it is

frequently dark-colored from the charring due to rendering over the

open fire and by reason of using some portions of the animal, such as

tendons, from which glue is made. Such lard may contain traces or even

considerable quantities of glue which, however, cannot be regarded as

an unwholesome product. The partially browned residues in the kettle in

the country are known as “cracklings” and are used for soap grease.

=Inedible Hog Fat Products.=--In the shipping of hogs a great many

are smothered and others die of disease or are in a condition, at the

time of slaughter, which renders them unfit for human food, either

by the presence of disease or otherwise. The fats are separated from

dead animals of this class and are used for technical purposes such as

burning oils, soap grease, etc. There are several varieties of these

inedible fats of which the following are the principal:

_White Grease._--This grease is made chiefly from hogs which die in

transit by being smothered or from freezing. Formerly it was the custom

to make white grease also from the animals which died of disease, but

the manufacture of this product has been restricted by certain state

laws which forbid the use of animals which die of particular diseases,

such as hog cholera, from being used for any purpose whatever and

their carcasses are to be buried so as to remove all danger of

infection.

_Brown Grease._--Brown grease is a product of a lower grade than white

grease and is made usually by rendering the whole animal. It is one of

the by-products in the manufacture of tankage from condemned animal

carcasses, the tankage being used as fertilizer. Both white and brown

grease are used chiefly in the manufacture of low grade lard oil and in

the making of soap.

_Yellow Grease._--Yellow grease is a product intermediate in value

between white and brown grease. It is made chiefly from the carcasses

of animals that die while on the packers’ hands. It is used for the

same purpose as white and brown grease.

_Pig’s-foot Grease._--A special variety of grease is made from pigs’

feet as a by-product in the glue factory. This grease is used also in

making lard oil and soap. It is evident that these varieties of grease

are only inedible varieties of lard, and through proper inspection the

public is protected against the use of these varieties of grease in the

edible product.

=Lard Stearin.=--Mention has already been made of the fact that by

melting a fat and cooling it slowly towards its solidifying point,

certain constituents of the fat which have a higher melting point

separate first, leaving those constituents with a lower melting point

still in a liquid condition. Those portions of an oil or fat which

separate first under such conditions, are the constituents of the

product which is known as stearin, while the part that remains liquid

is the constituent known as olein. Lard stearin is made principally for

the manufacture of mixtures and is a by-product of the highest grade

of lard oil. Lard stearin is made as follows: The lard is melted and

kept in a crystallizing room at from 50 to 60 degrees F., until it

is filled with the crystals of the separated stearin. The product is

then wrapped in the form of cakes with cloth. Each package contains

from 10 to 20 pounds. The cakes are then placed in a large press with

suitable arrangements to facilitate the escape of the oil and maintain

the low temperature. The pressure is applied very gradually at first,

and as the process advances, with increasing power. The high grade oil

obtained in this way is known as prime or extra lard oil and is used

for illuminating and lubricating purposes. The resulting solid product,

which is principally stearin, is used as one of the adulterants of

lard, that is, in making a mixture which is sometimes called lard,

composed of lard stearin and cottonseed oil.

[Illustration: FIG. 10.]

=Tanks Used for Producing Lard Under Pressure.=--There are various

forms of tanks used for producing steam rendered lard. In the open

kettle there is a jacketed arrangement by means of which steam, at

the proper temperature, is made to act upon the contents of the inner

kettle. In the closed kettle the steam may be applied in the form of

a jacketed arrangement or introduced directly into the kettle. The

residues which remain after the steaming is completed and after the

lard has been drawn off are withdrawn from the conical lower portion

of the kettle which can be opened for the removal of these residues. A

typical kettle for rendering lard is shown in Fig. 10. The fragments of

meat to be received are placed in the opening M which is then properly

closed when the tank is full. Steam is admitted and the condensation

which is produced at first by the cold contents of the tank is drawn

off through a water pipe. After the tank is thoroughly heated and the

fat begins to separate the lard will rise above the water and the solid

fragments and at the end of the process will fill the upper part of the

tank. By means of the cocks at D it can be determined to what depth the

tank is filled with lard and the lard can be drawn off through these

cocks until water begins to flow. The bottom of the tank at G is then

opened and the residues withdrawn, dried and ground for tankage.

=Physical Properties of Lard.=--_Specific Gravity._--The specific

gravity of pure lard is to be determined at some definite temperature,

inasmuch as a statement of its specific gravity without some

reference to the temperature at which it is determined is likely to

be misleading. It is not convenient to ascertain the specific gravity

of a lard at a temperature below its melting point. It is customary,

therefore, either to take the specific gravity at about 40 degrees C.,

or at a temperature of boiling water.

The average specific gravity of pure lard at 40 degrees C. (104 degrees

F.), regarding water as 100, is 89, and at 100 degrees C. it is 86,

the weight of water being determined at the point of greatest density,

namely, 4 degrees C. (39 degrees F.). Unfortunately the specific

gravity of pure lard is not very greatly different from that of other

oils or other fats used in its adulteration. For this reason it is not

of the highest value for determining whether or not the pure article

has been subjected to adulteration.

_Melting Point._--The melting point of a pure lard is a physical

characteristic of great value, since it is chiefly influenced by the

part of the body of the animal from which it is made. The fat which is

rendered from the foot of the hog has the lowest melting point, namely,

about 35 degrees C. (95° F.). The fat adhering to the intestines has

the highest melting point, namely, 44 degrees C. (111 degrees F.). The

fat derived from the head of the hog has a slightly higher melting

point than that from the feet. The kidney fat has a melting point

of 42.5 degrees C. (108.2 degrees F.). In the steam rendered lards,

representing the average of lards passed upon by the Chicago Board of

Trade, the average melting point is found to be about 37 degrees C.

(98.7 degrees F.). The melting point of superior or leaf lard has an

average value of about 40 degrees C. (104 degrees F.).

_Color Reaction._--A pure high grade lard when mixed on a white

porcelain plate with the proper amount of sulfuric or nitric acid

should give only a very slight coloration. The production of any

considerable quantity of color, either brown or black, indicates the

presence of organic impurities in the lard.

_Rise of Temperature with Sulfuric Acid._--The various fats give

different degrees of heat when mixed, under certain conditions, with

strong sulfuric acid. It is possible to determine the approximate

degree of the adulteration of lard by applying this test. The operation

is a simple one and is conducted in the apparatus shown in Fig. 11.

A common test tube about 24 cubic centimeters in length and 5 cubic

centimeters in diameter is hung as indicated in the figure, provided

with a stopper carrying a thermometer in the center with a bent glass

rod stirrer passed loosely through the stopper on the side and a funnel

for the introduction of the acid on another side of the thermometer. A

coil which is on the stirring rod is so arranged as to permit the bulb

of the thermometer to pass through its center.

[Illustration: FIG. 11.]

_Manipulation._--Fifty cubic centimeters of the fat or oil to be

examined are placed in the test tube and warmed or cooled, as the case

may be, until the temperature is the one required for the beginning

of the experiment, say 35 degrees C.; 10 cubic centimeters of the

strongest sulfuric acid at the same temperature are placed in the

funnel, the stopper being firmly fixed in its place; the test tube

containing the oil is placed in a non-conducting receptacle; the wooden

cylinder lined with cork, used in sending glass bottles by mail, is

found to be convenient for this purpose. The glass rod or stirrer which

fits loosely in the stopper, so as to be moved rapidly up and down, is

held by the right hand of the operator; with his left hand he opens the

glass stop-cock of the funnel and allows the sulfuric acid to flow in

upon the oil. The glass stirring rod is now moved rapidly up and down,

for about 20 seconds, thus securing a thorough mixture of the oil and

acid. The mercury rises rapidly in the thermometer and after two or

three minutes reaches a maximum, and then, after two or three minutes

more, begins to descend. The reading is made at the maximum point

reached by the mercury. With pure cottonseed oil, linseed oil and some

other substances the rise of temperature is so great as to produce

ebullition in the mass, causing it to foam up and fill the tube. To

avoid this, smaller quantities of acid should be used or the oil in

question be diluted with a less thermogenic one, so that the maximum

temperature may not be high enough to produce the effect cited.

=Chemical Properties.=--_Volatile Acids._--The quantity of volatile

acid arising on the decomposition of a soap made by the saponification

of lard is very minute in lard of high quality. The total amount of

volatile acid should not be in excess of that necessary to saturate .2

cubic centimeter of deci-normal alkali solution.

_Fixed Acid._--The quantity of fixed acid, consisting principally of

oleic and stearic, in pure lard should not be less than 93 percent. The

total quantity of free acid in lard, that is, acid uncombined with the

glycerine, should not exceed one-half of one percent, and in neutral

lard should be much less than this.

_Quantity of Iodin Absorbed._--All common fats and oils have the

property of absorbing, under given conditions, certain quantities of

iodin. Lard of the highest quality should not absorb more than 60

percent of its weight of iodin. The lard made from the feet and certain

other parts of the animal, however, may have a larger iodin number,

rising as high as 75 or even 80.

=Properties of Lard.=--The average properties of different classes of

lard in relation to physical and optical conditions are shown in the

following table:

RE- RISE OF TEMPER-

SPECIFIC MELTING FRACTIVE ATURE WITH IODIN

GRAVITY. POINT. INDEX. SULFURIC ACID. WATER. ABSORBED.

35° C. ° C. 25° C. ° C. PERCENT. PERCENT.

.9053 40.7 1.4620 41.5 .077 62.48

The above table is the average composition of nineteen samples of

lard furnished under affidavits of purity and which appear from their

chemical and physical properties to be composed purely of the fat of

swine taken from those parts of the animal usually devoted to lard

making. The average data may be regarded as representing the properties

of the ordinary pure commercial lard on the market.

=Average Properties of Steam Lard.=--Below is given the average

composition of eleven samples of steam lard furnished under affidavit

and, apparently, as judged by their chemical and physical properties,

composed solely of the fat of swine. Steam lards are not of as high

a quality as the lards contained in the preceding table. They have

usually a distinctively strong odor, quite different from that of lards

which are rendered in open kettles at low temperature and from selected

portions of fat.

RE- RISE OF TEMPER-

SPECIFIC MELTING FRACTIVE ATURE WITH IODIN

GRAVITY. POINT. INDEX. SULFURIC ACID. WATER. ABSORBED.

35° C. ° C. 25° C. ° C. PERCENT. PERCENT.

.9055 37.0 1.4623 39.9 .109 62.86

=Properties of Adulterated Lards.=--It is possible to mix together the

different materials used in making adulterated lard in such a manner

as to produce a compound which in some respects resembles the natural

product. This compound, however, necessarily differs from the natural

product in its physical and microscopic properties and in its reaction

with various chemicals which give distinct color with the different

fats and oils used as adulterants. The mean properties of thirteen

samples of mixed or compound lards are shown in the following table:

RE- RISE OF TEMPER-

SPECIFIC MELTING FRACTIVE ATURE WITH IODIN

GRAVITY. POINT. INDEX. SULFURIC ACID. WATER. ABSORBED.

35° C. ° C. 25° C. ° C. PERCENT. PERCENT.

.9060 40.6 1.4634 46.5 .098 63.58

These lards, in addition to the above properties, show distinct color

reaction with sulfuric and nitric acid and with the reagents which are

distinctive of cottonseed oil. They are mostly mixtures of lard and

tallow stearin with cotton oil or cotton oil stearin.

In addition to the adulterations already mentioned as mixing with

cottonseed oil may be added the use of coconut oil. It is not probable

that in the United States any adulteration of lard with coconut

oil has been made for commercial purposes. Such an adulteration,

however, is practiced in some foreign countries. Coconut oil contains

considerable quantities of volatile acid, and, therefore, when used as

an adulterant of lard, would increase the normal quantity of volatile

acid materially. One sample examined by Allen, of England, was found to

contain a quantity of coconut oil, amounting to 33 percent.

=Summary.=--In the preceding pages has been given a description of the

character of lard, the sources from which it is made, the method of

its preparation, its chemical and physical properties and the common

adulterations to which it is subjected. There is no question of the

wholesomeness of the usual fats and oils, or parts thereof, which are

used in the sophistication of lards. The adulteration is intended

solely for fraudulent purposes, that is, to sell under the name of a

higher priced article one of a lower price.

There are many persons who prefer to use vegetable oils and fats as

substitutes for lard in all cases. It is only fair to the consumer that

the character of a fat and oil, however, for edible purposes be plainly

made known to the purchaser. He is then to judge of the propriety or

impropriety of using the articles in question. It seems quite certain

that the use of vegetable oils and fats will be greatly increased in

this country. All hygienists grant that they are at least equally as

wholesome as the animal fat and oil. They are certainly less open to

suspicion as having been derived from diseased sources. As a rule,

they are carefully expressed and properly refined, free from rancidity

and from any mechanical or chemical constituents which render them

unpalatable or unwholesome. They are generally much cheaper, perhaps

the only exception being that of olive oil. These vegetable oils, as a

rule, are excellent for salad dressing, for frying and general cooking

purposes and for the ordinary uses to which lard and other animal fats

are devoted. A proper labeling of all such packages would increase the

quantity consumed, restoring confidence to the public in the character

of the goods purchased, and prove of mutual benefit to the grower, the

manufacturer and the consumer. It must be remembered, however, that

there are many people who prefer the animal fats, and so there will

probably always be a large field for their use. Such consumers are

entitled to secure the pure article, properly prepared from healthy

animals and free from rancidity and organic impurities. Lard and other

animal fats offered in this way will have a greater vogue, command a

greater degree of confidence and secure a larger trade than if sold

under conditions engendering suspicion and distrust.

SOUPS.

=Classification of Soups.=--The soups which are commonly consumed are

divided into two great classes--those of animal and those of vegetable

origin. Any liquid or semi-liquid preparation of a meat or vegetable

or the two combined which may or may not carry particles of solid

substances is classed with these preparations. Soups are generally used

at the beginning of a meal, usually at dinner-time, and, as a rule,

do not have any very high nutritive value. That they have a useful

function cannot be denied, since the introduction of a small quantity

of a condimental and slightly nutritive warm liquid into the stomach

at the beginning of dinner tends to stimulate the secretive glands of

the stomach walls to greater activity and thus to promote digestion.

Soup should be regarded pre-eminently as a condimental and not as a

nutritive substance.

=Preparation of Stock.=--In the making of stock the base of the

material, as a rule, is that part of the meat and bone soluble in hot

water. The best way of preparing this stock is as follows:

The meat and bones selected should be fresh, free from all impurities

and be derived solely from healthy animals as soon as they have

been slaughtered. Inasmuch as the shape of the material used is of

little consequence the parts of the carcass that are cut away in the

preparation of the usual cuts of the marketable meats are utilized

for stock making. The flesh should be cut into fragments of proper

size and the bones broken up into small pieces. This material with the

appropriate amount of water and salt is placed in a vessel capable of

being closed in such a way that no aqueous vapor will escape, and a

slight degree of pressure, equal to the half of an atmosphere, can be

sustained. Simple forms of digesters are made for this purpose which

are perfectly safe at low pressure and supplied with a safety valve

so as to allow steam to escape if the pressure runs too high. Several

hours of digestion are necessary for the preparation of stock, and if

an ordinary vessel is used care must be exercised that the liquid does

not evaporate so as to make the mass dry. Stirring from time to time

assists the solution of the soluble substances. After the extraction

is complete the liquid contents are poured off and the solid material

pressed gently to separate the liquid held in solution. The mass

is then put in a cool place and allowed to stand until thoroughly

cooled and all the fat particles are collected at the top. The fat is

then removed and the resulting liquid strained to remove any solid

particles. The clear solution thus obtained is set aside and used as

stock in the preparation of the various forms of soups. When properly

flavored and used by itself it produces the soup known as consommé.

The soup stock made in this way usually contains not less than 95

percent of water and not more than 5 percent of nutritive matter.

Many of the clear soups prepared in this way contain very much less

nutritive matter, sometimes as low as one percent. It is evident,

therefore, that the soup stock is valuable as a condiment and flavoring

and not as a food.

The number of soups which can be made from soup stock is practically

unlimited. They are formed by the admixture, chiefly of vegetables

cut into small pieces, of starchy materials, mashed peas or beans,

particles of potato, fragments of parched bread, and in fact almost any

nutritive and palatable substance which the cook may wish to employ.

A soup made from a stock of the above description with pea flour was

found to have the following composition:

Water, 88.26 percent

Protein, 3.38 „

Fat, .93 „

Ash, 1.13 „

Starch and other carbohydrates, 6.30 „

A soup made with potatoes from stock of the above description was found

to have the following composition:

Water, 90.96 percent

Protein, 1.37 „

Fat, 1.53 „

Ash, .99 „

Starch and other carbohydrates, 5.13 „

The French make soups which are very well known and highly valued

by cutting vegetables, such as carrots, beets, radishes and other

vegetable substances, into small pieces and adding them to the soup

stock.

=Oyster Soup.=--A soup made of milk, cream, flour, condiments, oysters

and the liquid of oysters is very largely eaten in the United States.

The difference between oyster soup and oyster stew is chiefly in the

amount of oysters employed.

=Green Turtle Soup.=--A soup stock prepared as above described and

flavored with pieces of green turtle is a very common dish.

=Mock Turtle Soup.=--A soup made in imitation of a turtle soup in which

veal takes the place of turtle for flavoring is known as mock turtle

soup.

=Clam Soup or Clam Chowder.=--This is a soup made of clams in the

same way that oyster soup is made. When the clams are cut into small

pieces and are in great abundance and when potatoes are used in large

quantities in the mixture it is known as clam chowder.

=Beef Extract.=--It is evident that a beef extract is only a soup or

a soup stock specially prepared from beef. Beef extract first became

known by the researches of the celebrated chemist Liebig, and has

passed from a mere local preparation to an article which is important

in commerce. Factories have been established in localities far removed

from the principal markets of the world, but where cattle are extremely

plentiful, as in South America, and the preparation of beef extract

is carried on on a large scale, the meat of the animal being thrown

away after the preparation of the extract. The method of preparing

beef extract is practically that described for making a soup stock

under pressure. Instead of using only the trimmings and refuse of the

animal, however, usually the whole of the flesh is employed. The bones

are sometimes used in the making of a beef extract. The sound, fresh

meat is cut into small pieces and extracted under pressure as already

described. After cooking and filtering the product it is brought, in

vacuo, to a proper consistence. Meat extract is, therefore, simply a

concentrated soup stock. It requires about thirty-four pounds of meat

to yield one pound of concentrated extract, and this extract may be

diluted for consumption so as to make from six to seven gallons of

beef tea. The composition of the ordinary beef extract of commerce

shows that it contains from 15 to 20 percent of moisture, from 17 to

23 percent of ash and from 50 to 60 percent of meat bases, that is,

the soluble nitrogenous contents of meat. The bones and tendons are

not used in making beef extract on account of the introduction of

considerable quantities of gelatine into the material. Liebig does

not recommend the presence of gelatine in beef extract because, being

cheaper in quality, it is an adulteration of the genuine article, which

should contain only the pure bases and not the gelatinous principle of

the meat in the tendons and bones.

_Character of Nitrogenous Bodies in Beef Extract._--When beef extract

is prepared according to the Liebig method those nitrogenous bodies

commonly known as meat bases are found in the concentrated extract.

In a beef extract which contains a total of 9.28 percent of nitrogen

the quantity of nitrogen in the form of nitrogenous compounds which

were found therein is as follows: Nitrogen in the form of soluble

albumin,--trace; in the form of albumoses,--1.17; in the form of

peptone,--trace; in the form of meat bases,--6.81; in the form of

ammonia compounds,--.47; in the form of unenumerated compounds,--.83.

The chief meat bases which form the principal part of the substance are

creatin, creatinin, xanthin, carnin and carnic acid.

There are many different forms of beef extract upon the market,

sometimes called by fanciful names and sometimes by the name of the

manufacturer. Among the fanciful names are some which indicate origin

or kind. The extracts which bear the names of the manufacturers are

very numerous, but all of these extracts are essentially of the

same character. One of these is a meat extract in which some of the

meat fiber is contained. The quantity of meat fiber which is used

varies, but is not very great. A comparison of the dry substance in a

preparation of the class mentioned above with the dry substance in meat

shows the following relation:

ASH AND

PROTEIN. MEAT BASES. MINERAL MATTER.

Percent. Percent. Percent.

Extract, 49.7 25.6 24.7

Meat, 86.7 7.8 5.3

The above data show that the extract is essentially different in its

composition from dried meat and has added to it a large quantity of

meat fiber or the meat rendered soluble by some kind of treatment.

_Nutritive Properties._--It cannot be denied that meat extract, as has

been said in the case of soup stock, contains only a small part of

nutritive matter. This nutritive substance is in a state of solution

and probably is more readily absorbed than a similar amount of other

nutritives in the form of ordinary meat. Its chief value as a nutrient,

therefore, is not in the amount of nutrient material which it contains,

but in the ease and speed with which it may become absorbed into the

circulation. In case of illness this is often a very important point.

It is not a question so much of the utilization of a large amount of

nutrients as the absorption and assimilation in small quantities which

will sustain life until the disordered conditions disappear. For these

reasons the meat extracts have a value. There is, however, little

doubt of the fact that in the popular mind a great deal more credit

is given to meat extracts than should properly belong to them. They

must be regarded principally as condimental and incident to nutrition

rather than as nutritive substances. The claims which are made by the

manufacturers are sometimes misleading, as, for instance, that one

pound of extract contains the nutritive properties of many pounds

of meat. Such a statement, of course, is absurd upon its face and

should not be allowed to go unchallenged. Even when meat extracts are

reinforced by the addition of soluble or comminuted fiber, as is often

the case, the quantity of nourishment is very small as compared with a

similar weight of meat itself.

It is not intended by the above remarks to cast any discredit upon

the value of beef extract, as its value has been attested in numerous

cases. It is only designed to call attention to the fact that as food

these extracts have comparatively little value. They may be useful

as stimulants or as condimental substances or as a means of speedily

introducing a soluble nutrient in the case of disease where it is

extremely important that even small amounts of nutritious material

should enter the body.

=Beef Juice.=--A distinction is made between a beef extract and a beef

juice. The latter term applies solely to the liquid naturally remaining

in the fresh meat after its proper preparation for consumption, that

is, after the withdrawal of the blood and the proper cooling and

storing of the flesh. The fresh meat is then subjected to strong

pressure and the juices which are extracted are concentrated in vacuo

to the proper consistence. The meat of old bulls is often used. A true

beef juice must be extracted from the cold meat and not with the aid

of heat, hot water or other solvents. It is difficult to preserve an

extract of this kind without sterilization, and the heat required for

sterilization is likely to coagulate some of the albuminous material

which is expressed. It is a great temptation, therefore, in some cases

to preserve the beef juice by a chemical preservative other than common

salt. Boric acid and sulfite of soda may be used for this purpose, but

these substances are objectionable on the score of possible injury to

health. Glycerine is also used. Inasmuch as these juices are usually

given to invalids or those whose digestive functions are impaired it is

most important that injurious substances should be omitted. In case of

pressure it is advisable, in some cases, to chop the meat very fine,

and in this comminuted condition extract the juice with cold water.

This does not produce any change in the character of the juice and the

water is subsequently removed by evaporation at a low temperature in

vacuo. Beef juices are usually prepared from heated meats.

_Composition of Beef Juice._--The composition of beef juice from

different parts of meat which was previously heated externally is shown

in the following table.

COMPOSITION OF BEEF JUICE AND MEAT EXTRACT.

BEEF MEAT

JUICE. EXTRACT.

Water, 90.65 21.66

Ash, 1.36 20.46

NaCl (salt), .15 5.47

P₂O₅ (phosphoric acid), .36 4.55

Fat, .19 .50

Acid (as lactic), .15 8.42

Nitrogen (total), 1.15 7.66

„ insoluble and coagulable, .68 .48

„ as proteoses, .04 2.02

„ as peptones, .14 1.90

„ meat bases, .30 3.05

„ creatin, .75

„ xanthin bases, .04

„ ammonia, .21

The above analyses show the general character of meat juice extracted

first by externally heating the meat and then pressing. They show that

there is less nitrogenous bodies present in meat juice than there is

in meat extracts. It is evident that meat extracts cannot be heated

for sterilization without coagulation of the globulins. When it is

advisable to use a beef juice in a case of illness it is far better

to prepare it at the time when it is used than to prepare it on a

commercial scale and preserve it by any of the chemical means in vogue.

Meat juice can be very well prepared for domestic use by chopping

the meat very fine, placing it in a vessel, heating to 140° F., and

pressing it by any simple means, as, for instance, with the hand or by

using an ordinary lemon squeezer. The juice obtained in this way can

be flavored with salt and spices to suit the taste of the patient, and

used immediately. In some cases, in order to get a greater yield, pure

cold water may be mixed with the chopped meat and a somewhat dilute

juice obtained but giving a greater yield of nutritive material for the

same weight of meat.

Various names, fanciful and otherwise, are given to the so-called beef

juices. These names are either fanciful or, as in the case of beef

extracts, that of the manufacturer. Some of the fanciful names are,

like those already mentioned, suggestive of origin. Some of these have

large quantities of coagulable protein, like albumin, while others

have such small quantities as to indicate that they are not wholly

beef juice. In the case of some of these preparations there is some

indication that they are prepared chiefly from blood and thus are not

true meat juices. Naturally there must be particles of blood in a meat

juice and the mere occurrence of blood cells would not be an indication

that blood itself had been used in its preparation. By reason of these

facts the use of so-called meat juices is restricted. They contain

relatively very little nutritive material, they are sometimes preserved

with harmful chemicals and they may be made from blood, and in general

there is such a degree of secrecy attending their preparation as to

warrant the physician and patient to confine themselves to the domestic

article prepared at the time of using. Another objection which is not

of a hygienic character is found in the great expense of securing a

very little nourishment by this means. The quantity of juice which meat

will yield is very small and, therefore, the relative expense for any

given quantity of nourishment is far greater than it is even in the

case of beef extract. While in the case of rich patients an objection

like this is of little value, in the great majority of cases it should

be given due consideration.

=Soluble Meats.=--Various attempts have been made to put soluble meats

upon the market for use, especially for invalids and in cases of

disordered digestion. The principle which underlies the preparation

of these meats is to subject them to a certain degree of artificial

digestion, by means of which the protein matter becomes converted

into soluble forms, either albumose, proteose or peptone. The

process which is employed is a simple one, namely, the comminution of

the meat into as fine particles as possible and its admixture with

hydrochloric acid and pepsin. It is then subjected to artificial

digestion until a considerable portion of the meat is soluble. Another

method of preparation is to omit the pepsin and after the addition of

hydrochloric acid to place the meat in a digestor where it is subjected

to a temperature of steam under pressure for a considerable length

of time. A goodly proportion of the meat becomes soluble under this

process. After the preparation is completed the residual hydrochloric

acid is neutralized by carbonate of soda, forming common salt, which

gives the proper flavor to the compound.

The composition of soluble meat prepared in this way is given in

the following table (Foods and Principles of Dietetics, by Robert

Hutchinson):

Water, 67.21 percent

Fat, 5.93 „

Albumin, 11.00 „

Peptone, 6.51 „

Meat extract, 7.55 „

Ash and salt, 1.74 „

A meat solution of this kind is not really a solution, since not only

is that part which passes into solution contained in it, but also the

residual meat fibers which are not dissolved but so softened by the

process that they lose their distinct form and can be rubbed up to a

thick pasty mass. The product, therefore, consists not only of the

part of the meat rendered thoroughly soluble in water by the process,

but also of a residual part, softened and reduced to a paste. The

mass has practically the same nutritive value as an equivalent amount

of meat with the claimed advantage that a large portion of it is

already soluble. This partial predigestion may be of value in cases of

disease or disordered digestion of any kind, but there is no reason

for believing that the healthy stomach requires any sort of artificial

predigestion for the proper conduct of its functions. On the other

hand, there is every reason for supposing that any kind of predigestion

which is at all effective will in the end prove injurious to healthy

digestive organs by depriving them of a part of their normal functions

and thus tending to bring them to a condition of feebleness which may

result in the omission, in part, of the normal functions of the vital

organs.

=Preparations of Blood.=--There is no doubt of the valuable nutritive

properties of blood and its preparations are sometimes used as foods.

There is a deep-seated prejudice against the use of blood as human

food, doubtless based on older and more effective grounds than even

the laws of health promulgated by Moses. Man is an animal of some

refinement of character and the sight or use of blood is repugnant to

his finer instincts. Sometimes blood is dried and powdered and the

blood powder mixed with other food. Another method is to coagulate the

blood, then remove the coagulated portion and use the residue for food

purposes. This preparation, of course, contains no coagulable portions

of blood, that is, the protein thereof known as fibrin. There is no

reason for believing that preparations of blood will ever occupy any

prominent position in the food supply, either of persons in health or

of invalids.

=Beef Tea.=--A very common food preparation from beef is that known as

beef tea. In all essential particulars beef tea is nothing more than

a rich unfiltered soup stock. Inasmuch, however, as it is constantly

prescribed in many kinds of illness and is prepared under certain

conditions it should be mentioned specially here in addition to the

preparations already described. As in the case of meat juice, beef tea

should always be prepared in the home, and immediately before using.

It is a preparation which can not be properly made and kept without

the addition of some preservative which renders it totally unfit for

human consumption. The very choicest portion of the beef should be

selected in the preparation of beef tea and it should be reduced to a

fine state of comminution. The removal of the fat and tendons should

be as complete as possible, as particularly the latter tend to add to

the extract more of the gelatine-like principles than is desirable. The

fragments should be mixed with a sufficient quantity of cold water to

make the desired amount of beef tea, usually one pound of water to a

pound of comminuted beef is a good proportion. The mixture should be

kept cold for a considerable length of time with frequent stirrings in

order to extract as much as possible of the nitrogenous matter which

becomes coagulated by heating. Salt may be used not only to promote

the solubility but also to give the proper taste. After the lapse of

an hour or more the vessel may be covered and gradually warmed. During

this warming the mass should be frequently stirred so to as promote the

solution. When finally the extraction is complete, before the tea is

administered it should be cooked, that is, heated to the boiling-point,

by which process the soluble protein is coagulated but not hardened,

and the material is rendered more palatable. The beef tea should be

administered without separating the coagulated fragments of albuminous

material, which is in a state easily digestible, and adds much to the

nutritive value of the mixture. Finally the residue of beef may be put

into a bag and subjected to pressure to remove as much of the juice

contained therein as possible. The difference between beef tea and

soup stock, as will be seen, is largely in the filtering. The beef tea

should retain the coagulated flocks, while in the soup stock they are

removed. One pound of good lean beef and one pint of water yield about

one-half pound of good beef tea. As in the case of soup stock, beef

tea is not a very nutritive substance. It is, however, stimulating,

and the nourishment which it contains is quickly absorbed. The soft,

coagulated flocks of albumin are readily digested, and often a patient

may be nourished for days on a preparation of this kind when he is in

a condition which renders it impracticable to use either solid or other

liquid foods.

Beef tea is also made on a large commercial scale and with some degree

of approximation to the home prepared article. For various reasons,

however, which have already been advanced, a well made domestic beef

tea which can be used as soon as prepared is to be preferred in all

cases to the manufactured article. A beef tea properly made contains

approximately the following composition:

Water, 88.00 percent

Meat bases, 3.50 „

Protein--soluble and flocculated, 8.00 „

Ash and salt, 1.50 „

=Dried and Powdered Meats.=--The preparation of dried meat has already

been described. There has lately been placed upon the market a

number of preparations dried and finely ground, under various names,

fanciful and those of the manufacturer. Inasmuch as ordinary meats

are largely composed of water, it is evident that if the water can

be removed without impairing the quality of the meat, great expense

in transportation would be saved and the use of preservatives would

be unnecessary. Various attempts, therefore, have been made to place

dried meats upon the market. The meat powders are not only offered

in their natural state of desiccation but also are prepared with a

more or less previous digestion. One of the most common of these meat

powders is known as somatose, which has been made in large quantities,

and sold throughout all parts of the world. It consists largely of

albumoses rather than of peptones, but this is true of a great many

of the so-called peptone preparations. The composition of somatose

is represented in the following table (Allen’s Commercial Organic

Analyses, Vol. IV, page 384):

Water, 14.25 percent

Albumin rendered soluble by alkali, 21.83 „

Albumin, 3.40 „

Albumoses, 33.96 „

Peptone, 3.06 „

Meat bases, 2.62 „

Ash and salt, 5.30 „

The above data show that the meat still contains nearly 15 percent of

moisture and that an alkali has been used to render the protein more

soluble. This alkali has increased the quantity of mineral matter over

that which would naturally be present. Whatever may be the relative

value of the prepared protein matter as compared with that in the

original meat, it is seen that a large quantity of it, practically as

much as was in the original meat, has been preserved in the finished

product. Whether or not it is advisable to use a preparation of

this kind is a question to be left with the physician. It may be

said unhesitatingly that in all cases of health somatose could not

possibly present any advantage over fresh meat. On the contrary,

for theoretical and practical reasons, it is certain that it is less

valuable.

=Composition of the Ash of Meat Juice and Meat Broth.=--The principal

mineral component of the natural juice of meat broth or meat extract

is phosphate of potassium, though there are also small quantities

of magnesium and smaller quantities of calcium present. In addition

to this there is a certain quantity of common salt present, which

is determined, however, largely by the method of preparation. The

following analysis shows the composition of the ash of a meat juice to

which little or no common salt has been added:

Potassium (K), 34.40 percent

Sodium (Na), 9.70 „

Calcium (Ca), .36 „

Magnesium (Mg), 2.55 „

Phosphoric acid (P₂O₅), 27.00 „

Other constituents are not determined in this analysis. The phosphate

of potassium may therefore be regarded as the principal natural ash

constituent of meat extract and meat juice. (Zeitschrift für Biologie,

Vol. XII, 1876.)

=Adulteration of Meat Extract.=--The principal adulterations of meat

extract have already been mentioned. The substances used in preserving

it are of the greatest hygienic consequence. These are chiefly salt

and glycerol or alcohol. The use of all of these substances is

reprehensible. Fortunately they are seldom used. Another adulteration

which has been practiced is mixing the meat extract with extracts

of yeast. The extract of yeast has valuable dietetic properties and

contains the active principles of fermentation. It also resembles, in

many respects, physically and chemically, the extract of meat, and can,

therefore, be mixed with meat extract, and, being a cheaper article,

forms a mixture which can be sold at a greater profit. The presence of

yeast extract in meat extract can easily be determined by treating the

mixture with a strong solution of sulfate of zinc and filtering. In

meat extract the filtrate obtained is always quite clear, but when a

yeast extract is present the filtrate is turbid.

=Active Principles Contained in Meat Extract.=--Attention has already

been called to some of the more important active principles, namely,

meat bases which form a valuable portion of meat extract. There are

various forms of nitrogenous bodies, however, besides meat bases,

which become soluble naturally in meat or by the treatment of meat

with digestive ferments. Lean meat, as is well known, consists almost

exclusively of protein matter and water. This protein matter is

principally insoluble. Under the action of digestive ferments the

protein of meat becomes broken up into more soluble bodies, known as

albumoses, proteoses and peptones,--the latter being the final product

of solution. These bodies are still true protein bodies containing the

elements of sulfur as one of their essential constituents. The meat

bases, on the contrary, contain the other elements that are in protein

but do not have the sulfur element. They belong to that class of bodies

which is known as simple amido compounds. All of these bodies are mixed

together in meat juice or beef extract, and it is an important task of

the chemist to separate them, both from an analytical point of view and

the determination of their relative abundance. There is also another

soluble or semisoluble protein substance in these extracts derived

from the tendinous tissues and bones, namely, the gelatine or glue.

This is quite a common product, being the soluble protein procured by

the digestion of the tendons and bones. It is important, therefore,

that the chemist should distinguish between the gelatine and the amido

bodies. There is also a true and a false protein form of these soluble

bodies, the true one being formed by natural proteolytic ferments and

the false one being formed by heat or digestion under pressure of

steam. The chemist should also be able to distinguish between the true

extract formed directly from the meat and the yeast extract used as an

adulteration.

It is not the purpose of this manual to enter into the details of how

these different bodies may be distinguished from one another, as that

is purely a chemical study. It is due, however, to the general reader

that some explanation be given of the different classes of bodies which

are contained in these extracts.

=Relation between the Price of an Extract and its Nutritive

Value.=--The studies made in the Bureau of Chemistry show that there

is little relation between the price of a beef extract and its real

nutritive value. In three cases of extract which are all well known

brands and are of the thick or pasty variety, showing that a dissolved

meat had been added to them, the average weight of a package costing

45 cents was only 55 grams, or nearly a cent a gram. In another three

samples of extract, also well known brands, of the same pasty variety

and costing little more per package, it was found that the weight of

the more expensive variety was double that of the first, costing only

one-half cent per gram. In the case of the liquid extracts where no

pasty material is incorporated there is still greater variation in the

relation of the price to the nutritive constituents. An extract which

retails for one dollar per bottle contains 91.69 percent of water and

only .42 percent of nitrogen. Another so-called meat extract which

retails at 60 cents per bottle must have been wholly an artificial

product, since it contained no creatin or creatinin at all. It was

also preserved by the addition of alcohol and contained an artificial

coloring matter.

The ash existing in these extracts is, of course, usually due to the

presence of large quantities of common salt. Sodium chlorid is added

to this extract without any definite rule at all and sometimes in very

excessive quantities. In some cases thirty percent of the total extract

is composed of common salt. In other words, a person taking a solution

of this kind would be injecting into his stomach a very concentrated

brine. When common salt may be sold at the rate of one dollar per

pound, the profit on the transaction is one which ought to make the

business exceedingly attractive.

The total phosphoric acid in the ash also shows variations, and if it

were not so easy to add artificial phosphoric acid the actual amount

present might be taken as a base by which quality could be judged.

In the natural extract the total phosphoric acid should be in the

proportion to organic phosphoric acid as 10 to 1, which is the natural

condition in which it is found in meat extract. In many cases the

amount of inorganic phosphorus is so great as to render it certain that

a phosphate, probably the phosphate of soda, has been added. In another

case the quantity of organic phosphoric acid was very much greater than

could have possibly been the case in a natural product, indicating

the addition of lecithin or glycerophosphoric acid. The amount of fat

in beef extract, when properly prepared, should be very small and

should certainly not exceed one percent, since by the proper method

of preparation the fat is largely separated. In the pasty material,

however, where the meat is reduced to a pulp and retained in the

package the amount of fat will be very much greater.

=The Nitrogenous Bases.=--The average nitrogen content of the pasty or

solid extracts varies from 6 to 9 percent. The nitrogen in the meat

juice is subject to much greater fluctuation, depending largely on the

content of solids. Although a high nitrogen content is not a guarantee

of the character or mode of manufacture of an extract, it is naturally

expected and is desirable.

The addition of gelatine to extracts is now largely practiced and

has been for some years. By adding gelatine the manufacturer raises

or maintains a certain nitrogen content, but supplies the nitrogen

in a form lacking in all quickly stimulating qualities, and the

natural flavor of the meat extract nitrogen is lowered. The buyer

is consequently deprived of the characteristic essentials of a beef

extract although the nitrogen content is relatively high. In many

cases only a small proportion of the original gelatine exists in the

extract as such. The gelatine is converted by a gradual process of

hydration into gelatoses and gelatine peptones. While the separation

of gelatine from protein matter is a process in anything but a

satisfactory condition, it is a far simpler process than the detection

and separation of gelatoses and gelatine peptones from albuminoses and

peptones. The question has not been thoroughly studied up to date.

The question of adulteration of meat extracts with gelatine is not

the only form of adulteration we have to face. The mixing of varying

amounts of yeast extract with meat extracts is being practiced at

the present time in some countries. As we have not investigated this

question, we cannot state whether it is practiced in this country at

the present time or not.

=Kinds of Preparations.=--Meat preparations of the above types in

general may be divided into three classes, liquid extracts, pasty

extracts and powdered extracts. In addition to the above, within the

last few years beef extract pellets, some of them being enclosed

in gelatine capsules, have appeared upon the market. The old-time

product of Liebig’s extract belongs to the second class, in which

we also find many of our best known brands. The liquid extracts are

varied and numerous and their number is rapidly increasing. The amount

of meat extractives in some of these liquid products is remarkably

small, the quantity of solids in two or three cases being under 10

percent. Alcohol is sometimes met with in these liquid preparations.

The meat powders are far less numerous than the extracts of the first

two classes. They consist largely, if not entirely, of albuminoses and

peptones in addition to some insoluble proteid matter.

Moreover, it is necessary to distinguish between a meat extract

containing large amounts of stimulating amido-acids and relatively

small percentages of albuminoses, peptones and insoluble proteid matter

on the one hand, and, on the other hand, an extract, or, more properly,

a meat product, which consists largely of albuminoses, peptones and

insoluble matter and relatively small amounts of amido-acids. The food

value of this last group of products is undoubtedly greater than that

of the former group, but being sold as meat extracts, their value

should be based on the amount of extractives they contain and not on

their food value.

The value of the amido-bodies, such as the meat bases, as food, is of

uncertain character, but we must admit, as in the case of alcohol, they

can at least be burned and furnish energy to the body. Like alcohol,

the value of meat extractives lies principally in their stimulating

qualities. The active principles of tea and coffee are on a similar

basis. As these simpler amido-bodies are the final links in the long

chain of hydrolytic products of the proteid molecule prior to the

complete resolution of that molecule into carbon dioxid, water, etc.,

it is readily seen that an ounce of meat extractives (the various

amido-bodies) represents a far larger amount of beef than an ounce

of albuminoses does. The various protein bodies and amido-acids are

closely interwoven and it is impossible to produce amido-acids without

producing albuminoses and peptones. Consequently, every commercial

meat extract must consist partly of albuminoses, peptones, etc. The

best of our extracts on the market to-day contain about 50 percent of

their total nitrogen in the form of meat base nitrogen. When an extract

contains less than 5 percent of its nitrogen in the form of meat base

nitrogen the term “extract” seems to be no longer applicable. It is

evident that the product represents much less meat than an extract with

50 percent of its nitrogen in the form of meat base nitrogen, provided

the total nitrogen in both cases is approximately equal.

The proteid matter coagulated by heating to boiling, as well as the

proteid matter insoluble in cold water, are both undesirable factors

in an extract of meat. As a rule, the lower the proportion of these

constituents, the higher the character of the meat extract. The same

thing holds true in regard to the presence of albuminoses and peptones.

The quantity of total nitrogen in the form of meat base nitrogen in

the best extracts reaches 50 percent. In one of the poorest it is 3.82

percent. The food value of the latter product might be greater than

that of the former, but its cost of manufacture and its stimulating

value are much less.

Creatin figures are very interesting and of much value in determining

the source and value of an extract. Creatin is the principal amido-body

found in meat, consequently we expect to find it or creatinin, its

hydrated form, in still larger quantities in meat extracts. In several

cases which came under our notice where the extract acted suspiciously,

the creatin values were nil, and in such cases grave doubts exist as to

the source of the extract. Our best extracts give high creatin as well

as high meat base figures.

The xanthin bases and ammonia nitrogen figures present a variety of

problems. While the xanthin bases are desirable constituents, ammonia

in any amount is not. It is questionable whether the ammonia figures

obtained by the magnesium oxid method do not give too high results (W.

D. Bigelow).

=Gelatine.=--Gelatine is a substance obtained from the nitrogenous

portions of bones, hide, horns, hoofs, connective tissue, tendons

and other nitrogenous matter of the animal. One of the principal

constituents of these bodies is a substance known as collagen. When

this is heated either under pressure or without pressure it is changed

to gelatine. Glue is unrefined gelatine or impure gelatine to which

usually some substance has been added to increase its holding power.

A type of gelatine known as isinglass is made from the bladders of

sturgeons.

The general process of manufacturing gelatine is as follows (Whipple,

Technology Quarterly, Vol. XV, No. 2, June, 1902):

“The hide scraps are first macerated and subjected to the action of

a solution of lime or caustic soda in pits for two or three weeks.

This dissolves most of the blood and saponifies the fats. The excess

of lime or soda is then largely removed by washing and the solution

steamed to dissolve the gelatine, but an excess of heat is avoided.

Sulfurous acid is used to bleach the gelatine. When of sufficient

strength, the gelatine is allowed to harden in molds or on slabs, and

is ultimately dried in sheets on wire nets. Bone gelatine is made in a

somewhat similar manner. The bones are crushed, boiled, treated with

hydrochloric acid, and the gelatine is dissolved as before, washed,

bleached and dried in sheets. The process requires a number of weeks.”

Gelatine is also made from bones, fresh as well as old, and from the

residues of bones used in the manufacture of buttons. The thin slices

of the bones are treated with acid until all the phosphate of lime is

extracted. They are then treated with lime and the gelatinous residue

is then dissolved in warm water and purified for use.

The use of gelatine as a food has of late years become very common. The

ease with which it can be made into jellies, the consistence which it

gives to ice-cream and its general utility in the cuisine have made it

deservedly popular. Gelatine is the product of some of the nitrogenous

parts of the animal and should be made only from the edible parts

thereof. It is particularly abundant in the tendinous portions of the

animal and in the tissues about the head, from which a large part of

edible gelatine is made. No portion of the animal which is filthy or

unfit for food should ever enter into the composition of the gelatine.

If the parts from which the gelatine are made are cured previous to

manufacture they should be cured in a perfectly sanitary way, as

carefully as any other part of the meat. There can be no objection to

the use of gelatine made from these sanitary materials in foods of all

kinds.

There is, however, a possibility that some of the gelatines on the

market may be made from materials wholly unfit for food. The food law

forbids the use of animal substances unfit for food either directly

or indirectly. As an illustration of this condition of affairs I may

call attention to the fact that a part of the gelatines sold in the

United States are made from parts of animals slaughtered in South

America. It is not known to the consumer in what conditions these parts

are preserved and transported. They may be possibly packed with the

hide and sent to Belgium or other countries in a filthy, putrid and

abhorrent state and these parts be cut from the hides before they are

sent to the tanneries and converted into gelatine and sold as edible

gelatine. Such a possibility should not exist, and there is no danger

of its existence with high class manufacturers. A part of the horns

is also used for such purposes, which being of an inedible portion

and unfit for food is not admissible, under the law, as a constituent

of edible gelatine. All such materials should be excluded in the

manufacture of such an important product. Further than this, it may be

stated that the line of demarcation between gelatine and glue is not

always as well drawn as it should be, and this is illustrated in the

report that the gelatine and glue are manufactured in the same factory,

and the same conditions of odor and insanitation which adhere to glue

may attach themselves to the gelatine. Such a condition, of course,

would be an exceptional case, but its possibility should be excluded.

Under the food law only those forms of gelatine first described above

can be legally made and sold for use in food.

_Adulteration of Gelatine._--The adulterations of gelatine are such as

those referred to above in the form of raw materials employed which

are insanitary and unfit for food. In addition to this, bleaching

agents, namely, sulfurous acid or sulfites and mineral acids, are

often employed in the manufacture, portions of which may remain in

the finished article. All of these substances must be regarded as

adulterants and as insanitary and unsuitable to gelatine, and to that

extent unfit for human consumption.

_Presence of Tetanus in Commercial Gelatine._--The Public Health and

Marine Hospital Service has investigated gelatine to determine whether

or not it may be infected with pathogenic germs. The conclusions of

the investigation are as follows (Bulletin No. 9, Hygienic Laboratory):

“Seven samples of gelatine examined; one showed tetanus spores.

“Two samples showed an oval end-spore rod, whose identity was not

proved, but, in stained specimens, it would be hard to distinguish from

tetanus, if indeed not tetanus with diminished virulence.

“In tetanus investigations it is important to use _freshly_ made

bouillon, as the organism is apt not to germinate in bouillon over ten

days old. The thermal death point of the organism isolated was found to

be between twenty and thirty seconds at 100 degrees C.

“It is important, therefore, that gelatine to be used for injections

should be boiled at least ten minutes on account of the variability of

the thermal death point in different species of tetanus. Whether this

amount of heating impairs in any way the hemostatic power of gelatine

has not been settled, but in case it does it is believed that the

danger from tetanus more than overbalances its therapeutic value.

“It is suggested that when, as in hospitals, there is likelihood of

gelatine injections being used for hemostatic purposes the gelatine

solution be sterilized by the fractional method on three successive

days and kept ready for use in sterile containers.”

From the data given above it is seen that gelatine may become infected

and the material from which it is made for edible purposes should be

healthful, sanitary and fit for food. It is not likely that tetanus

germs would prove dangerous when taken into the stomach, but freedom

from infection should be secured if possible. These investigations

show the wisdom of the pure food law in forbidding the use of parts of

animals unfit for food, whether manufactured or not, in the production

of food products. It is evident that a sufficient quantity of fresh,

sanitary material or material properly preserved can be obtained in

this country or in other countries to supply the needs for edible

gelatine without resorting to the use of inedible parts of hides,

horns, hoofs and other waste and unfit portions of the animal.

=Summary.=--Above have been presented some of the principal meat

foods, the analytical data which show their composition, the processes

by means of which they are prepared and the principal methods,

objectionable and otherwise, by which they are preserved.

Meat is a staple article of diet among almost all nations of men. The

anatomical structure of the human animal indicates that his environment

has adapted him to eating meats of all kinds. In other words, man is

an omnivorous animal. He has been developed in an environment in which

all kinds of meats and vegetables have ministered to his sustenance,

and thus he is an omnivorous animal both by evolution and necessarily

by heredity. That man can live and flourish without meat has been fully

established by experiments, but that man cannot be nourished by meat

alone has likewise been fully established, so that if the human race

were necessarily to be deprived either of animal or vegetable foods, it

would be the animal food which must be sacrificed.

It is not the purpose of this manual to discuss the relative merits

of vegetarianism as compared with the common diet of the human race.

It may not be amiss, however, to say that probably in the United

States especially, a larger quantity of meat is eaten than is either

necessary or wholesome. The people of our country are better able to

supply themselves with expensive foods than those of other countries,

and of the common foods meats are far more expensive than cereals. The

eating of larger quantities of cereals and smaller quantities of meat

would probably be conducive both to economy and health. It appears

to be certain that the meat eating of the future may not be regarded

so much as a necessity as it has in the past, but that meats will be

used more as condimental substances than as staple foods. In all meat,

for instance, that costs 25 cents a pound, such as steaks, there is

over one-third or a half of it which is inedible, so that the edible

portion really costs double that amount. On the contrary, when a pound

of flour or maize is purchased, the price of which is perhaps only

one-eighth that of meat, the whole of it is edible. Thus, from the mere

point of economy as well as of nutrition the superiority of cereals

and other vegetable products is at once evident. On the one hand, a

cereal is almost a complete food containing all the elements necessary

to nutrition, and it costs only a few cents a pound. On the other hand,

a steak or roast is only a partial food and it costs much more than

cereals.

It is hoped that one purpose of this manual may be secured, namely, by

showing the consumer the actual composition of the different kinds of

food and their method of preparation he may be led in the selection of

his food to follow the dictates of science and economy to a certain

extent rather than merely the impulse of taste. The eating of such

large quantities of meat is merely a habit which often is developed in

children through the carelessness and ignorance of parents, much to the

detriment of the child as well as to his future health and activity.

It is believed that if the true principles of the use of meat were

properly inculcated a large saving in the energy of the wage earner as

well as those in more affluent circumstances would be secured.

Sound principles of economy establish a better condition of health and

lead to greater activity and fruitful labor.

TERRESTRIAL ANIMAL OILS.

Terrestrial animal oils are obtained directly from parts of the animals

which yield, at ordinary temperature, a substance which remains liquid.

The fats which are in the feet of the animals are usually more liquid

than in any other part of the body, and hence the natural animal

oils are derived largely from the feet. Among the most important

are sheep’s foot oil, horse foot oil, and neat’s foot oil, which is

obtained from the feet of cattle. These oils are all highly valued for

technical purposes, especially for lubricating, and for this purpose

bring a very high price. They are not used or should not be used for

edible purposes, though they perhaps may sometimes be used in cooking.

Neat’s foot oil, especially, on account of its high price, is often

subjected to adulteration, and is mixed for this purpose with cheap

vegetable oils, such as cottonseed. Fish oil is also often used in the

adulteration of neat’s foot oil, though the addition of any of these

oils to neat’s foot oil raises the iodin number to a very high degree,

and hence this addition is easily detected by the chemist.

=Lard Oil.=--Lard oil is one of the most important of terrestrial

animal oils. It is made from lard by melting it and allowing it to

slowly cool. The stearin in the product crystallizes first, and when it

reaches a condition favoring the separation of the stearin the mass is

subjected to straining or pressure, whereby the olein or liquid portion

of the oil is separated, and thus, having been freed from the most

of its stearin, remains liquid at ordinary temperature. The residue

is known as lard stearin and is largely employed in the preparation

of lard to give it a higher melting point and in the manufacture of

oleomargarine.

Lard oil is used to some extent for edible purposes and is itself

sometimes employed in the manufacture of oleomargarine when mixed with

tallow or tallow stearin.

_Properties of Lard Oil._--It is evident that the chemical and physical

properties of lard oil are determined by the completeness with which

the stearin is separated. Inasmuch, however, as the conditions of

manufacture are nearly constant, lard oil has characteristics of a

physical and chemical nature which do not vary greatly. The specific

gravity of lard oil at 15 degrees is about .916, and its iodin number

varies from 68 to 75. When made of the best material it has a neutral

taste, not an unpleasant odor, and, therefore, can be used for edible

purposes without introducing any characteristic odor or flavor into

the prepared food. In point of fact, however, it is not used to any

extent for edible purposes except in the manufactured articles above

mentioned. When carefully made and of the proper quality pure lard oil

should be practically free from free acid.

_Adulterations._--On account of the high value of lard oil for

lubricating and other purposes it has been subjected to extensive

adulterations. The addition of cheaper animal oils or vegetable oils

has been largely practiced. Fish oil, blubber oil, and other marine

animal oils have also been freely used in the adulteration of lard

oil whenever the difference in price has rendered it advisable. These

adulterations are of such a character that they can be detected only by

the skilled microscopist and chemist. The other animal oils, both of

marine and terrestrial origin, while important from a technical point

of view, are of no significance in respect of edible qualities.

Foods and Their Adulteration Origin, Manufacture, and Composition of Food Products; Description of Common Adulterations, Food Standards, and National Food Laws and Regulations · 第 2 / 19 章