PART I._Foods and Their Adulteration Origin, Manufacture, and Composition of Food Products; Description of Common Adulterations, Food Standards, and National Food Laws and Regulations

Transcriber’s Notes

Text printed in italics has been transcribed between _underscores_,

bold faced text between =equal signs=. Small capitals have been

replaced with ALL CAPITALS.

More Transcriber’s Notes may be found at the end of this text.

FOODS AND THEIR ADULTERATION

WILEY

=BY THE SAME AUTHOR.=

=BEVERAGES AND THEIR ADULTERATION.=

OUTLINE OF CONTENTS.

I. Spring, well, and other potable waters.

II. Potable mineral waters.

III. Contamination of waters and how to avoid them.

IV. Coffee, Tea, Cocoa, Chocolate, etc.

V. Soda Waters, Pops, Seltzers, etc.

VI. Fermented Beverages--Growth of Raw Materials, Manufacture,

and Storage:

(_a_) Beers. (_b_) Wines. (_c_) Ciders, Perrys, Meads, etc.

VII. Distilled Liquors:

(_a_) Whiskey. (_b_) Brandy. (_c_) Rum. (_d_) Gin and other flavored

compounds. (_e_) Imitation and compound liquors. (_f_) Blends.

(_g_) Cordials, denatured alcohol, etc.

VIII. So-called temperance drinks.

IX. Beverages of a miscellaneous character.

=Octavo. Illustrated. In Preparation.=

=P. BLAKISTON’S SON & CO., Publishers, Philadelphia.=

FOODS AND

THEIR ADULTERATION

ORIGIN, MANUFACTURE, AND COMPOSITION OF

FOOD PRODUCTS; DESCRIPTION OF COMMON

ADULTERATIONS, FOOD STANDARDS, AND

NATIONAL FOOD LAWS AND REGULATIONS

HARVEY W. WILEY, M.D., PH.D.

WITH ELEVEN COLORED PLATES AND

EIGHTY-SIX OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS

PHILADELPHIA

P. BLAKISTON’S SON & CO.

1012 WALNUT STREET

1907

WM. F. FELL COMPANY

ELECTROTYPERS AND PRINTERS

1220-24 SANSOM STREET

PHILADELPHIA, PA.

PREFACE.

This manual is descriptive in character and aims to give, within its

scope, as thoroughly and intelligibly as possible, an account of the

various food-products in common use in their natural and manufactured

conditions, with the usual adulterations which have been found therein.

It includes information regarding Methods of Preparation and

Manufacture, Food Values, Standards of Purity, Regulations for

Inspection, Simple Tests for Adulterations, Effects of Storage, and

similar matters pertaining to the subject.

It has been designed to interest the consumer, as well as the

manufacturer, the scientific, as well as the general reader, all of

whom it is hoped will find in it something useful. The consumer is

entitled to know the nature of the product offered, the manufacturer

and dealer the best methods of preparation. It will give the physician

and sanitarian knowledge of the value of foods, their proper use and

inspection, and, while not analytical in purpose, will provide the

chemist with information which will guide him in his work of detecting

impurities.

It has been thought advisable to give in the appendices extracts from

the national laws relating to the subject, as well as the rules and

regulations for their enforcement and official standards of purity,

as these are now of general interest to all classes. In revising the

manuscript and in reading the proofs, especial recognition is made of

the valuable aid of Dr. W. D. Bigelow, Chief of the Division of Foods

of the Department of Agriculture; Dr. F. V. Coville, Botanist of the

Department of Agriculture, and Dr. B. W. Evermann, of the Bureau of

Fisheries. Acknowledgement is also made of the favors of the Bureaus of

Plant Industry, Animal Industry, and Forestry. Many helpful suggestions

from other sources can only be acknowledged in this general way. All

opinions respecting adulterations, misbranding, nutritive value, and

wholesomeness are the individual expressions of the author and are not

to be considered in any other manner. Honest and truthful practices of

manufacture and labeling are to be promoted in every possible manner.

In the end the true, the ethical, and the just in these practices will

prevail.

HARVEY W. WILEY.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _May 1, 1907_.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE

INTRODUCTION 1-10

Proper Ration, 3; Social Function of Food, 5; Definition and

Composition of Foods, 6; Classification of Foods, 7;

Explanation of Chemical Terms, 8.

PART I.--MEATS AND MEAT PRODUCTS 11-94

Definition, 11; Edible Animals, 11; Classification of Meat

Foods, 12; Preparation of Animals, 12; Inspection, 13;

Tuberculosis, 13; Consumers’ Rights, 14; Slaughter and

Preparation of Carcasses, 14; Names of Parts, 15-20; Delivery

of Fresh Meat, 21; Storage, 23; Disposition of Fragments, 23;

Detection of Different Kinds of Meat, 24; Dried and Pickled

Meat, 25; Composition of Pig’s Flesh, 26-33; Preserved Meats,

34-38; Argument of Small Quantities, 38-40; Preparation for

Canning, 41; Parboiling, 41; Sterilization, 42; Special

Studies of Canning, 43-48; Relation of Canned to Fresh Beef,

48; Canned Ham and Bacon, 48-50; Canned Tongue, 50; Fat as a

Test for Adulteration, 51; Potted Meats, 51-56; Canned

Poultry, 56; Canned Horse-meat, 57; Canned Cured Meats, 59-60;

Magnitude of Industry, 61; General Observations, 62; Lard,

63-77; Soups, 77-78; Beef Extract, 79-80; Beef Juice, 82;

Soluble Meats, 83; Preparations of Blood, 83; Beef-tea, 84;

Dried and Powdered Meats, 85; Active Principles in Meat

Extracts, 86; Relation between Juice and Nutritive Value, 87;

Nitrogenous Bases, 88-90; Gelatine, 90-92; Terrestrial Animal

Oils, 93.

PART II.--POULTRY AND EGGS AND GAME BIRDS 95-116

Application of Name, 94; Domesticated Fowls, 95-116; Chicken,

95-104; Duck, 104; Goose, 105; Pigeon, 107; Turkey, 107;

Forced Fattening, 109; Slaughtering and Preparing for Market,

111; Poisonous Principles in Eggs, 116; Parasites in Eggs,

116.

PART III.--FISH FOODS 117-166

Classification, 117; Edible Portion, 119; Principal

Constituents, 119; Alewives, 121; Anchovy, 122; Black Bass,

122; Bluefish, 122; Carp, 123; Catfish, 123; Codfish, 124;

Eels, 126; Flounder, 127; Graylings, 128; Haddock, 128; Hake,

128; Halibut, 128; Herring, 129; Horse Mackerel, 130;

Hog-fish, 130; Mackerel, 131; Menhaden, 132; Mullet, 132;

Muskallunge, 133; Pickerel or Pike, 133; Pompano, 134; Red

Snapper, 134; Rock Bass, 135; Salmon, 135-138; Sardines,

139-140; Scup, 141; Shad, 141-142; Sheepshead, 143; Smelt,

144; Spanish Mackerel, 144; Sturgeon, 144; Caviar, 145;

Striped Bass, 146; Sole, 146; Tautog, 147; Tilefish, 147;

Trout, 147-148; Turbot, 149; Weakfish, 149; Whitefish, 150;

Fluorids in Fish, 151; Marketing, 151; Cold Storage, 151;

Canning, Drying, and Adulteration, 152; Value as Food, 153;

Shellfish, 153; Clams, 153; Lobster, 155; Crabs, 155;

Crawfish, 156; Shrimp, 157; Aquatic Reptiles, 157; Turtle,

157; Terrapin, 158; Mussel, 158; Oysters, 158-164; Animal

Oils, 165; Marine Animal Oils, 165-166.

PART IV.--MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE 169-216

Milk, Limitation of Name, 169; Composition, 169; Method of

Production, 169-174; Cream, 175; Curd Test for Purity,

176-178; Whey and Koumiss, 179; Buttermilk and Bonnyclabber,

181; Butter, 182-187; Oleomargarine, 187-189; Cheese, 190;

Kinds, 191; Adulteration and Misbranding, 192; Coloring, 193;

Cottage Cheese, 195; American Cheese Manufacture, 196-200;

Grading Cheese, 200; Cream Cheese, 201; Foreign Types,

201-202; Sage Cheese, 203; English Cheese, 203-205; French

Cheese, 206-208; Limburger, 208; Edam, 210; Bacterial

Activity, 211; Chemical Changes in Ripening, 212-214;

Digestibility, 214; Effect of Cold Storage, 215; Preparations

of Casein, 215.

PART V.--CEREAL FOODS 217-273

Barley, 217-218; Buckwheat, 219-221; Indian Corn (Maize),

222-232; Oats, 232-236; Rice, 236; Rye, 237-239; Wheat,

239-242; Wheat Flour, 243-245; Gluten, 245-247; Bleaching,

247; Adulterations, 248; Standard Age and Substitutes, 248;

Bread, 249; Yeast, 250; Ferments, 250; Chemical Aerating

Agents, 251; Baking Powders, 251-254; Composition of Bread,

254-255; Comparative Nutritive Properties, 256-257; Biscuit,

258; Sugar Lost in Fermentation, 259; Texture of Loaves, 259;

Macaroni, 260-264; Cakes, 265-267; Breakfast Foods, 267-271.

PART VI.--VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS 273-388

Succulent Vegetables, 273; Artichoke, 274; Asparagus, 275;

Bean, 275-276; Beets, 277; Brussels Sprouts, 278; Cabbage,

278; Carrot, 279; Cauliflower, 279; Celery, 280; Chicory, 280;

Cranberry, 281; Cress, 281; Cucumbers, 281; Egg-plant, Garlic,

and Gourds, 282; Horseradish, Jerusalem Artichoke, and Kale,

282; Leek, Lettuce, Melons, and Cantaloupe, 284-286; Okra and

Onion, 286; Parsnip, 287; Peas, 287; Potatoes, 288-298; Potato

Starch, 296-299; Rhubarb, 299; Squash, 299; Sweet Potato,

299-304; Turnip, 304; Yam, 304; Canned Vegetables, 305-315;

Ketchup, 316; Use of Refuse in Ketchup, 317; Starches as

Foods, 317-321; Condiments, 321-326; Fruits, 326-329; Apples,

330-335; Cherries, 336; Grapes, 337-338; Peaches, 339-341;

Plums, 341; Quince, 342; Small Fruits, 342-343; Tropical and

Subtropical Fruits, 343-348; Citrus Fruits, 348-369;

Composition of Pineapple, 363-364; Ash of Tropical Fruits,

367; Sugar and Acid in Fruit, 369; Canned Fruits, 370-372;

Fruit Sirups, 373-374; Jams, Jellies, and Preserves, 375-381;

Manufacture of Jellies, 381-382; Compound Jams and Jellies,

383; Preserves, 384; Fruit Butter, 385; Brandied Fruit, 386;

Importance of Preserving Industry, 386-388.

PART VII.--VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS, AND NUTS 389-428

Definition, 389; Chemical Characteristics, 390; Drying and

Non-drying Oils, 391; Physical Characters, 392-393; Edible

Vegetable Oils, 394-413; Cottonseed Oil, 397-401; Olive Oil,

402-405; Peanut Oil, 406; Rape Oil, 407; Sesame Oil, 408;

Sunflower Oil, 409; Cacao-butter, 410; Coconut Oil, 411; Palm

Oil, 412; Nuts, 413-428; Acorn, 414; Beechnuts, Brazil-nut,

415; Butternut, Chestnut, 416; Chinese Nut, 417; Coconut,

Filbert, 418; Hazelnut, Hickory-nut, 419; Peanuts, 420-424;

Pecan, 424-425; Pistachio, 426; Walnut, 426-428.

PART VIII.--FUNGI AS FOODS 429-454

Mushrooms, Production, 429-430; Varieties, 430; Food Value,

430; Distinction between Edible and Poisonous, 433-439; Types

of Edible Mushrooms, 440; Horse Mushroom, 441; Shaggy

Mushroom, 443; Fairy Ring Mushroom, 443; Puff-ball, 444; Cepe,

445; Fly Amanita, 446; Poisoning by Mushrooms, 448; Canned

Mushrooms, 449; Truffles, 450-453; Food Value of Fungi, 454.

PART IX.--SUGAR, SIRUP, CONFECTIONERY, AND HONEY 455-494

Sugar, Origin of Sugar, 455; Beet Sugar, 456-465; Cane Sugar,

466; Maple Sugar, 467-468; Sugar Refining, 468-470; Sugar

Production, 471; Adulteration of Sugar, 471; Sugar as Food,

472; Sirup, Maple, 472-473; Cane, 475; Sorghum, 476; Molasses,

477-478; Mixed Sirups, 479; Adulteration of Sirups, 480;

Confectionery, 482; Materials, 482; Manufacture, 483;

Crystallized Fruits and Flowers, 483; Food Value of Candy,

483; Adulteration of Confections, 483-486; Honey, Definition,

Historical, 486; Preparation of Honey, 487; Beehives, 488;

Distribution of Honey Industry, 489; Comb Honey, 489;

Extracted Honey, 490; Properties of Honey, 491-492;

Adulteration of Honey, 493-494.

MISCELLANEOUS 494-496

Mince Meat, 494; Pie Fillers, 496.

PART X.--INFANTS’ AND INVALIDS’ FOODS 497-500

Modified Milk, 497; Solid Infants’ Food, 498; Invalids’ Food,

498-499; Composition Infants’ and Invalids’ Foods, 500.

APPENDICES.

APPENDIX A 501-521

Food Standards, 501-517; Law Relating to Filled Cheese,

517-521.

APPENDIX B 522-537

Rules and Regulations for the Enforcement of the Food and

Drugs Act, 522-533. The Food and Drugs Act of June 30, 1906,

533-537.

APPENDIX C 538-561

Regulations Governing the Meat Inspection of the United States

Department of Agriculture, 538-556; Meat Inspection Law,

556-561.

APPENDIX D 562-615

Food Inspection Decisions under the Food and Drugs Act,

562-615. Food Inspections Decisions under the Imported Foods

Act F. I. D.’s 1-39, 562-584. Food and Drugs Inspections and

Decisions under the Food and Drugs Act F. I. D.’s 40-64,

584-615.

INDEX, 616-625

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

COLORED PLATES. PAGE.

1. Beef Tenderloin, _Facing_ 15

2. Beef Sirloin, „ 15

3. Beef Ribs--Regular Cut, „ 15

4. Beef Ribs--Spencer Cut, „ 15

5. Sirloin Butts, „ 15

6. Beef Rib, „ 15

7. Beef Loin, „ 15

8. Drying Figs: Smyrna, Smyrna Section, Adriatic,

Adriatic Section, „ 349

9. Olives: Mission, Sevillano, „ 402

10. Jordan Almond, „ 414

11. Peanut (Arachide), „ 420

FIG.

1. Cuts of Beef, 16

2. Commercial Cuts of Beef, 17

3. Diagram of Cuts of Veal, 18

4. Diagram of Cuts of Lamb and Mutton, 19

5. Diagram of Cuts of Pork, 19

6. Commercial Cuts of Pork, 20

7. Graphic Chart Representing the Comparative Influences of

Foods and Preservatives, 39

8. Lard Crystals, 67

9. Beef Fat Crystals, 67

10. Kettle for Rendering Lard, 72

11. Apparatus for Test of Adulteration of Lard, 74

12. Chicken House, Rhode Island Experiment Station, 96

13. Cow Stables, Mapletown Farm, Sumner, Washington, 170

14. Apparatus for Cooling Milk, 172

15. Improvised Wisconsin Curd Test, 177

16. Milk; Broken Curd in Whey; Matted Curd, 177

17. Curd from a Good Milk, 178

18. Curd from a Tainted Milk, 178

19. Curd from Foul Milk, 178

20. Power Churn, Ready for Use, 183

21. Power Churn, Open, 184

22. Barley Starch, 218

23. Buckwheat Starch, 222

24. Section of Raw Popcorn, 224

25. Section of Popcorn in First Stage of Popping, Showing

Partially Expanded Starch Grains and Ruptured Cell Walls, 225

26. Section of Fully Popped Popcorn, 226

27. Indian Corn Starch, 229

28. Starch Grains of Indian Corn, under Polarized Light, 230

29. Oat Starch, 235

30. Rice Starch, 237

31. Rye Starch, 238

32. Wheat Starch, 242

33. Wheat Starch under Polarized Light, 243

34. Kedzie’s Farinometer Showing the Parts, 246

35. Kedzie’s Farinometer in Use, 247

36. Comparative Appearance of Breads of Different Kinds, 259

37. A Field of Durum Wheat, 261

38. Drought-resistant Macaroni Wheats (Heads and Grains), 262

39. Potato Starch, 291

40. Potato Starch under Polarized Light, 291

41. Rasping Cylinder for Making Starch, 297

42. Shaking Table for Separating the Starch from the Pulped

Potato, 297

43. The Potato Rasping Cylinder Arranged for Work, 298

44. View of Indian Corn Canning Factory, Showing Accumulation of

Husks and Cobs, 308

45. Maranta (Arrowroot) Starch, 318

46. A Cassava Field in Georgia, 319

47. Cassava Starch, 321

48. Scuppernong Grape Vine, Roanoke Island, 338

49. Vineyard Near Fresno, California, 339

50. Avocado Tree, 346

51. Fig Tree Thirty Feet High Near Yuba, California, 350

52. Jamaica Mango Tree, 356

53. An Edge of a California Orange Grove, 358

54. The Original Seedless Orange Tree, 359

55. A Group of the Washington Navel Orange on the Tree, 360

56. Covered Pineapple, 361

57. Removing the Oil Cakes from a Cottonseed Press, 400

58. Pecan Tree, 30 Years Old, Morgan City, La., 422

59. Five Forms of Choice, Thin-shelled Pecans. Also Wild Nut

Showing Difference in Size, 423

60. Full Grown Pecan Tree, 425

61. Common Mushroom, _Agaricus campestris_, 440

62. Edible Mushrooms (_Agaricus arvensis_ Schaeff.), 441

63. Shaggy Mushroom, _Coprinus comatus_, 442

64. Fairy Ring Formed by _Marasmius oreades_, an Edible Mushroom, 444

65. Puff-ball, _Lycoperdon cyathiforme_, Top View, 445

66. Amanita (Full Grown), 446

67. Fly Amanita Buttons (_Amanita muscaria_), 447

68. Correct Position of a Mature Beet in the Soil, 458

69. Map Showing Temperature Zone in Which the Sugar Beet Attains

Its Greatest Perfection, 459

70. A Field of Beets Ready for Harvesting, 460

71. Beets Ready for Transportation to Factory, 461

72. Diffusion Battery, 462

73. Multiple-effect Evaporating Apparatus, 463

74. Vacuum Strike Pan, 464

75. Sugar Cane Field Ready for Harvest, 465

76. Cane Field Partly Harvested, 466

77. Tapping the Maple Trees, 468

78. Transporting the Sap to the Sugar House, 468

70. Boiling the Maple Sap, 469

80. Small Primitive Mill for Extracting Juice from Sugar Cane for

Sirup Making, 473

81. Mill and Evaporating Apparatus for Sirup Making in Georgia, 474

82. Relative Length of Canes Used for Sirup Making, 475

83. Swarm of Bees on Bough of Tree, 487

84. Artificial Bee Hives under Shade of Grape Vine, 488

85. A Frame Containing 24 Boxes of Honey, 489

86. Showing Box of Honey Partially Capped, 490

INTRODUCTION.

The growing importance to manufacturers, dealers, and consumers of a

knowledge of food products has led to the preparation of the following

manual.

Unfortunately, many misleading statements respecting the composition

of foods, their nutritive value, and their relation to health and

digestion have been published and received with more or less credence

by the public. Claims of superior excellence, which are entirely

baseless, are constantly made for certain food products in order to

call the attention of the public more directly to their value and,

unfortunately, at times to mislead the public with respect to their

true worth.

It is not uncommon to see foods advertised as of exceptional quality,

either as a whole or for certain purposes. Many of the preparations of

this kind are of undoubted excellence, but fail to reach the superior

standard or perform the particular function which is attributed to

them. Particularly has it been noticed that foods are offered for

specific purposes or the nourishment of certain parts of the body,

especially of the brain and nerves. We are all familiar with the

advertisements of foods to feed the brain, or feed the nerves, or feed

the skin. It is hardly necessary to call attention to the absurdity of

claims of this kind. One part of the body cannot be nourished if the

other parts are neglected, and the true principle of nutrition requires

a uniform and equal development and nourishment of all the tissues.

It is true that many of the tissues have predominant constituents.

For instance in the bones are found large quantities of phosphate of

calcium and in the muscles nitrogenous tissues dominate. In the brain

and nerves there are considerable quantities of organic phosphorus.

All of these bodies, however, are contained in normal food properly

balanced.

It would be contrary to the principles of physiology to attempt to feed

the bones by consuming a large excess of phosphorus in the food or

the muscles by confining the food to a purely nitrogenous component.

Such attempts, instead of nourishing the tissues indicated, will so

unbalance the rations as to disarrange the whole metabolic process, and

thus injure and weaken the very tissues they are designed to support.

It seems, therefore, advisable to prepare a manual which may be used in

conjunction with works on dietetics and on physiology and hygiene and

yet of a character not especially designed for the expert.

The American public is now so well educated that any average citizen is

fully capable of understanding scientific problems if presented to him

in a non-technical garb.

It is, therefore, not difficult to see that the great army of

manufacturers and dealers in food products, as well as the still

greater army of consumers, are able to receive and to utilize

information concerning food products which is of common interest

to all. A dissemination of knowledge of this kind will guide the

manufacturer in his legitimate business and protect the public against

deceptions such as those mentioned above.

In the evolution of society, economy and efficiency indicate that

specializations should be made as completely as possible. For

this reason it is advisable that foods of a certain character be

manufactured and prepared for consumption on a large scale, so that due

economy and purity may be secured. On the other hand there are many

other kinds of foods which, by reason of their properties, cannot be

prepared on a large scale but must be produced near or at the place of

consumption. Milk is a type of this class of foods. It is altogether

probable, therefore, that the consumption of manufactured foods will

not decrease but increase even more rapidly than the number of our

population.

In order that the people may be able to judge of the quality and

character of products of this kind, information readily available

appears to be highly desirable.

In the other case of the utilization of raw materials, it is equally

important that the people of this country understand their nature and

their functions in the digestive process. The great nutritive value of

our food is found in the cereals, the meats, the fruits, and vegetables

which we consume. A description of foods of this class, the places of

their growth, the conditions under which they are matured and marketed,

the problems which relate to their storage and transportation,

their composition in respect of nutrition and digestibility, the

dangers which may accrue from their decay, and the adulterations or

sophistications to which they may be subjected are matters of the

greatest public importance.

A treatise of this kind in order to be of its full value for which it

is intended must be concise, expressed in simple language, in a form

easily consulted, and yet be of a character which will be reliable and

which will give full information on the subject.

It is a common habit of speech to divide foods into two great classes,

namely, foods and beverages. This is not a scientific division, but

is one which has been so well established by custom as to render it

advisable to divide this work into two portions, one devoted to food

in the sense just used and the other to beverages. The first volume of

this work devoted to foods will treat of those bodies commonly known

under the term “foods,”--namely, cereals, meats of all kinds, milk,

vegetables, nuts, and fruits. The second volume will embrace the study

of beverages, namely, natural and artificial mineral waters, soda

waters, soft drinks, coffee, tea, cocoa, wines, cider, beer and other

fermented beverages, distilled beverages of all kinds, and mixtures or

compounds thereof.

In connection with the description of the origin of foods and their

general characteristics will be given a statement of their chemical

composition, especially in relation to nutritive properties. The

principal adulterations or sophistications to which the food products

are obnoxious will be briefly described, and where simple methods of

detecting adulterations are known, of a character to be applied without

special chemical knowledge or skill, they will be given.

An attempt is thus made to lay before those interested, in as compact

a form as possible, the chief points connected with the production of

food, its manipulation, and its use for the nourishment of the body.

It is not the intention of this manual to enter at all into the subject

of cooking or the physiology of foods and nutrition. That is a distinct

and separate part of this problem and has already been treated in many

manuals. In this connection, however, attention may be called to the

great importance of proper cooking in the use of food. Raw materials

of the best character, prepared and transported in the most approved

manner, may be so injured in the kitchen in the process of cooking

as to be rendered both unpalatable and difficult of digestion. On

the contrary, food materials of an inferior quality, provided they

contain no injurious substances, may be so treated by the skilled

cook as to be both palatable and nutritious. The desirability of the

dissemination of correct principles of cooking is no less than that of

giving information respecting the materials on which the art of cookery

is exercised. It may be added that the art of cookery at the present

time should not be confined to the mere technical manipulation, the

application of heat and of condimental substances, but should also have

some reference to the actual process of nutrition.

Foods should be prepared in the kitchen, not only of a palatable

character and properly spiced but also selected in such a manner as

to safeguard one of the chief purposes of food, namely, the proper

nutrition of the body and the avoidance of any injury to digestion.

It is commonly admitted that many, perhaps most, of the diseases of

the digestive tract to which the American people are so subject arise

from the consumption of rations improperly balanced, poorly prepared,

or used in great excess. To the intelligent and scientific cook the

information contained in this manual will especially appeal.

A PROPER RATION.

The study of the science of nutrition has revealed the character of

nourishment necessary to build the tissues and restore their waste.

The term “food” in its broadest signification includes all those

substances which when taken into the body build tissues, restore

waste, furnish heat and energy, and provide appropriate condiments.

The building of tissues is especially an important function during the

early life of animals as it is through this building of tissues that

growth takes place. The restoration of waste of tissues assumes special

importance during that period of life when the weight of the body is

supposed to be reasonably constant. At this time the waste of tissue in

the natural processes is restored by the assimilation of new material

in the same proportion.

If the assimilation of new material goes on at a greater rate than the

waste of old material it manifests itself during the period of expected

equilibrium in the deposition of adipose tissue and a consequent

abnormal increase in weight.

In the after period of life the process of waste is naturally more

vigorous than that of assimilation, and the tendency is manifested,

which is wholly in harmony with the laws of Nature, to gradually

diminish the weight of the body, and this continues to the extreme

emaciation of old age.

It is evident, therefore, that the food consumed should be adapted to

these changing periods. The growing animal needs a larger quantity of

food in proportion to its actual weight than the animal which is in a

state of equilibrium, that is, of mature age, and the animal which is

entering upon the period of old age needs a less quantity of food in

proportion to its weight than in either of the other periods of life.

Thus, the rations of infants and children should be generous, the

rations of mature man sufficient, and the rations of old age limited.

The food should also contain the various elements which enter into

nutrition in the proper quantity. The nitrogenous constituents in food,

when subjected to the ordinary process of digestion, yield a certain

quantity of heat and energy but their more important function is to

nourish the nitrogenous elements of the body, of which the muscles,

hair, skin, and finger-nails are types. The mineral constituents

of food, especially phosphorus and lime, have a general utility in

promoting the metabolic functions, especially in the movement of the

fluids of the body through the cell walls, and at the same time are

actual nourishing materials, entering particularly into the composition

of the bones and teeth.

The fats and oils which are present in the foods have the capacity of

producing large quantities of heat and energy during their combustion

in the body, and thus serve as a source of animal heat and muscular

activity.

The starches and sugars which are the most abundant elements of our

food, although they have a heat-forming power of less than one-half

that of fats, are largely utilized in the production of heat and energy

and in the formation of animal fat.

To secure a proper and complete nutrition of the body it is desirable

that all these elements should be so adjusted as to provide for

complete nourishment without having any one of them in great excess.

It is evident that an excess of any one or more of these nutrient

materials must necessarily impose on the organs of the body an

additional work in securing their proper elimination. This tends to

overburden the excretory organs and to cause a premature breakdown

thereof. This giving away of the organs may not come for many years,

not, perhaps, until advanced life, but when it comes it necessarily

shortens the period of human existence.

The term =“balanced ration”= means the adjustment of nutrients in the

food in such a way as to secure complete and perfect nutrition without

loading the body with an excess of any one element. This is also an

important point on the score of economy. A large percentage of all the

earnings of man is expended for food products, and hence these products

should be used in a manner to secure the best results possible. If, by

a practice of scientific nutrition, 10 percent of the value of foods

could be saved it would create a fund which, could it be utilized,

would minister in the highest degree to the comfort and welfare of the

human family and form an abundant pension for old age.

SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF FOOD.

In the above paragraphs attention has been directed particularly to the

nutritive and economic properties of food. It must not be considered

that mere nutrition is the sole object of foods, especially for man.

It is the first object to be conserved in the feeding of domesticated

animals, but is only one of the objects to be kept in view in the

feeding of man. Man is a social animal and, from the earliest period of

his history, food has exercised a most important function in his social

life. Hence in the study of food and of its uses a failure to consider

this factor would be regrettable. For this reason it is justifiable in

the feeding of man to expend upon the mere social features of the meal

a sum which often is equal to or greater than that expended for the

mere purpose of nutrition. This part of the subject, however, belongs

especially to the kitchen and dining room, and, therefore, will not be

discussed at greater length at the present time.

It is believed that a more careful study of the food he consumes will

benefit man in many ways. It will lead to a wider public interest

in the problem of the purity of food and the magnitude of the crime

committed against mankind in the debasement, adulteration, and

sophistication of food articles.

This study will impart to the social function of food an additional

charm, in that the origin and character of the material consumed will

be known and the properties which they possess for nourishing the body

understood. This will enable man, as a social animal, to so conduct

himself at table as to secure the greatest possible pleasure and

social benefit therefrom and at the same time avoid any injury which

ignorance might permit and invite.

It may appear that the inartistic treatment of a subject of this kind,

as indicated in the following pages, is not one which is calculated to

excite any sympathetic interest or appeal to the natural desire for

literary and artistic expression. Yet the importance of the subject is

so great as to warrant the experiment of presenting the matter in this

form rather than in any more elaborate and connected way.

DEFINITION AND COMPOSITION OF FOODS.

=Food=, in its general sense, is that which nourishes the body without

regard to its physical state, that is, it may be solid, liquid, or

gaseous. More particularly defined, food is that material taken into

the body in the ordinary process of eating which contains the elements

necessary for the growth of tissues, for the repair of the destruction

to which the tissues are subjected during the ordinary vital processes

and for furnishing heat and energy necessary to life. Incident to the

utilization of these elements there is consumed, also, a considerable

quantity of matter inextricably mingled with food in a natural way,

which takes no direct part in nutrition and yet which is useful, as a

mass, in promoting the digestive processes. These bodies are certain

indigestible cellular tissues which are present in foods, mineral

matter, and other materials which are naturally found in food products.

Included in this broad definition, therefore, are many substances

which are usually not thought of in the sense of food; among these are

water and air. Air, however, would probably be excluded because it

is not introduced into the stomach, that is, not in quantities which

have any significance in the vital processes. Water, on the contrary,

is one of the most indispensable constituents of food and is also

used in considerable quantities as a beverage. The water, itself, is

indispensable to nutrition and is also one of those bodies mentioned

above which are necessary to secure the proper conduct of the digestive

processes.

By means of the oxygen in the air the combustion of food in the

various parts of the body is secured, and thus animal heat and energy

developed. In this respect the combustion of a food product is similar

in every way to the burning of coal in the production of heat and

motion. The same calorific laws which govern the steam-engine are

applicable, in all their rigidity, to the animal engine. The quantity

of heat produced by the combustion of a certain amount of fat or sugar

is definitely measured in a calorimeter and is found to correspond

exactly to the quantity of heat produced by the ordinary combustion of

such bodies. The term “food,” therefore, in this respect, would include

the oxygen of the air without which the development of animal heat and

energy would be impossible. It also includes those bodies of a liquid

character which are classed as beverages rather than as foods. All of

these bodies have nutritive properties, although their chief value is

condimental and social.

That large class of food products, also, which is known as condiments

is properly termed food, since they not only possess nutritive

properties but through their condimental character promote digestion

and by making the food more palatable secure to a higher degree the

excellence of its social function.

It is now possible to condense into a distinct expression the

definition of food in the following language: Food in a general sense

embraces those substances taken into the body which build tissues,

restore waste, and furnish heat and energy.

CLASSIFICATION OF FOODS.

Foods may be considered under different classifications. First, as to

general appearance and use three classes may be made,--foods, beverages

and condiments. As types of the first division of these foods may be

mentioned cereals and their preparations, meat and its preparations

(except meat extracts), fish, fowl, and game. Beverages are those

liquid food products which are more valued for their taste and flavor

than actual nutritive value. As types of beverages may be mentioned

wines, beers, distilled spirits and liquors of all characters, tea,

coffee, cocoa, chocolate, etc. Under wines, in this sense, may be

included the fermented beverages made of fruit juices, such as cider,

perry, etc. Types of condiments are salt, pepper, spices, vinegar,

etc. Milk, although a liquid substance, is hardly to be considered

a beverage, and on account of its high nutritive properties may be

classed, together with its preparations, under the first head.

Foods may also be classified as nitrogenous, starchy, oily, and

condimental. Nitrogenous foods are those in which the proportion of

their material containing nitrogen is large. Lean meat may be regarded

as a type of nitrogenous food, since it consists almost exclusively of

tissues known as protein and contains nitrogen and sulfur as essential

ingredients. The white of an egg is also a typical nitrogenous food

and, to a less extent, the yolk. Among vegetables, peas and beans are

typical foods containing large percentages of nitrogenous matter. The

gluten of wheat is also a typical nitrogenous food and the zein of

Indian corn, corresponding to gluten, is a nitrogenous material.

Practically all the vegetables used as foods contain more or less

protein in their constituents. Among the cereals oats has the largest

quantity and rice the smallest of this valuable food material.

Of oily foods the fat of animals, including butter, is a typical

representative. All meats, fish, fowl, and game contain more or less

fat. Of vegetables and fruits there are many which contain large

quantities of fat, such as nuts, oily seeds, etc. All vegetables

contain more or less fat, although the succulent vegetables usually

contain but little thereof. Of starchy foods there are no types in

animal food, the quantity of carbohydrate material therein being

extremely limited. The lobster and horse-flesh contain perhaps a little

more than 1 percent of carbohydrate food, but most meats contain much

less than that. Sugar and starch are typical carbohydrate foods.

The cereal grains are composed largely of starchy foods, and so are

certain tubers, such as the potato, cassava, etc. Of the common cereals

rice contains more starch than any other and oats the least. Sugars

are intimately related to starch and are included under the term

starchy food or carbohydrate food. The carbohydrate matter in the flesh

mentioned above, namely glycogen, is of the nature of a sugar. Among

the typical sugar foods are beets, melons, and fruits, some of which

contain large percentages of sugar. All fruits contain greater or less

quantities of sugar, and that is true, also, of all vegetables.

Of the plants which produce the sugar of commerce there may be

mentioned the sugar-cane, the sugar-beet, the maple, and palm trees.

The principal sources of the sugar of commerce are the sugar-cane and

the sugar-beet.

Of the condimental foods may be mentioned spices, including pepper,

mustard, cinnamon, allspice, and other foods of this class. Common salt

occupies a unique position in food products. It is the only mineral

substance which has any value as a condiment in human food. But it also

has a more important function than its condimental character, namely,

it furnishes the supply of hydrochloric acid without which digestion in

the stomach could not take place. For this reason common salt must be

regarded as an essential food product as well as a condiment.

EXPLANATION OF CHEMICAL TERMS.

Inasmuch as this manual is not solely intended for expert chemists and

physiologists but also for the general public, a simple explanation of

the use of the terms used in analytical data and tables is advisable.

Under the term =moisture= is included all the water which is present

in a free state, that is, not combined in any way with the ingredients

of the material, and other substances volatile at the temperature of

drying. The water is determined by drying to a constant weight at the

temperature of boiling water or slightly above. In bodies which are

easily oxidized this drying takes place in a vacuum or in an inert gas

like hydrogen or carbon dioxid.

=Protein.=--Under this term is included all the nitrogenous compounds

in a food product which contain in their composition sulfur, nitrogen,

carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, forming that class of tissues

represented by the gluten in wheat, the white of an egg, muscular and

tendinous fibers, etc.

=Ether Extract.=--Under this term is included the fats and oils, the

term fat being applied to animal fat and the term oil to vegetable

products. These bodies are all soluble in ether and therefore are

grouped together under the term “ether extract.” There are some fats

both in animal and vegetable substances insoluble in ether, but they

exist in minute quantities and therefore are not separated from the

extracts, but the whole matter is given together and represents

practically the fats and oils in food.

There are also minute quantities of bodies not fats in foods soluble in

ether, and these are included in the ether extract.

=Ash.=--The term ash is applied to the residue left after the burning

of food products in the air at a low temperature until the carbon has

disappeared. Ash is rather an indefinite term and is applied to that

residual material of a mineral nature composed of sand or silica and

the carbonates or oxids of alkaline earth or alkalies. The ash also

contains the principal part of phosphorus present in food products and

usually a small proportion of sulfur. These bodies in the ash exist as

phosphoric and sulfuric acids or their salts.

=Fiber.=--The term fiber is applied to those carbohydrate products

in food which are insoluble in solutions of dilute acid and dilute

alkalies at the boiling temperature. Inasmuch as these separated bodies

are not wholly pure cellulose they are often designated as crude fiber.

=Starch and Sugar.=--The terms starch and sugar are applied to the

carbohydrates in a food product of a starchy or saccharine nature,

together with the other carbohydrates present which are soluble in

dilute acids and alkalies.

=Calories.=--The term calorie is used to denote the amount of

heat-forming material contained in one unit weight of a food product.

The number given represents the number of degrees of temperature

produced in a unit mass of water by the heat formed in burning the

unit weight of food. The unit weights employed are usually as follows:

Of the food product, one gram (15 grains); unit weight of water to be

heated, one kilogram (2.2 pounds); unit increment of temperature, 1°C.

(1.8°F.). The expression 4000 calories therefore means that if one gram

of food substance in a dry state be burned the heat produced will raise

one gram of water through a temperature of 4000°C., or the unit of

water (one kilogram) through a temperature of 4°C. For convenience the

calories are usually expressed as small calories, namely 4000, instead

of large calories, namely 4. In this manual the expression in terms of

small calories, that is, the temperature increase of one kilogram of

water produced by burning one gram of substance, multiplied by 1000,

will be uniformly employed.

FOODS AND THEIR ADULTERATION.

PART I.

MEATS.

One great division of human food is meat. Technically, perhaps, the

edible flesh of every animal used for human food might be described

as meat. In this manual, however, preference is given to the common

meaning of the term.

The flesh of animals is by common consent divided into three principal

classes, namely, the flesh of terrestrial mammals, or animals not

provided with wings; second, aerial animals, or animals provided with

wings, and, third, aquatic animals. A very common classification of

these three kinds of food is flesh, fowl, and fish. There are animals,

the flesh of which is eaten by many, which are not exactly included in

this classification; for instance, animals of an amphibious nature,

living partly on land and partly on sea. Also many of the animals

classed as aerial live chiefly upon the earth; although having wings

they do not use them, such as domesticated fowls. This classification,

however, is sufficiently exact for the practical purposes of a food

manual and, therefore, under the head of meat is included the edible

flesh of mammals living on the land.

=Animals Whose Flesh is Edible.=--Probably the only complete

classification of this kind would be to include every animal living on

the face of the earth since, perhaps, the flesh of every animal living

has been more or less eaten by man. In a civilized community, however,

except in times of disaster and dire necessity, certain classes of

animals only furnish the principal meat food. Nearly all the meat food

consumed in the United States is derived from cattle, sheep, and swine.

Goat flesh is eaten only to a limited extent and horse meat scarcely at

all, and the only other meats of importance are those of wild animals.

The principal wild animals used for food are the deer, bear, rabbit,

and squirrel. Many other wild animals, however, are eaten and in some

cases highly prized. In this manual only the principal meat foods both

of domesticated and wild animals will be mentioned.

=Classification of Meat Food as Respects Age.=--The edible flesh of

domesticated animals as well as of wild animals is eaten both in the

young and full-grown state. Common names, however, designate these

different classes. For instance, veal in the growing and beef for the

full-grown animal, lamb for the young and mutton for the full-grown

sheep, pig in the younger and pork in the full-grown swine, etc.

There is no legal limit of age for such a distinction, but as long

as the animal is not fully grown it may be classified under the name

representing the young animal. There is a common understanding,

however, that in the case of veal and lamb the animal must be under one

year of age and usually not under two nor more than eight months of

age. A classification of this kind is so indefinite, however, that no

strict definition can be given other than that founded on the general

principles above outlined.

=Preparation of Animals.=--The proper sanitary conditions attending the

fattening of animals intended for slaughter are of great importance

to the consumer. It is a common understanding that animals intended

for slaughter should be plump and healthy. Poor animals, either those

which are meager from lack of food or from disease, are to be rigidly

excluded from the slaughter pen. Animals intended for slaughter should

be fattened under sanitary conditions with plenty of fresh water and

fresh air as well as good food. The stalls in which they are fattened

should be clean and well ventilated, and the sanitary conditions

surrounding them should be such as to exclude contagious and epidemic

diseases and provide the most favorable environment for growth and

preparation for the market.

It is evident that all these conditions are to be secured by proper

inspection of the animals while preparing for the market. The time

will, doubtless, soon arrive in this country when the supervision of

the preparation of animals for the market, the sanitary conditions

under which they live, and the general environment which surrounds

them shall be subjects of local, municipal, and state inspection.

Since the power of the general government cannot extend to states

and municipalities, these corporate bodies should take uniform and

scientific action concerning all these matters. National and state

conventions of municipal and state sanitary authorities should decide

upon uniform systems of inspection and sanitation to which all state

and municipal authorities must agree, so that a uniform and effective

method of inspection and sanitation will be secured throughout the

country.

When animals are transported before slaughter from one state to another

the national government is then entitled to inspect and certify

respecting the condition of the animal thus to be transported from

state to state. By thus combining municipal, state, and national

inspection the rights of the consumer may be conserved, and this is the

only means by which they can be kept inviolate.

It is assumed, therefore, that the animal which has been brought for

slaughter has been fattened under proper sanitary conditions, has not

been exposed to epidemic or contagious diseases, and outwardly is not

afflicted with any disease of its own. Such a healthy animal may then

be certified as fattened for slaughter.

=Inspection after Slaughter.=--The inspection after slaughter is of the

utmost importance, not even second to that of the proper inspection

during fattening and before slaughter. The veterinarian, skilled in

his science, can tell by the inspection of the vital organs of the

slaughtered animal whether it is affected with any organic disease.

Among cattle the most frequent organic diseases are lumpy jaw and

tuberculosis. In the case of swine one of the most common of diseases

is trichinosis. In the latter case an inspection of the vital organs of

the animal is not sufficient. The muscles of the swine, first and most

commonly affected by trichinosis, must be examined microscopically in

order to eliminate the possibility of the flesh of such animals going

into commerce untagged or unnoticed.

If the flesh of the swine impregnated with trichinosis be thoroughly

cooked practically all of the danger to man is eliminated. The

consumer, however, should not be subjected to the chance of imperfect

cooking. A swine affected with trichinosis should either be refused

admission into consumption or should be so tagged that the consumer

should know the danger to which he is exposed in order to take the

necessary precaution to safeguard his health.

=Tuberculosis.=--There is a difference of opinion among veterinary and

hygienic experts respecting the disposition which is to be made of

carcasses affected with tuberculosis. It is claimed by some that if

the tuberculosis is local, that is, does not extend beyond the lungs,

there is no reason why the flesh of the animal should be refused to

the consumer. The basis of this contention is founded upon the opinion

of some of the most eminent veterinarians that bovine tuberculosis

and human tuberculosis are entirely distinct diseases and cannot be

transmitted either from the cow to man or vice versâ. It is not the

province of this manual to decide this controversy, although it is

only right that the consumer should be given the benefit of the doubt.

Therefore, if the carcass of an animal affected with local tuberculosis

is to be passed into consumption it should be plainly marked as the

flesh of a tuberculosed animal,--not only the carcass as a whole, but

every piece thereof that is introduced into consumption directly or

after canning or mincing. The consumer is thus left free to choose

for himself whether to eat such meat or not. There is a universal

agreement among hygienists and veterinarians that where tuberculosis

is generalized, that is, has affected practically all the organs of the

body, the carcasses should be condemned. No one will take exceptions

to this ruling, though it does not appear very plain to the ordinary

consumer why a little tuberculosis is not a bad thing if a great deal

of it is a very bad thing. There is an unfortunate tendency in many

quarters to neglect minute effects and only pay attention to mass

action. This does not seem to be a reasonable or desirable method of

procedure.

=The Right of the Consumer.=--In all these cases of post mortem

inspection it is the right of the consumer to be informed respecting

the condition of the animal admitted to slaughter. Only the undoubtedly

sound and healthy carcass should be given a free certificate. The

badly diseased carcass should be condemned and refused admission to

consumption. If the partially diseased carcass is to be consumed,

it should be done under such a system of tagging as will absolutely

protect any consumer against the use of the partially diseased carcass

without his knowledge.

_Summary._--The general conclusion reached is that the consumer has

the right to protection in the character of food which comes upon his

table. This protection begins at the time the animals are being fed for

slaughter. It continues during the time the animals are slaughtered

and afterwards in the preparation of their carcasses for consumption.

It does not end until the meat is delivered to the consumer properly

certified as being sound and wholesome and warranted to be free from

deleterious coloring matter and preservatives. The consumers of this

country can have this protection if they demand it. They outnumber the

makers of meat products to such an overwhelming extent as to be able

to secure proper legislation, because the manufacturers themselves, as

consumers, are equally interested with others in this most important

point, and should themselves receive for their families the same

protection that the consumer who has nothing to do with the preparation

of meat products is entitled to.

Since the above paragraph was written the Congress has provided for a

complete inspection of meats as outlined therein.

=Slaughter and Preparation of Carcasses.=--It is not the purpose of

this manual to enter into any discussion of the technique of slaughter

and preparation of animals whose meat is intended to be eaten. It is

believed that in this country the mechanism of this process is very

near perfection, and especially so in the larger establishments where

the highest skill is employed. In small slaughtering establishments and

in farm slaughter there are found many points of technique which should

be greatly improved. The principal thing to be considered is, first,

a sudden and in so far as possible a painless death of the animal;

second, the immediate withdrawal of the blood of the slaughtered animal

if slaughtered otherwise than by opening the principal artery; third,

the removal of the intestines and hair or hide of the animal; fourth,

immediate cooling at a moderately low temperature until the animal heat

is entirely radiated; fifth, the cutting of the carcass into the usual

form for consumption and the removal and utilization of the débris for

food or other purposes; sixth, the delivery of the meat, if to be eaten

in a fresh state, in a condition secured from contamination and decay

until it is in the hands of the consumer; seventh, the curing of the

meat in a proper manner by salt, sugar, vinegar, and wood smoke, and

the delivery thereof in an uncontaminated form to the consumer.

Natural Appearance of Cuts of Healthy Beef

Beef is the most important of any of the meat or flesh foods. To be

able to judge of its freshness and freedom from disease is of great

practical value. The following colored plates show the appearance

of some of the principal cuts of beef in the proper condition for

cooking. By comparing the appearance of the beef bought in all markets

with these plates it is possible to form a sound judgment of their

suitability for consumption.

These seven Plates are reproduced by courtesy of Armour & Co., Chicago

[Illustration: BEEF TENDERLOIN]

[Illustration: BEEF SIRLOIN]

[Illustration: BEEF RIBS--REGULAR CUT]

[Illustration: BEEF RIBS--SPENCER CUT]

[Illustration: SIRLOIN BUTTS]

[Illustration: BEEF RIB]

[Illustration: BEEF LOIN]

It is not established that any further manipulation than that above

outlined is desirable or necessary. The use of any kind of dye or

coloring matter directly or indirectly, of any so-called preservative

substance other than those of a condimental nature already mentioned,

or any further manipulation save that to secure low temperature and

freedom from infection is not useful, necessary, nor desirable. The

sooner the manufacturer of these products understands the rights of

the consumer in this respect and recognizes the fundamental verity of

the above postulates the better it will be for all parties. When these

conditions are met all of the many and just objections which have

been made to the meats of this country will pass away and they will

assume in the markets of the world that position to which their natural

merits, when not interfered with by maltreating during curing, entitle

them.

=Names Applied to the Different Pieces of Edible Animals.=--In the

preparation of animals for the market experience has shown that they

are best cut in certain pieces of a shape determined by the race of the

animal itself and to these pieces or cuts certain definite names have

been applied. The method of making these cuts is not the same in all

parts of this country and various parts of different countries. In the

United States the most common cuts are illustrated in the accompanying

figures, with the names which are attached thereto.

The analyses here reported apply to cuts as indicated by the following

diagrams. These show the positions of the different cuts, both in

the live animal and in the dressed carcass as found in the markets.

The lines of division between the different cuts will vary slightly,

according to the usage of the local market, even where the general

method of cutting is as here indicated. The names of the same cuts

likewise vary in different parts of the country.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--CUTS OF BEEF.--(_Nutrition Bulletins, Office of

Experiment Stations._)]

_The Cuts of Beef._--The general method of cutting up a side of beef is

illustrated in Fig. 1, which shows the relative position of the cuts

in the animal and in a dressed side. The neck piece is frequently cut

so as to include more of the chuck than is represented by the diagram.

The shoulder clod is usually cut without bone, while the shoulder (not

indicated in diagram) would include more or less of the shoulder blade

and of the upper end of the fore shank. Shoulder steak is cut from the

chuck. In many localities the plate is made to include all the parts of

the fore quarter designated on the diagrams as brisket, cross ribs,

plate, and navel, and different portions of the plate, as thus cut, are

spoken of as the “brisket end of plate” and “navel end of plate.” This

part of the animal is largely used for corning. The ribs are frequently

divided into first, second, and third cuts, the latter lying nearest

the chuck and being slightly less desirable than the former. The chuck

is sometimes subdivided in a similar manner, the third cut of the chuck

being nearest the neck. The names applied to different portions of the

loin vary considerably in different localities. The part nearest the

ribs is frequently called “small end of loin” or “short steak.” The

other end of the loin is called “hip sirloin” or “sirloin.” Between

the short and the sirloin is a portion quite generally called the

“tenderloin,” for the reason that the real tenderloin, the very tender

strip of meat lying inside the loin, is found most fully developed in

this cut. Porterhouse steak is a term most frequently applied to either

the short steak or the tenderloin. It is not uncommon to find the flank

cut so as to include more of the loin than is indicated in the figures,

in which case the upper portion is called “flank steak.” The larger

part of the flank is, however, very frequently corned, as is also the

case with the rump. In some markets the rump is cut so as to include a

portion of the loin, which is then sold as “rump steak.” The portion

of the round on the outside of the leg is regarded as more tender than

that on the inside, and is frequently preferred to the latter. As the

leg lies upon the butcher’s table this outside of the round is usually

on the upper, or top, side, and is therefore called “top round.”

Occasionally the plate is called the “rattle.”

In Fig. 2 is shown a side of beef with the various cuts indicated as

used for commercial designation.

[Illustration:

1. Shank 5. Rib 9. Clod

2. Round 6. Flank 10. Neck

3. Rump 7. Plate

4. Loin 8. Chuck

Tenderloins, Sirloin Butts and Strips cut from No. 4.

Rib Rolls cut from No. 5.

FIG. 2.--COMMERCIAL CUTS OF BEEF.--(_Courtesy of Armour & Co._)]

In Fig. 6 (page 20) is shown the interior view of a hog carcass with

the cuts indicated as known to the trade.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--DIAGRAM OF CUTS OF VEAL.--(_Nutrition

Bulletins, Office of Experiment Stations._)]

_The Cuts of Veal._--The method of cutting up a side of veal differs

considerably from that employed with beef. This is illustrated by

Fig. 3, which shows the relative position of the cuts in the animal

and in a dressed side. The chuck is much smaller in proportion, and

frequently no distinction is made between the chuck and the neck. The

chuck is often cut so as to include a considerable of the portion here

designated as shoulder, following more nearly the method adopted for

subdividing beef. The shoulder of veal as here indicated includes,

besides the portion corresponding to the shoulder in beef, the larger

part of what is here classed as chuck in the adult animal. The under

part of the fore quarter, corresponding to the plate in the beef,

is often designated as breast in the veal. The part of the veal

corresponding to the rump of beef is here included with the loin, but

is often cut to form part of the leg. In many localities the fore and

hind shanks of veal are called the “knuckles.”

[Illustration: FIG. 4.--DIAGRAM OF CUTS OF LAMB AND MUTTON.--(_Nutrition

Bulletins, Office of Experiment Stations._)]

_The Cuts of Lamb and Mutton._--Fig. 4 shows the relative position of

the cuts in a dressed side of mutton or lamb and in a live animal.

The cuts in a side of lamb and mutton number but six, three in each

quarter. The chuck includes the ribs as far as the end of the shoulder

blades, beyond which comes the loin. The flank is made to include all

the under side of the animal. Some butchers, however, make a larger

number of cuts in the fore quarter, including a portion of the cuts

marked “loin” and “chuck” in Fig. 4, to make a cut designated as “rib,”

and a portion of the “flank” and “shoulder” to make a cut designated

as “brisket.” The term “chops” is ordinarily used to designate portions

of either the loin, ribs, chuck, or shoulder, which are either cut or

“chopped” by the butcher into pieces suitable for frying or broiling.

The chuck and ribs are sometimes called the “rack.”

[Illustration: FIG. 5.--DIAGRAM OF CUTS OF PORK.--(_Nutrition

Bulletins, Office of Experiment Stations._)]

_The Cuts of Pork._--The method of cutting up a side of pork differs

considerably from that employed with other meats. A large portion

of the carcass of a dressed pig consists of almost clear fat. This

furnishes the cuts which are used for “salt pork” and bacon. Fig. 5

illustrates a common method of cutting up pork, showing the relative

position of the cuts in the animal and in the dressed side. The cut

designated as “back cut” is almost clear fat and is used for salting

and pickling. The “middle cut” is the portion quite generally used for

bacon and for “lean ends” salt pork. The belly is salted or pickled, or

may be made into sausages.

[Illustration: FIG. 6.--COMMERCIAL CUTS OF PORK.--(_Courtesy of Armour

& Co._)

1--Hind Foot

2--Ham

3--Rib Belly

4--Fat Back

5--Pork Loin

6--Cala Ham Butt

7--California Ham

8--Fore Foot

9--Neck]

Beneath the “back cut” are the ribs and loin, from which are obtained

“spareribs,” “chops,” and roasting pieces, not designated in the

figure. The hams and shoulders are more frequently cured, but are also

sold fresh as pork “steak.” The tenderloin proper is a comparatively

lean and very small strip of meat lying under the bones of the loin and

usually weighing a fraction of a pound. Some fat is usually trimmed off

from the hams and shoulders which is called “ham and shoulder fat” and

is often used for sausages, etc. What is called “leaf lard,” at least

in some localities, comes from the inside of the back. It is the kidney

fat.

As stated above, cuts as shown in the diagrams herewith correspond to

those of which analyses are reported in the table beyond, but do not

attempt to show the different methods of cutting followed in markets in

different parts of the United States.

=Delivery of Fresh Meat to Consumers.=--Perhaps the most important

aid to the manufacturer, as well as a protection to the consumer,

which modern science has offered to the public is the possibility

of delivering fresh meats to consumers at a low temperature. A well

equipped abattoir is provided with apparatus by means of which a

constantly low temperature may be maintained in the room where the

fresh meat is kept after the preparation described above. When the

meats are to be distributed over long distances refrigerator cars or

boats are provided where low temperature may be maintained.

=Roast Beef.=--The parts of the beef which are used for roasting are

shown in the diagram, comprising a considerable portion of the hind

quarter of the beef and part of the ribs. The roast is perhaps the most

important of the parts of the beef for edible purposes. The average

composition of the edible part of roast beef (before cooking) is given

below:

Water, 60.14 percent

Solids, 39.86 „

Nitrogen, 4.47 „

Phosphoric acid, .54 „

Sulfur, .26 „

Fat, 10.48 „

Ash, 1.30 „

Protein, 27.95 „

=Beefsteak.=--The most important parts of the beef next to the roast

are the parts used for steak. Beefsteaks have different names, such as

tenderloin and sirloin, and when the latter two are joined together by

the bone the whole is called porterhouse. There are also round steaks

and rump steaks which are less highly prized portions of the meat,

but in nutritive value are probably quite as valuable as the others

mentioned. The average composition of the edible part of a large number

of samples of beefsteak is given in the following table:[1]

Water, 63.95 percent

Solids, 36.05 „

Nitrogen, 4.54 „

Phosphoric acid, .59 „

Sulfur, .27 „

Fat, 5.93 „

Ash, 1.48 „

Protein, 28.37 „

[1] Means of numerous analyses in Bureau of Chemistry.

It is seen that the roast beef contains less water, less protein, and

decidedly more fat than the steak.

=Roast Lamb.=--The parts of the lamb which are used for roasting are

usually the hind quarters, although all of the parts are roasted at

times. The average composition of a number of samples of lamb roast is

given in the following table:[2]

Water, 58.56 percent

Solids, 41.44 „

Nitrogen, 4.91 „

Phosphoric acid, .61 „

Sulfur, .28 „

Fat, 9.12 „

Ash, 1.30 „

Protein, 30.71 „

[2] From numerous analyses made in the Bureau of Chemistry.

=Lamb chops= or mutton chops are the short ribs with attached flesh of

lamb or young sheep. They are considered to be the most desirable part

of the young sheep or lamb for edible purposes. The average composition

of the edible portion of a number of samples of lamb chops is given in

the following table:

Water, 63.98 percent

Solids, 36.02 „

Nitrogen, 4.35 „

Phosphoric acid, .61 „

Sulfur, .24 „

Fat, 7.09 „

Ash, 1.49 „

Protein, 27.18 „

Roast lamb, as shown by the above data, has less water, more fat, and

more protein than lamb chops.

=Preservation of Fresh Meats.=--After delivery the meats are at once

consigned to refrigerator departments in the markets, where they

are preserved until they pass into the consumer’s hands. Thus, a

properly fattened, properly slaughtered, and properly dressed piece

of fresh meat may be brought into the consumer’s hands in a manner

at once unobjectionable and at the same time one which secures it

admirably from contamination of any kind. So perfect are these means of

transportation that fresh meat may be sent not only from city to city

but across the sea, and reach the consumer as near perfection as human

ingenuity can devise.

=Length of Storage.=--The question of how long meat can be safely kept

in cold storage of this kind is one which has not been decided. It may

be said, however, that the period should not be extended any longer

than is necessary and that the consumers of meat should be provided

in ordinary times, if transportation is undisturbed, with practically

fresh meat. It is evident that if the principal meat-packing centers

are Chicago, Omaha, and Kansas City the cities and parts of the country

remote from these localities must have meat somewhat older than those

which are near by. If we pass to distant countries, as for instance,

Europe, where fresh meats are received from the United States or even

from Australia, the time elapsing between slaughter and consumption

must necessarily be long. Thus the length of time in which meat should

be left in cold storage after it is properly matured depends upon its

geographic distribution and is not a matter to be decided arbitrarily.

When meats are not only kept in cold storage for transportation but are

actually frozen, as is often the case, they can, of course, be kept for

a much longer time than when subjected merely to a low temperature at

or slightly above the freezing point. For this reason meats that are to

be carried to a long distance and not to be consumed for a long time

after preparation are usually frozen and kept so during transport.

=Effect of Low Temperature on Enzymic Action.=--Attention has been

called to the fact that low temperature does not inhibit enzymic

action, and, therefore, it must be admitted that this continued

activity must gradually deteriorate the quality of the product. The

question, therefore, which is the most important is not how long can

meat be kept in a frozen condition but how short a time must it be

kept. In all cases, therefore, of this kind the consumer is entitled to

know the length of time during which his meat has been kept frozen, and

this desirable condition of affairs is easily secured by the necessary

local, state, and national inspection already mentioned.

=Disposition of Fragments Arising From the Dressing of Beef.=--It is

evident that the fragments of sound, wholesome meat which is dressed

for delivery to commerce are themselves edible and hence there can

be no hygienic or other objection to preparations made from these

fragments, such as sausage and other minced and comminuted meats which

appear upon the market. In other words, the consumer is entitled to

know that because a piece of meat is comminuted is no reason for

supposing that it is not edible.

Sausage, mince meat, comminuted meat, potted, canned, and other meats

or preparations from these sound, clean, edible fragments, necessarily

rejected in the process of preparing fresh meats for curing and for

consumption, are entitled to the same consideration and may be looked

upon with the same certainty of purity by the consumer when properly

inspected and prepared as the larger pieces.

The possibility of detecting any effects of disease in meats by

inspection at the time of or after delivery is very remote and

therefore the inspection before killing and during the process of

manufacture should be a most rigid one in the case of these fragments.

Such inspection and certification would restore public confidence in

the purity and hygienic properties of these meats which not only are

nutritious but by the spicing and condimental treatment which they

receive are rendered highly palatable and desirable.

DETECTION OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF MEAT.

When meats are in large pieces they may be recognized by their

anatomical characteristics. In order that this may be done, however,

the piece of meat must either be of a sufficient size to be recognized

by its shape and general appearance or must have a bone of sufficient

size to indicate its anatomical character.

According to the German law pieces of meat of less than eight pounds

in weight are not supposed to be large enough to be recognized

anatomically or otherwise with certainty. This, however, is a matter

which pertains more to the meat of animals from which the bone is

taken rather than to its actual size. It requires some little expert

knowledge of the anatomy of animals in order to distinguish these

pieces, but one who is in the habit of purchasing or cutting meats

acquires this knowledge without any special study.

=Odor and Taste.=--Each kind of meat may also be detected both by its

odor and taste, as well as by its physical appearance and shape. Beef,

mutton, pork, and other meats in a proper state of preparation and

preservation have characteristic odors and flavors by which they are

easily detected. One of the common faults of cooking is the putting

together of meats of various kinds in the same oven, by means of

which the odors become so intermingled that in small pieces even the

experienced taster may not always be able to discriminate between them.

=Detection of Meat by Microscopic Appearance.=--Meats are so nearly

related histologically that the microscope is not a certain means of

detecting the different varieties. Were this the case it would be easy

to identify the different kinds of meat which may be found in a finely

comminuted mixture. The expert microscopist may have difficulty in

discriminating between different microscopic portions of meat, but the

microscope is of practically no advantage to any but an expert and not

a very great advantage to him. The fibers of some animals vary in size,

coarseness or fineness of texture, and other characteristics as much as

fibers do from different animals.

=Detection by Chemical Examination.=--The most satisfactory method of

detecting meats is by means of their chemical examination. There are

two distinct points which are kept in view in a chemical examination.

One is the presence of glycogen, which in quantities of more than one

percent is characteristic of horse meat. Unfortunately, this test can

only be applied to a meat in practically a fresh state, as the glycogen

is rapidly changed into other forms of carbohydrate substances which

make it difficult to identify. The chemical examination, therefore,

which is of the most value is that which is performed upon the fat.

The fat of different animals has different physical and chemical

characteristics. The fats crystallize in different forms and have

different melting points,--also the fatty acids derived therefrom.

They absorb different quantities of iodin and bromin, and have other

physical and chemical properties which are peculiar to each variety.

A careful examination of the fat, therefore, will lead to an

approximate degree of knowledge concerning the character of the flesh

from which it has been derived. For instance, lard and beef fat are

easily distinguished from each other. In case a minced meat is made

wholly of one kind of flesh or of one kind of animal the chemical

examination of the fat will, with a considerable degree of certainty,

lead to its identification. In the same manner, if a minced meat

be made up of equal parts of two different kinds of animals the

characteristics of the fats will lead to the identification of the

two sources of meat. If, however, one kind of meat be mixed in only

a small proportion, say 10 or 15 percent, of another, the chemical

methods of separation are not to be relied upon. None of these

chemical or physical methods, unfortunately, is of value in the hands

of any but an expert, and, therefore, cannot be regarded as a common

means of identification. For this reason the only common manner of

identification of the kinds of meats which are sent out to the consumer

at large must consist in the general knowledge of their anatomical,

physical, palatable, and gustatory properties outlined above.

In all cases the consumer must eventually rely upon the official

inspection and the label which accompanies the meat or which should

accompany it.

=Dried Meat.=--A very effective method of preserving meat is practiced

in certain of the arid regions of the country by exposing it to the dry

air and sunlight. Meats prepared in this way are often called “jerked”

meats. The small amount of aqueous vapor in the air is not sufficient

to maintain the life of the ordinary fermentative germs, and they are,

therefore, destroyed by desiccation. Meat which is exposed under such

circumstances does not become infected with any fermentative germ, and

the moisture which it contains is rapidly given off in the dry air

surrounding it. For this purpose the meat is cut into thin strips and

suspended by appropriate means in the air and exposed to the direct

sunlight. In a short time the moisture disappears, and the hard dry

pieces keep indefinitely in certain arid regions of this country. The

meat also maintains a fair degree of palatability and practically

all of its nutrient properties, so that when properly cooked it is

a palatable and nutritious dish. Probably of all the methods of

preserving meat this one is the least open to objection, since not

even spices or condimental substances are necessary in order to

preserve the meat from decay. By reason of the change in its physical

appearance, however, which makes it less attractive, this method is not

likely to come into general use in the ordinary preservation of meat.

Dried beef is also prepared by preserving the meat by condimental

substances and, instead of placing it in brine, drying it artificially.

Chipped or dried beef is a common article of commerce and is prepared

in the manner described above. This meat, however, has already been

treated with condimental substances, and hence the drying is only one

of the means of preservation. Dried or chipped meats are often smoked

also as well as desiccated, so that in their preparation more than one

method of preservation is employed.

=Pickled Meats.=--The method of preserving meats in a liquid

environment is sometimes called pickling. All kinds of meat are pickled

in this way, but pork especially. The pickling brine may be simply

made of common salt, though other substances, such as sugar, vinegar,

and spices, are used. The brine also sometimes contains a chemical

preservative which is highly objectionable on the general ground of

the harmfulness of these substances. The preservative commonly used

is either sulfite of soda or boric acid. The making of a pickled meat

of this kind should be discouraged. The vinegar which is employed or

acetic acid may be injected into the carcass before it is cut up.

When the arteries or veins are filled with vinegar in this way it

rapidly permeates to all parts of the meat and acts as an excellent

and unobjectionable preservative in all cases where an acid taste is

desired. It is claimed that carcasses which have been injected with

vinegar in this way are easily preserved, and require far less salt

and other condimental substances than when not so treated. As vinegar

is a condimental substance used everywhere, and one which promotes

digestion when used in proper quantities, the preservation of meats

or the pickling of meats by a previous injection of vinegar is not

objectionable.

COMPOSITION OF THE FLESH OF PIGS.

Extensive investigation of the composition of the flesh of pigs has

been made in the Bureau of Chemistry (Bulletin 53). The pigs upon

which these examinations were made were specially bred and fattened

at the Agricultural Experiment Station of Iowa, and were prepared

for the market by the most approved modern style of feeding. They

were slaughtered according to the approved method and immediately,

after proper preparation, the carcasses were placed in cold storage,

where they were kept until removal for the purpose of dissection

and preparation of the samples for analyses. Expert butchers from

Washington were secured for the dissecting and dressing of the pigs

in the manner in which it would be done for the best market. The pigs

were of different varieties, namely, Berkshire, No. 1; Tamworth, No. 2;

Chester White, No. 3; Poland China, No. 4; Duroc Jersey, No. 5, No. 6,

No. 7; Yorkshire, No. 8.

TABLE A.--WEIGHTS OF WHOLE CUTS AND DATA RELATING TO THE PREPARATION OF

AIR-DRY SAMPLES.

PIG NO. 1.--BERKSHIRE.

------------------+----------------------------------------------+

| WEIGHTS OF WHOLE CUTS. |

+------------------------+---------------------+

| | |

| | +

NAMES OF CUTS. | Chicago. | Washington. |

------------------+------------+-----------+---------------------+

backs, | 35¹⁄₂ 0 |16,102.8 | 34 6 |15,592.5|

Meat, | .. | .. | .. | .. |

Two clear bellies,| 19¹⁄₂ 0 | 8,845.2 | 19 4 | 8,731.8|

Meat, | .. | .. | .. | .. |

hams, | 23¹⁄₂ 0 |10,659.6 | 23 5 |10,574.6|

Meat, | .. | .. | .. | .. |

shoulders, | 20¹⁄₂ 0 | 9,298.8 | 20 10 | 9,395.5|

Meat, | .. | .. | .. | .. |

hoofs), | 3¹⁄₂ 0[3]| 1,594.2[4]| | 1,514.1|

Meat, | .. | .. | .. | .. |

Spareribs, | 5 0 | 2,268.0 | | 2,212.0|

Meat, | .. | .. | .. | .. |

Tenderloins, | 1 0 | 453.6 | | 470.8|

Neck bones, | 2 0 | 907.2 | | 842.5|

Meat, | .. | .. | .. | .. |

Backbones, | 3¹⁄₂ 0 | 1,587.6 | | 1,580.0|

Meat, | .. | .. | .. | .. |

Trimmings, | 18 0 | 8,164.8 | 16 9 | 7,512.8|

Meat, | .. | .. | .. | .. |

Tail, | ¹⁄₄ 0 | 113.4 | | 363.0|

Meat, | .. | .. | .. | .. |

+------------+-----------+------------+--------+

Total, |132¹⁄₄ 0 |59,995.2 | |58,789.6|

------------------+------------+-----------+---------------------+

------------------+-------------------+-----------------------------

| |PREPARATION OF AIR-DRY SAMPLES.

| +--------+---------+---------+

+---------+---------+of fresh| original|after ex-|

------------------+---------+---------+--------+---------+---------+

backs, | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. |

Meat, | 31.33 | 58.21 | 833.0 | 13.16 | 109.6 |

Two clear bellies,| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. |

Meat, | 36.09 | 52.69 | 741.2 | 14.33 | 106.2 |

hams, | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. |

Meat, | 60.29 | 22.19 | 532.5 | 22.95 | 122.2 |

shoulders, | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. |

Meat, | 54.97 | 29.01 | 532.5 | 17.65 | 94.0 |

hoofs), | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. |

Meat, | 59.78 | 17.04 | 221.1 | 25.10 | 55.5 |

Spareribs, | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. |

Meat, | 50.33 | 30.05 | 359.9 | 20.81 | 74.9 |

Tenderloins, | 67.14 | 9.14 | 427.9 | 27.11 | 116.0 |

Neck bones, | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. |

Meat, | 53.82 | 28.72 | 390.6 | 20.02 | 78.2 |

Backbones, | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. |

Meat, | 51.89 | 27.16 | 397.5 | 22.24 | 88.4 |

Trimmings, | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. |

Meat, | 29.68 | 62.00 | 783.7 | 9.72 | 76.3 |

Tail, | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. |

Meat, | 23.99 | 69.25 | 199.2 | 8.73 | 17.4 |

+---------+---------+--------+---------+---------+

Total, | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. |

------------------+---------+---------+--------+---------+---------+

-----------------------------------------------------------------

| PREPARATION OF AIR-DRY SAMPLES.

+--------+--------+--------+-------------------

| | | | Removed in

| | Air-dry| | preparation

| | sample | Weight | of sample.

| Weight | plus |of water+---------+---------

------------------+--------+--------+--------+---------+---------

backs, | .. | .. | .. | .. | ..

Meat, | 458.0 | 567.6 | 265.4 | 31.86 | 54.98

Two clear bellies,| .. | .. | .. | .. | ..

Meat, | 362.1 | 468.3 | 272.9 | 36.82 | 48.84

hams, | .. | .. | .. | .. | ..

Meat, | 88.3 | 210.5 | 322.0 | 60.47 | 16.58

shoulders, | .. | .. | .. | .. | ..

Meat, | 152.9 | 246.9 | 285.6 | 53.64 | 28.71

hoofs), | .. | .. | .. | .. | ..

Meat, | 33.7 | 89.2 | 131.9 | 59.66 | 15.24

Spareribs, | .. | .. | .. | .. | ..

Meat, | 98.6 | 173.5 | 186.4 | 51.78 | 27.39

Tenderloins, | 26.6 | 142.6 | 285.3 | 66.67 | 6.21

Neck bones, | .. | .. | .. | .. | ..

Meat, | 100.5 | 178.7 | 211.9 | 54.25 | 25.73

Backbones, | .. | .. | .. | .. | ..

Meat, | 102.1 | 190.5 | 207.0 | 52.08 | 25.69

Trimmings, | .. | .. | .. | .. | ..

Meat, | 479.2 | 555.5 | 228.2 | 29.11 | 61.17

Tail, | .. | .. | .. | .. | ..

Meat, | 134.7 | 152.1 | 47.1 | 23.64 | 67.62

+--------+--------+--------+---------+---------

Total, | .. | .. | .. | .. | ..

------------------+--------+--------+--------+---------+---------

[3] Missing hoof, 6.6 grams.

[4] Corrected for missing hoof.

=Preparation of Samples for Analyses.=--The meat obtained from all of

the cuts of the same kind in each sample was passed through a meat

chopper two or three times in order to get an even, finely divided

condition. A portion of known weight was then placed in a dish and

dried in a steam oven at a temperature of boiling water or slightly

above and heated until the fat had well separated so that it could

be poured off into a flask, with care not to remove any of the water

which may have separated with it. Small samples were removed before

drying for the determination of the exact quantity of fat and water

therein, and the results of these analyses were used for calculating

the relative portion of the large samples. Samples of skin, bones,

marrow, spinal cord, tendons, hoofs, and other parts of the animal

were also carefully secured and subjected to analyses. In this way the

whole animal was subjected to examination for analytical data, and at

the same time each particular part of it, in so far as its relation to

the market is concerned, was kept separated. In Table A are found the

weight of the whole cut and the data relative to the preparation of the

air-dried sample.

The data show that there was a slight loss of water during the

transit from Chicago to Washington. The part of the pig which has the

largest percentage of fat is the meat of the tail, while the smallest

percentage is found in the tenderloins. The largest percentage of water

in any part of the meat is in the tenderloins and the smallest in the

meat of the tail.

TABLE B.--WEIGHTS OF PARTS FROM EACH CUT AND DATA RELATING TO THE

PREPARATION OF AIR-DRY SAMPLES.

PIG NO. 1.--BERKSHIRE.

NAMES OF PARTS AND CUTS. WEIGHTS OF PARTS.

From Total. Of entire

each cut. pig.

Meat (fat and lean): _Grams._ _Grams._ _Percent._

Backs, 14,767.9 .. ..

Bellies, 8,230.6 .. ..

Hams, 9,407.9 .. ..

Shoulders, 8,448.2 .. ..

Feet, 325.3 .. ..

Spareribs, 1,683.8 .. ..

Tenderloins, 470.8 .. ..

Neck bones, 493.2 .. ..

Backbones, 704.0 .. ..

Trimmings, 7,021.5 .. ..

Tail, 291.7 .. ..

-------- 51,844.9 88.19

Bones:

Backs, 191.1 .. ..

Bellies, 81.4 .. ..

Hams, 879.6 .. ..

Shoulders, 693.8 .. ..

Feet, 802.6 .. ..

Spareribs, 528.2 .. ..

Neck bones, 336.1 .. ..

Backbones, 833.5 .. ..

Trimmings, 71.0 .. ..

Tail, 27.1 .. ..

-------- --------- -----

Total, .. 4,444.4 ..

Marrow, 69.7 69.7 0.12

Total bones less marrow, .. 4,374.7 7.44

TABLE C.--ANALYTICAL DATA FOR MEATS.

PIG NO. 1.--BERKSHIRE.

--------------+---------+

| |

| +

| |

| Air-dry |

| sample: |

| Percent |

| of |

| original|

NAMES OF CUTS.|material.|

--------------+---------+

Two American | |

backs, | 13.16 |

Two clear | |

bellies, | 14.33 |

Two short-cut | |

hams, | 22.95 |

(Fat extracted| |

with ether), | 16.58 |

| |

Two New York | |

shoulders, | 17.65 |

| |

Four feet, | 25.10 |

(Fat extracted| |

with ether), | 15.20 |

| |

Spareribs, | 20.81 |

| |

Tenderloins, | 27.11 |

| |

Neck bones, | 20.02 |

(Fat extracted| |

with ether), | 18.69 |

| |

Backbones, | 22.24 |

| |

Trimmings, | 9.72 |

| |

Tail, | 8.73 |

| |

--------------+---------+

--------------+-----------------------------------------------------+

| PERCENT AIR-DRY MATERIAL. |

+------+-----+-----------------------------+-----+----+

| | +------+-------+-------+------+ | +

| | | | in- |Precip-| | | |

--------------+------+-----+------+-------+-------+------+-----+----+

backs, | 3.14 |20.55| 11.32| 8.51 | 0.62 | 2.19 | 1.16|3.89|

bellies, | 3.14 |21.59| 11.15| 7.78 | 0.65 | 2.72 | 0.99|3.85|

hams, | 4.14 |15.43| 11.85| 9.77 | 0.48 | 1.60 | 1.10|4.18|

with ether), | .. | .. | 0.22| .. | .. | .. | 2.43| .. |

| | | | | | | | |

shoulders, | 2.31 | 2.10| 13.76| 10.22 | 0.73 | 2.81 | 0.85|5.03|

| | | | | | | | |

Four feet, | 6.46 | 6.32| 13.73| 7.75 | 3.00 | 2.98 | 0.75|3.28|

with ether), | .. | .. | 0.13| .. | .. | .. | 2.68| .. |

| | | | | | | | |

Spareribs, | 3.66 | 8.23| 13.03| 10.31 | 0.89 | 1.83 | 1.68|4.80|

| | | | | | | | |

Tenderloins, | 5.14 | 9.47| 12.50| 10.95 | 0.28 | 1.27 | 1.82|4.30|

| | | | | | | | |

Neck bones, | 7.23 |10.93| 12.25| 9.97 | 0.59 | 1.69 | 1.33|4.02|

with ether), | .. | .. | 0.21| .. | .. | .. | 2.17| .. |

| | | | | | | | |

Backbones, | 3.36 | 6.88| 13.03| 10.36 | 0.62 | 2.05 | 1.20|5.59|

| | | | | | | | |

Trimmings, | 3.69 | 8.34| 13.09| 8.54 | 1.11 | 3.44 | 1.16|4.23|

| | | | | | | | |

Tail, | 4.30 | 6.97| 13.45| 10.56 | 0.98 | 1.91 | 1.98|4.41|

| | | | | | | | |

--------------+------+-----+------+-------+-------+------+-----+----+

--------------+--------------------------------------------------

| PERCENT ORIGINAL MATERIAL.

+---------------------+---------------------+-----+

| Water. | Fat. | |

+-------+------+------+-------+------+------+ +

| | | | | | | |

| | In | | | In | | |

|In pre-| dry | |In pre-| dry | | |

--------------+-------+------+------+-------+------+------+-----+

backs, | 31.86 | 0.41 | 32.27| 54.98 | 2.71 | 57.69| 0.15|

bellies, | 36.82 | 0.45 | 37.27| 48.84 | 3.09 | 51.93| 0.14|

hams, | 60.47 | 0.95 | 61.42| 16.58 | 3.54 | 20.12| 0.25|

with ether), | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 0.40|

| | | | | | | ----|

| | | | | | | 0.65|

shoulders, | 53.64 | 0.41 | 54.04| 28.71 | 0.37 | 29.08| 0.15|

| | | | | | | |

Four feet, | 59.66 | 1.62 | 61.28| 15.24 | 1.59 | 16.83| 0.20|

with ether), | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 0.41|

| | | | | | | ----|

| | | | | | | 0.61|

Spareribs, | 51.78 | 0.76 | 52.54| 27.39 | 1.71 | 29.10| 0.35|

| | | | | | | |

Tenderloins, | 66.67 | 1.39 | 68.06| 6.21 | 2.57 | 8.78| 0.49|

| | | | | | | |

Neck bones, | 54.25 | 1.45 | 55.70| 25.73 | 2.19 | 27.92| 0.27|

with ether), | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 0.41|

| | | | | | | ----|

| | | | | | | 0.68|

Backbones, | 52.08 | 0.75 | 52.83| 25.69 | 1.53 | 27.22| 0.26|

| | | | | | | |

Trimmings, | 29.11 | 0.36 | 29.47| 61.17 | 0.81 | 61.98| 0.11|

| | | | | | | |

Tail, | 23.64 | 0.38 | 24.02| 67.62 | 0.61 | 68.23| 0.17|

| | | | | | | |

--------------+-------+------+------+-------+------+------+-----+

---------------------------------------------

PERCENT ORIGINAL MATERIAL.

+-----------------------------+

| Nitrogen. |

+------+-------+-------+------+

| | in- |Precip-| |

--------------+------+-------+-------+------+

backs, | 1.49 | 1.12 | 0.08 | 0.29 |

bellies, | 1.60 | 1.12 | 0.09 | 0.39 |

hams, | 2.72 | 2.24 | 0.11 | 0.37 |

with ether), | 0.04 | .. | .. | .. |

| | | | |

shoulders, | 2.43 | 1.80 | 0.13 | 0.50 |

| | | | |

Four feet, | 3.45 | 1.95 | 0.75 | 0.75 |

with ether), | 0.02 | .. | .. | ..

| | | | |

Spareribs, | 2.71 | 2.15 | 0.18 | 0.38 |

| | | | |

Tenderloins, | 3.39 | 2.97 | 0.08 | 0.34 |

| | | | |

Neck bones, | 2.45 | 1.99 | 0.12 | 0.34 |

with ether), | 0.04 | .. | .. | .. |

| | | | |

Backbones, | 2.90 | 2.30 | 0.14 | 0.46 |

| | | | |

Trimmings, | 1.27 | 0.83 | 0.11 | 0.33 |

| | | | |

Tail, | 1.17 | 0.92 | 0.09 | 0.16 |

| | | | |

--------------+------+-------+-------+------+

---------------------------------------------------------

PERCENT ORIGINAL MATERIAL.

+-----------------------------+----+-------

| Nitrogenous substances. | |

+-------+-------+------+------+ |

| Pro- | | | | |

| in- | | | | |

--------------+-------+-------+------+------+----+-------

Two American | | | | | |{ 98.46

backs, | 7.00 | 0.50 | 0.91 | 8.41|0.51|{ 98.88

Two clear | | | | | | {98.11

bellies, | 7.00 | 0.56 | 1.22 | 8.78|0.55| {98.53

hams, | 14.00 | 0.69 | 1.15 | 15.84|0.96|{ 99.28

(Fat extracted| | | | | |{ 98.34

with ether), | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. |

| | | | | |

shoulders, | 11.25 | 0.81 | 1.56 | 13.62|0.89| {98.49

| | | | | | {97.63

Four feet, | 12.19 | 4.69 | 2.34 | 19.22|0.82|{ 96.86

(Fat extracted| | | | | |{ 98.15

with ether), | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. |

| | | | | |

Spareribs, | 13.44 | 1.13 | 1.19 | 15.76|1.00| {97.14

| | | | | | {98.40

Tenderloins, | 18.56 | 0.50 | 1.06 | 20.12|1.17|{ 97.57

| | | | | |{ 98.13

Neck bones, | 12.44 | 0.75 | 1.06 | 14.25|0.81| {97.60

(Fat extracted| | | | | | {98.68

with ether), | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. |

| | | | | |

Backbones, | 14.38 | 0.87 | 1.44 | 16.69|1.24|{ 96.98

| | | | | |{ 97.98

Trimmings, | 5.19 | 0.69 | 1.03 | 6.91|0.41| {99.00

| | | | | | {98.77

Tail, | 5.75 | 0.56 | 0.50 | 6.81|0.39|{100.44

| | | | | |{ 99.45

--------------+-------+-------+------+------+----+-------

[5] In this column the totals obtained by both the direct and

the indirect determination of water and fat are given. The upper

number in each case was obtained by use of the results of direct

determinations of these constituents; for the lower number in each

case the results obtained during the preparation of the sample, and

in the analysis of the dry-air sample, were used. Lecithin is not

included in the totals given in this table.

TABLE D.--ANALYTICAL DATA FOR BONES, MARROW, SKIN, SPINAL CORD,

TENDONS, AND HOOFS.

PIG NO. 1.--BERKSHIRE.

--------------+---------+

| |

| +

| |

| Air-dry |

| sample, |

| percent |

| of |

NAMES OF | original|

PARTS. |material.|

--------------+---------+

Bones, | 52.67 |

(Fat extracted| |

with ether), | 11.40 |

Marrow, | 4.44 |

(Fat extracted| |

with ether), | 17.36 |

Skin, | 36.93 |

| |

(Fat extracted| |

with ether), | 15.90 |

| |

Spinal cord, | 8.80 |

Tendons, | 31.93 |

(Fat extracted| |

with ether), | 4.81 |

| |

Hoofs, | 63.44 |

--------------+---------+

--------------+-----------------------------------------------------+

| PERCENT AIR-DRY MATERIAL. |

|------+----+-----------------------------+-----+-----+

| | +------+-------+-------+------+ | +

| | | | in- |Precip-| | | |

--------------+------+----+------+-------+-------+------+-----+-----+

Bones, | 5.72|0.52| 6.18| 5.32 | 0.11 | 0.75 | 0.84|49.59|

with ether), | (.61)| .. | 0.29| .. | .. | .. | .. |(.28)|

Marrow, | 6.68|0.19| 8.31| 7.08 | 0.65 | 0.48 | .. | .. |

with ether), | .. | .. | 0.07| .. | .. | .. | 2.64| .. |

Skin, | 8.31|3.28| 15.02| 10.95 | 2.89 | 1.18 | 0.33| 1.70|

| | | | | | | | |

with ether), | .. | .. | 0.15| .. | .. | .. | 1.85| .. |

| | | | | | | | |

Spinal cord, | 6.01|8.28| 8.85| 7.02 | 1.26 | 0.57 | .. | .. |

Tendons, | 10.23|1.53| 14.10| 11.26 | 2.22 | 0.62 | 0.39| 3.71|

with ether), | .. | .. | 0.23| .. | .. | .. | 6.65| .. |

| | | | | | | | |

Hoofs, | 7.14|1.35| 14.63| .. | .. | .. | .. | 1.46|

--------------+------+----+------+-------+-------+------+-----+-----+

--------------+--------------------------------------------------------

| PERCENT ORIGINAL MATERIAL.

+------------------------+------------------------+-----+

| Water. | Fat. | |

+-------+---------+------+-------+---------+------+ +

| | | | | | | |

|In pre-| In | |In pre-| In | | |

--------------+-------+---------+------+-------+---------+------+-----+

Bones, | 35.93 | 3.01 | 38.94| 11.40 | 0.27 | 11.67| 0.44|

with ether), | .. | (.07) | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. |

Marrow, | 14.06 | 0.30 | 14.36| 81.50 | 0.01 | 81.51| .. |

with ether), | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 0.46|

Skin, | 47.17 | 3.07 | 50.24| 15.90 | 1.21 | 17.11| 0.12|

| | | | | | | |

with ether), | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 0.29|

| | | | | | | ----|

| | | | | | | 0.41|

Spinal cord, | 65.17 | 0.53 | 65.70| 26.03 | 0.73 | 26.76| .. |

Tendons, | 55.16 | 3.27 | 58.43| 12.91 | 0.49 | 13.40| 0.13|

with ether), | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 0.32|

| | | | | | | ----|

| | | | | | | 0.45|

Hoofs, | 36.56 | 4.53 | 41.09| .. | .. | 0.86| .. |

--------------+-------+---------+------+-------+---------+------+-----+

---------------------------------------------

PERCENT ORIGINAL MATERIAL.

+-----------------------------+

| Nitrogen. |

+------+-------+-------+------+

| | in- |Precip-| |

--------------+------+-------+-------+------+

Bones, | 3.26 | 2.80 | 0.06 | 0.40 |

with ether), | 0.03 | .. | .. | .. |

Marrow, | 0.37 | 0.32 | 0.03 | 0.02 |

with ether), | 0.01 | .. | .. | .. |

Skin, | 5.55 | 4.04 | 1.07 | 0.44 |

| | | | |

with ether), | 0.024| .. | .. | .. |

| | | | |

Spinal cord, | 0.78 | 0.62 | 0.11 | 0.05 |

Tendons, | 4.50 | 3.59 | 0.71 | 0.20 |

with ether), | 0.01 | .. | .. | .. |

| | | | |

Hoofs, | 9.28 | .. | .. | .. |

--------------+------+-------+-------+------+

--------------------------------------------------------

PERCENT ORIGINAL MATERIAL.

+-----------------------------+-----+-------

| Nitrogenous substances. | |

+-------+-------+------+------+ |

| Pro- | | | | |

| in | | | | |

--------------+-------+-------+------+------+-----+-------

Bones, | 17.50 | 0.38 | 1.25 |19.13 |26.12| 95.86

with ether), | .. | .. | .. | .. |(.03)| ..

Marrow, | 2.00 | 0.19 | 0.06 | 2.25 | .. | 98.12

with ether), | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | ..

Skin, | 25.25 | 6.69 | 1.37 |33.31 | 0.63|{108.44

| | | | | |{101.89

with ether), | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | ..

| | | | | |

Spinal cord, | 3.88 | 0.69 | 0.16 | 4.73 | .. | 97.19

Tendons, | 22.44 | 4.44 | 0.62 |27.50 | 1.18| 100.51

with ether), | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | ..

| | | | | |

Hoofs, | .. | .. | .. |58.00 | 0.93| 100.88

--------------+-------+-------+------+------+-----+-------

Similar data were obtained for all of the other samples used, but the

chemical composition is so nearly the same that it is not advisable to

repeat the data for the other varieties. The Berkshire for which the

data are given may be taken as a fair representative of the composition

of the varied parts of the meat of pigs. The comparative weights of

various parts of the Berkshire pig are given in Table B.

The data show that 88.19 percent of the weight of the carcass, after

dressing, is composed of meat, fat, and lean, and 7.56 percent of bone.

The complete data for the variety of Berkshire pig may be taken as a

type for the other varieties and is given in Table C.

The composition of the bone, marrow, skin, spinal cord, tendons, and

hoofs of the Berkshire pig is shown in Table D.

The percentages of the various parts of the original material of the

Berkshire pig are found in Table E.

TABLE E.--REVISED ANALYTICAL DATA.

PIG NO. 1.--BERKSHIRE.

[Percents original material.]

------------+------+-----+----------------------------+-----+-----+------

| | +------+-------+------+------+ | |

| | | Pro- | | | | | |

| | | in- | | | | | |

| | | sol- | | | | | |

------------+------+-----+------+-------+------+------+-----+-----+------

backs, | 32.27|57.69| 7.00| 0.50 | 0.91 | 8.41| 0.15| 0.51| 99.03

bellies, | 37.27|51.93| 7.00| 0.56 | 1.22 | 8.78| 0.14| 0.55| 98.67

hams, | 60.29|22.19| 14.00| 0.69 | 1.15 | 15.84| 0.65| 0.96| 99.93

New York | [7] | | | | | | | |

shoulders,| 54.97|29.01| 11.25| 0.81 | 1.56 | 13.62| 0.15| 0.89| 98.64

| [7] | | | | | | | |

Four feet,| 61.28|16.83| 12.19| 4.69 | 2.34 | 19.22| 0.61| 0.82| 98.76

Spareribs,| 52.54|29.10| 13.44| 1.13 | 1.19 | 15.76| 0.35| 1.00| 98.75

loins, | 68.06| 8.78| 18.56| 0.50 | 1.06 | 20.12| 0.49| 1.17| 98.62

bones, | 55.70|27.92| 12.44| 0.75 | 1.06 | 14.25| 0.68| 0.81| 99.36

bones, | 52.83|27.22| 14.38| 0.87 | 1.44 | 16.69| 0.26| 1.24| 98.24

Trimmings,| 29.68|62.00| 5.19| 0.69 | 1.03 | 6.91| 0.11| 0.41| 99.11

| [7] | | | | | | | |

Tail, | 24.02|68.23| 5.75| 0.56 | 0.50 | 6.81| 0.17| 0.39| 99.62

Bones, | 38.94|11.67| 17.50| 0.38 | 1.25 | 19.13| 0.44|26.12| 96.30

Marrow, | 14.36|81.51| 2.00| 0.19 | 0.06 | 2.25| 0.46| .. | 98.58

| | | | | | | [8]| |

Skin, | 50.24|17.11| 25.25| 6.69 | 1.37 | 33.31| 0.41| 0.63|101.70

Spinal cord,| 65.70|26.76| 3.88| 0.69 | 0.16 | 4.73| 1.47| 0.40| 97.19

| | | | | | | [9]| [10]|

Tendons, | 58.43|13.40| 22.44| 4.44 | 0.62 | 27.50| 0.45| 1.18|100.96

Hoofs, | 41.09| 0.86| .. | .. | .. | 58.00| .. | 0.93|100.88

------------+------+-----+------+-------+------+------+-----+-----+------

[6] Lecithin in extracted sample only, unless otherwise noted.

[7] Result of direct determination on original material. Other

numbers in this column represent the sum of the percent of water

removed in the preparation of sample and the percent of water

remaining in the air-dry sample.

[8] In fat extract.

[9] In fat extract, calculated from averages for like cuts.

[10] Calculated from averages of like cuts.

TABLE F.--DATA FOR THE ENTIRE DRESSED ANIMAL; THE HEAD, LEAF LARD, AND

KIDNEYS HAVING BEEN REMOVED.

PIG NO. 1.--BERKSHIRE.

--------------+-----------------+------+--------------------

| | | WEIGHT OF EACH

|WEIGHT OF PARTS--| | CONSTITUENT.

+-----------------+ +---------+---------+

| | | | | |

| | | | | +

| | | | | |

| From | | OF | | |

PARTS. | cut. | Total. | PIG. | Water. | Fat. |

--------------+--------+--------+------+---------+---------+

Backs, |14,767.9| .. | .. | 4,765.6 | 8,519.6 |

Bellies, | 8,230.6| .. | .. | 3,067.5 | 4,274.2 |

Hams, | 9,407.9| .. | .. | 5,672.9 | 2,087.6 |

Shoulders, | 8,448.2| .. | .. | 4,644.2 | 2,450.6 |

Feet, | 325.3| .. | .. | 199.3 | 54.7 |

Spareribs, | 1,683.8| .. | .. | 884.7 | 490.0 |

Tenderloins,| 470.8| .. | .. | 320.4 | 41.3 |

Neck bones, | 493.2| .. | .. | 274.7 | 137.7 |

Backbones, | 704.0| .. | .. | 371.9 | 191.7 |

Trimmings, | 7,021.5| .. | .. | 2,084.0 | 4,353.1 |

Tail, | 291.7| .. | .. | 70.1 | 199.1 |

+--------+--------+------+---------+---------+

meats, | .. |51,844.9| 88.19|22,354.4 |22,799.6 |

marrow), | .. | 4,374.7| 7.44| 1,703.6 | 510.6 |

Marrow, | .. | 69.7| 0.12| 10.0 | 56.8 |

| | | | | |

Skin, | .. | 2,232.5| 3.80| 1,121.6 | 381.9 |

Spinal cord, | .. | 55.7| 0.09| 36.6 | 14.9 |

| | | | | |

Tendons, | .. | 159.5| 0.27| 93.2 | 21.4 |

Hoofs, | .. | 52.6| 0.09| 21.6 | 0.4 |

+--------+--------+------+---------+---------+

weights, | .. |58,789.6| .. |25,341.0 |23,785.6 |

material, | .. | .. | .. | 43.10| 40.46|

--------------+--------+--------+------+---------+---------+

------------------------------------------------------------------------

WEIGHT OF EACH

CONSTITUENT.

+-------------------------------------+---------+---------

| Nitrogenous substances. | |

+---------+---------+--------+--------+ |

--------------+---------+---------+--------+--------+---------+--------

Backs, | 1,033.8 | 73.8 | 134.4 |1,242.0 | 22.15 | 75.3

Bellies, | 576.1 | 46.1 | 100.4 | 722.6 | 11.52 | 45.3

Hams, | 1,317.2 | 64.9 | 108.2 |1,490.3 | 61.15 | 90.3

Shoulders, | 950.4 | 68.4 | 131.8 |1,150.6 | 12.67 | 75.2

Feet, | 39.6 | 15.3 | 7.6 | 62.5 | 1.98 | 2.7

Spareribs, | 226.4 | 19.0 | 20.0 | 265.4 | 5.89 | 16.8

Tenderloins,| 87.4 | 2.3 | 5.0 | 94.7 | 2.31 | 5.5

Neck bones, | 61.4 | 3.7 | 5.2 | 70.3 | 3.35 | 4.0

Backbones, | 101.3 | 6.1 | 10.1 | 117.5 | 1.83 | 8.7

Trimmings, | 364.4 | 48.4 | 72.3 | 485.1 | 7.72 | 28.8

Tail, | 16.8 | 1.6 | 1.5 | 19.9 | 0.50 | 1.1

+---------+---------+--------+--------+---------+---------

meats, | 4,774.8 | 349.6 | 596.5 |5,720.9 |131.07 | 353.7

marrow), | 765.6 | 16.6 | 54.7 | 836.9 | 19.25 |1,142.6

Marrow, | 1.4 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 1.7 | 0.32 | ..

| | | | | [11]

Skin, | 563.7 | 149.4 | 30.6 | 743.7 | 9.15 | 14.1

Spinal cord, | 2.2 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 2.7 | 0.82 | 0.2

| | | | | [12] | [13]

Tendons, | 35.8 | 7.1 | 1.0 | 43.9 | 0.72 | 1.9

Hoofs, | .. | .. | .. | 30.5 | .. | 0.5

+---------+---------+--------+--------+---------+---------

weights, | 6,143.5 | 523.3 | 683.0 |7,654.9 |161.33 | 151.3

material, | 10.45| 0.89| 1.16| 13.02| 0.27 | 2.57

--------------+---------+---------+--------+--------+---------+---------

[11] In fat extract.

[12] In residue and fat extract, calculated from averages of like

cuts.

[13] Calculated from average of like cuts.

The data for the entire dressed animal after the removal of the head,

hoofs, lard, and kidneys are shown in Table F.

=General Conclusions.=--The composition of the flesh of pigs has been

given in detail for two reasons. First, because the data relative to

this point are much more complete than those of any other flesh product

and were obtained in a more systematic way. In the second place, pork

is one of the chief meat products of the United States,--the industry

being one of great magnitude, and pork being a common article of diet

among all classes of people. Further than this, the data indicate the

general character of fresh meat, and illustrate as well as that of any

of the typical animals the nutritive value and properties of flesh. The

study of pork, therefore, may be regarded as a typical study of meat

products. It is quite as important that all people should be informed

respecting the nature of the wholesome meat which they consume and its

value as a diet as it is that they should be certain these meats be

procured from healthy animals and in a sanitary way. These two classes

of knowledge together give a complete scheme of information which the

consumers in this and other countries are entitled to have.

Pork, by many hygienists, is regarded as the least desirable of meat

products, and it is not the purpose here to combat that idea. Granting,

however, for the sake of argument, that pork is a less desirable meat

food than those derived from cattle or sheep, that is all the more

reason for knowing particularly everything connected with it. Modern

investigations have appeared to establish the fact that swine are less

subject to those forms of disease, with the exception of trichinosis,

which tend to infect the meat and make it unfit for consumption than

cattle or sheep. The diseases to which swine are usually subject act

quickly, as a rule, and are speedily fatal, as in the case of hog

cholera, whereas the diseases most to be feared in cattle and sheep

are those of slow activity and those of a nature which is often

not revealed until slaughter, namely, tubercular diseases. In so

far, therefore, as infection from disease is concerned, previous to

slaughter, it appears that the flesh of swine is less objectionable

and less open to suspicion than that of cattle or sheep. One of

the chief objections to the use of pork in any form, whether fresh

or cured, has been based upon the unsanitary habits of the animals

themselves. With the modern methods of cleanliness and care, however,

the conditions under which the pigs grow and fatten are, or should be,

quite as sanitary as those surrounding cattle and sheep. The consumer,

of course, has the right to insist upon such sanitary conditions and

these, under present laws or those which are to be enacted, will

doubtless be supplied. It is believed that in this country sanitary

environments and a sanitary method of feeding will develop types

of animals superior to those grown in other countries, where the

population is denser and where the facilities for the proper growth

and fattening of the animal are less abundant. It is hoped that the

general diffusion of knowledge respecting all food products among our

people will aid greatly in securing these very desirable results.

PRESERVED MEATS.

Meats which cannot be eaten at the time of or soon after slaughter are

necessarily preserved until the time of consumption. It is difficult to

draw a definite line between a preserved and a fresh meat. A general

distinction is the following: Fresh meat is meat which is prepared for

consumption without the use of any condiment or preservative, without

sterilization, and with none of the artificial methods of keeping,

except cleanliness and a low temperature.

The above definition, as will be seen, covers meat placed in cold

storage. A special distinction, however, must be made in this case

between meat placed in cold storage for the purpose of transportation

only and meat placed in cold storage to be kept for an indefinite

time. Where meats are prepared for consumption by slaughter and

appropriate dressing and shipped long distances to the consumer the

cold storage car, ship, and warehouse become a necessity. There is some

reasonable limit for keeping such products, beyond which they should

be differentiated from fresh meats. Whenever meats are kept in cold

storage so long as to afford the opportunity for the growth of a mould,

or undergo other changes of a chemical or physical character which

distinguish them from the fresh products, they should be placed in a

different class. Fresh meats may, therefore, be divided as follows:

Class I. Meats intended for immediate consumption and passed to the

consumer within, at the most, one week after slaughter. Class II. Cold

storage meats, which are placed in refrigerators, frozen, and kept

for a longer period than one week. There is evidently also a limit

to the length of time which meat should remain in cold storage, no

matter how low the temperature may be, since the action of organisms

which produce decay cannot be entirely overcome. The exact limit at

which frozen meats can be kept without becoming inedible has not been

determined. Without this determination, however, it is advisable that

such limit should not be approached. Inasmuch as the supply of fresh

meat is practically uniform, or can be made so by the dealer therein,

there seems no good reason for the storage of meat in refrigerator

compartments for a longer time than is necessary for transportation and

a reasonable time thereafter for passing into consumption, except in

cases of emergency. It might be safe to say that no meat should be kept

in a cold storage warehouse longer than a month after its reception.

Numerous instances might be cited in which meat may be kept for a much

longer time, but the question for the consumer is not how long a while

meats can be kept but how soon they can be placed in his hands. In

this connection it should not be forgotten that it is the opinion of

perhaps the majority of hygienists and connoisseurs that fresh meat,

especially beef, improves for a certain length of time in cold storage.

It is probable that the fresh beef which is served to the people of

the United States is on an average a month old, and is said to be

improved by keeping this length of time. This is a question, however,

which is still undetermined, and it deserves a further investigation.

Under present conditions it is well to know the truth respecting these

matters and to realize that the fresh meat we get, such as beef and

mutton, is not direct from the shambles but has been kept for at least

four weeks in cold storage.

=Effect of Long Cold Storage.=--It has been stated in semi-scientific

publications that the flesh of a mammoth incrusted in polar ice and

presumably thousands of years old has been found to be intact and

edible. This story, lacking corroboration, is hardly in harmony with

known facts. The author had the opportunity of examining a quarter of

beef which had been kept frozen in a warehouse for more than eleven

years. This meat was found to be wholly inedible. It had an unpleasant

and mummy-like odor, was light in fiber and color, having evidently

lost a large part of its weight, and was of a character wholly

unsuitable for consumption. This fact appears to show that eleven

years is too long a time in which to keep meat frozen. In fact, it

is scarcely worth while, from a practical point of view, to discuss

so long a limit. Only the necessary time for the preparation and

transportation of the meat is to be considered, and the sanitary laws

of the nation, states, and municipalities should undoubtedly regulate

the time of cold storage and see that all packages of meat exposed for

sale are plainly tagged as to the date of slaughter, in order that the

consumer may know.

In the consideration of the subject of preserved meats there are

excluded all meats delivered in the fresh state for consumption and

meats kept in cold storage in a fresh state during the necessary time

of preparation and transportation say, on the whole, from four to

eight weeks. Meats kept longer than this may generally be considered

as preserved meats, even when cold is the only factor active in their

preservation.

=Method of Preserving Meats.=--Aside from cold storage there are

four methods in vogue for preserving meats. These may be classified

as follows: (1) Curing with the aid of condimental substances; (2)

treatment with chemical and non-condimental preservatives; (3)

sterilization with heat; (4) drying. These all except the second may be

regarded as legitimate means of preserving meats.

=Curing with Condimental Substances.=--This method of preserving meat

has been practiced from the remotest antiquity. The chief condimental

substances employed are salt, sugar, vinegar, and wood smoke. With

the proper technical skill and knowledge of the process, meats can

be preserved in this way, and at the same time aromas and flavors

developed which are considered most agreeable by the consumer and which

give an additional value to the product. It is not to be claimed in

any case that condimental preservatives add anything to the nutritive

value of the product, except in so far as condiments themselves aid the

digestion by exciting in a perfectly proper way the activity of the

glands which secrete the digestive ferments.

It is not the purpose here to describe the technical processes used.

In general it may be said that the application of salt is the first

process, and this is done as soon after the slaughter as possible to

secure the proper cooling of the carcass, usually from twenty-four

to forty-eight hours. The meat, properly cut into the forms known to

commerce, is carefully packed and heavily salted, and allowed to remain

for some time in contact with the salt or with the brine which is

produced therefrom. The salt penetrates to the interior of the flesh

and hardens, to some extent, the tissues, abstracting water therefrom,

and, without being wholly germicidal in character, prevents the

introduction of eggs of insects and the development of ordinary germ

life. The salt, however, does not entirely inhibit the enzymic action

which tends to ripen the meat and make it more palatable. It naturally

gives to the meat the salty flavor which is demanded by the taste in a

preparation of this kind.

Sugar is used, if at all, always in connection with salt as a

preservative for meats. It may be employed in the pure state, but is

usually the yellow or low-grade sugar or molasses. It gives to the

preserved meat, especially ham, a flavor and quality much appreciated

by the consumer.

The application of wood smoke is usually the last process after the

meats are properly cured in salt and sugar. The pieces are suspended in

a convenient room and underneath is built a fire of hard wood, which is

kept smouldering as much as possible in order to produce the maximum

of smoke and minimum of heat. Oak, maple, and hickory woods are most

highly prized for this purpose, since they develop on burning a rich

aroma which imparts to the flesh a delicate flavor.

The object of curing the meat is, first, to prevent decay; second, to

impart the flavor of the well known condiments mentioned above, and

third, to favor the development of the enzymic action which has the

property not only to make the meat more aromatic than it otherwise

would be, but also more pleasant to the taste.

The curing of meat in this respect may be compared to the development

of a cheese, except that the enzymic action in the case of meat is one

of minimum extent, while in the case of cheese it is one of maximum

intensity. In addition to the condimental substances above mentioned

spices of different kinds are sometimes added. Vinegar is also used

at times as a condimental substance and is, to a certain extent,

also a preservative substance, but vinegar is chiefly used in the

preservation of vegetable substances rather than meats in bulk. For

meats which are spiced as well as preserved as above, vinegar is often

used as one of the ingredients, intended as a condimental substance.

No other substances than those mentioned above are necessary to the

proper curing of meat, but convenience of application and certain other

considerations have led packers of meats, when not prevented by law,

to abandon the old methods to a certain extent and substitute what is

known as the quick-aging process described below.

=Preservation by Means of Non-condimental Chemical Preservatives.=--The

use of non-condimental chemicals in the preservation of meat is

practically an industry of the last quarter of a century. Up to that

time the use of non-condimental chemicals was practically unknown

in the meat industry. The chemicals employed are those known as

germicides. In the quantities used they neither impart a taste nor

odor to a preserved meat, but by their germicidal properties prevent

the development of organic ferments and thus make the preservation of

meat far more certain and very much less expensive. By the use of some

chemicals the salting, sugaring, and smoking of preserved meats may be

done with very much less care, in a very much shorter time, and at a

very greatly reduced expense. For this reason the practice has gained

a great vogue, not as a means of benefiting the consumers, but rather

as a means of enriching the packer and dealer. Chemical preservatives

are also highly objectionable because they keep meats apparently fresh,

while in reality changes of the most dangerous character may be going

on. They thus prevent the display of the red light danger signal.

=Preservatives Used.=--The principal chemical preservatives used in

the curing of meats are borax and boric acid and sulfite of soda.

There are many other chemical preservatives which have been employed,

but these are by far the most useful, the most certain, and the most

widely employed. Borax and boric acid, of the two classes, are by far

the more common. Sulfite of soda is used more as a preservative of

color, and is probably found more frequently on fresh than on preserved

meats. Borax has the property of paralyzing fermentative action and

thus securing immunity from decay. Its use, however, tends to diminish

the palatability of the meat because of its restraining influence upon

the condimental method of preservation described above. The meats are

more quickly preserved, require less condimental substances, and the

borax probably inhibits, to a certain degree, the enzymic action of a

favorable kind, described above.

The use of any kind of a chemical preserving agent on meat is most

reprehensible, no matter what they may be. Unfortunately, experts

differ respecting the influence of these chemical preservatives upon

health. The users of chemical preservatives have employed experts of

known fame and distinction to testify in favor of these products, while

the consumer, perhaps, is not able to go to the expense of securing

expert testimony, and, therefore, as respects numbers of witnesses, at

least, chemical preservatives have an advantage. In a case of this kind

the accused must be considered guilty until proven innocent. It is not

sufficient to prove in a given case that borax is not injurious. If it

be proven that it is injurious in a single case conviction must ensue.

There is no doubt of the fact that the injurious character of borax,

even in small quantities, has been fully established, and therefore

any amount of testimony to the effect that in individual cases it has

not produced injurious results is of no value whatever. If a citizen

be robbed and in the course of the prosecution it be shown that there

are a million citizens who have not been robbed by this criminal the

evidence would be of no value. If it has been shown that the individual

citizen has been robbed the prisoner is convicted. No expert would

testify that borax has never been injurious,--even those who appear

in its favor admit that, but plead that it is generally used in small

quantities, and, therefore, cannot be harmful.

=The Argument of Small Quantities.=--The fallacy of the argument for

small quantities is so evident that it needs only to be presented in

brief form to show the intelligent and thinking people of this country

the fallacy of the claims of experts in favor of chemical preservatives.

The arguments which have been advanced in excuse of the use of

preservatives when used in minute quantities have, perhaps, been

more vigorously urged for salicylic acid than for almost any other

substance. This argument has been urged with such vigor and such

ingenuity that a further reference may not be out of place here. The

principle which is laid down is that a substance which is injurious to

health when added to foods, if not a natural constituent thereof, or if

not added for condimental purposes, does not lose its power of injury

to health because it is diluted or given in small quantities. The only

change which is made is to mask the injurious effects produced--to make

them more difficult of ascertainment and impossible of measurement. The

fallacy of the argument that small quantities of an injurious substance

are not injurious may, perhaps, be best represented graphically. The

accompanying chart (Fig. 7) shows theoretically the normal and lethal

dose of a food and a drug or, as in this case, a chemical preservative.

The chart shows two curves, one representing a chemical preservative

and one representing a food. The normal dose of a food is that quantity

of food which maintains a healthy adult body in equilibrium. It is

represented in the chart on the right by the number 100. If the

quantity of food necessary to maintain the equilibrium in a healthy

adult body is slightly diminished, no apparent change is at first

experienced and possibly even no discomfort. If, however, the quantity

of food be still further diminished progressively, as indicated by

following the curve down to the left, the point is finally reached

when no food is given at all and death ensues, represented by 0 on the

left hand of the diagram designated “Lethal dose.” As the curve begins

to deviate from the perpendicular on the right the degree of injury

is very readily noticed and starvation or symptoms of starvation are

set up. Thus if you follow the perpendicular on the right downward

to the point 80 the divergence of the corresponding point of the

curve is already measurable. As you descend to 0 the magnitude of the

measurement increases. It requires but very little further illustration

to show how easily the effect of diminishing the normal dose of a food

can be measured immediately after the curve begins to vary appreciably

from the perpendicular on the right.

[Illustration: FIG. 7.--GRAPHIC CHART REPRESENTING THE COMPARATIVE

INFLUENCES OF FOODS AND PRESERVATIVES.]

Let us now consider the perpendicular on the left, which is marked at

the top under the term “Lethal dose,” namely, a quantity of the added

preservative sufficient to destroy life. The normal dose of such an

added chemical preservative is 0 and is shown at the base line to the

right, marked “Normal dose.” If you add a very minute quantity of a

chemical preservative, the curve representing it varies so slightly

from the horizontal base as to be impossible of measurement by ordinary

means. If we follow along to the number 75 on the horizontal base we

see the deviation of the curve is sufficiently great to measure. At

50 it is still greater, at 25 still greater, while at the left of the

basic line it is a maximum extending from 0 to 100, or the lethal

dose. It is easy to show by mathematical data that no matter how small

the quantity of an injurious substance or preservative it will still

produce an injurious effect which may be infinitely small if the dose

be infinitely small. It follows, then, as a mathematical demonstration

that any quantity of an injurious substance added to a food product

must of necessity be injurious, provided it is in the nature of a drug

and the body is in a perfectly healthy, normal condition.

Hence the argument which has been so persistently urged in favor of

a chemical preservative, that if in small quantities it is harmless,

is shown to be wholly untenable. While there is no necessity for the

addition of a harmful substance, where no particular benefit is secured

thereby, and where there is no disturbance of the normal state of

health, there can be no possible excuse of a valid nature to offer for

the exhibition of even minute quantities. That these minute quantities

would not be dangerous in so far as producing any fatal effect is

concerned is conceded, but that in the end they do not produce an

injury even in these small quantities is certainly to be denied. The

course of safety, therefore, in all these cases is to guard the opening

of the door. If the admission of small quantities is permitted, then

there can never be any agreement among experts or others respecting

the magnitude of the small quantity, and continued litigation and

disagreement must follow. On the other hand, when the harmfulness

of any substance which it is proposed to add to food is established

and no reason for its use can be given other than the convenience,

carelessness, or indifference of the manufacturer, the exclusion of

such bodies entirely from food products follows as a logical sequence

and a hygienic necessity.

The third method of preparing or preserving meat is by sterilization.

Of all the various methods which have been proposed there is probably

none which is, theoretically, so free of objections as the preservation

of meat by sterilization, in other words, as canned meats. The only

important thing is that the raw material used in canning must itself be

meat free of disease, obtained under sanitary conditions, and subjected

to sterilization before any fermentation or decay takes place. Pure,

wholesome meat thus prepared and thoroughly sterilized will remain in

an edible condition for a reasonable length of time. Unfortunately, as

has been shown in the testimony respecting the packing industry of the

country, canned meats have not always been selected solely for freedom

from disease and for palatability. The question of diseased meat is

discussed in another part of this book and, therefore, may not be

taken up here. There have been used for canning purposes the fragments

and, perhaps, inedible portions of carcasses, and this practice cannot

be too severely condemned. This does not mean that these fragments

and portions of carcasses are not fit for food, but they should be

collected, prepared, and sold as such with plain notices to the

consumers of their origin. A cheaper supply of beef would thus be

furnished for those in humbler circumstances, and no imposition of any

kind would be practiced because the nature of the meat would be fully

understood.

=Preparation of Meat for Canning.=--In the following description it

is understood that the ordinary processes of canning sound, properly

prepared beef are described. The question of the canning of improper

samples is reserved for the remarks on adulterations.

There is no uniform practice followed, as has been carefully

ascertained by a study of the different packing houses and processes

for selecting and preparing meats for canning. The exigencies of trade

determine this to a greater or less extent. When there is a demand in

the fresh state for all the beef which can be supplied the canning

industry will necessarily suffer. When there is a surplus of beef

offered for sale or in case of war, where the army contracts for large

quantities of canned meat, the opposite conditions probably prevail,

and the best meats are used for canning purposes and those of a less

desirable quality offered for sale in the fresh state. The portions

of the carcass used, as described in Bulletin 13, Part 10, Bureau of

Chemistry, depend, to some extent, upon the market of fresh beef. All

of the meat on the fore quarter, except the shank and the “third rib,”

is usually canned, and in some cases those portions are not reserved.

The cheaper cuts from the hind quarter are also used for preserving

purposes. Very fat, and therefore easily marketed, carcasses are not

used for canning purposes except in case of unusual demand as above

stated. There are two reasons for this, one of which has already been

outlined, namely, that such meat brings a better price in the fresh

state, and, in the second place, lean meat has a better appearance in

the canned state than the fat meat. For these reasons, in the proper

preparation of the meat for canning, the more fatty portions, together

with the gristle, are removed and sent to other parts of the factory

for making up into other kinds of food.

The meat having been selected, it is cut into pieces of approximately

from one to four pounds in weight, according to the size of the

tins in which it is to be placed. It is important, for the purpose

of appearances, that the size of the pieces of meat in each tin be

approximately the same. Also for the process of sterilization the

pieces of meat should be practically the same size, so that they can

all be thoroughly sterilized at the same time. If the pieces be of

different sizes the small ones would become thoroughly cooked and

disintegrated before the large ones became thoroughly sterilized, and

thus the mass which would be presented to the view on opening the can

would be unpleasant to the sight.

=Parboiling.=--After the pieces have been selected and dressed they

are parboiled before being sterilized. The time of parboiling varies

in different packing establishments from eight to twenty minutes,

according to the size of the pieces of meat. In some cases a uniform

time for parboiling is prescribed, irrespective of the size of the

pieces. One of the principal reasons for parboiling the meat is to

secure the shrinkage, which always takes place on heating, before the

meat is placed in the tins.

The experiments have shown that meats when put in tins in a fresh state

and sterilized shrink to about two-thirds of their original volume.

Parboiling is, in the essence, a process of shrinking. When the meat is

put at once into boiling water there is less loss of protein matter

than when the meat is placed in cold water and heated gradually. The

substances removed in parboiling are water, fat, soluble mineral

matter, and the meat bases. The fat is removed by becoming rendered,

and rises to the surface where it can be skimmed off. A little over one

percent of the protein content of meat is lost by parboiling while the

total meat bases lost amount to almost one-third of the total quantity

contained in the meat. Of mineral matter in the meat as high as 50

percent is lost in parboiling.

By shrinking, parboiling tends to make a more concentrated article

and thus favors transportation. Practically the nutritive value of a

pound of properly canned beef is about one-third greater than that of

one pound of the fresh beef of the same kind. Hence parboiling may be

regarded as a perfectly legitimate and desirable process without which

the beef could not be properly prepared for canning.

=Tinning.=--After the meat is properly parboiled it is placed in the

tins either by machinery or by hand. To each tin is added a small

quantity of a liquid preparation made by the canners and known as soup

liquor. This liquor generally contains salt, and sometimes a little

sugar or molasses. The composition of soup liquor is as follows:

Solids, .92 percent

Protein, .09 „

Meat bases, .23 „

Ash, .28 „

Salt, .11 „

Water, 98.37 „

This soup liquor may be regarded as a thin soup. The origin of the

liquid analyzed above was not disclosed, and, therefore, no expression

can be made of the way in which it was formed. It was probably made

from soup stock, namely, the waste meat and bones of the factory. There

is no objection to a soup liquor of this kind provided it is made from

sound, clean, and wholesome material. There are two reasons for adding

this liquid, namely, to fill up the space which would otherwise exist

between the pieces of meat and thus aid in the preservation of the

material, and, second, to add a condimental substance which makes the

contents of the tin more palatable.

=Sterilization.=--After the cans are filled in this way and closed by

soldering or otherwise they are placed in retorts which are composed

of strong iron or steel boilers, properly covered and secured, and

when these boilers are full they are subjected to the action of steam

heat under pressure. Usually a small hole is left in the can through

which any gas, air or other kind, is expelled from the can. As soon as

everything is complete the retorts are opened and the cans are sealed.

In all cases, however, after sealing the cans they are subjected to a

second heating at a temperature of from 225 to 250 degrees F. The time

of heating varies from one to two hours. After removal from the retorts

the cans are washed with a spray of cold water for several hours, and

they are then dried, painted, and labeled.

The above is a general description of the process employed which,

however, is varied to some extent in different packing houses.

A modification of the above method consists in exhausting the cans

in vacuo and automatically sealing them in the exhausted state, thus

removing all air and other gases therefrom. The cans are then placed

upon an endless conveyor and dipped into an oil bath at a temperature

of 240 degrees, the speed of the conveyer being so regulated that

the cans remain in the bath a sufficient length of time to complete

sterilization before being carried out at the opposite end. After

passing through this bath they are carried automatically into another

bath consisting of a solution of carbonate of soda and, finally, into a

bath of pure water. The cans are then painted and labeled as originally

described.

SPECIAL STUDIES OF METHODS OF CANNING BEEF MADE IN BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY.

=Composition of Beef Used for Canning.=--Samples of fresh beef intended

for canning purposes, and examined in the Bureau of Chemistry, have the

following composition:

Water, 71.17 percent

Insoluble protein, 13.87 „

Globulins, 1.38 „

Proteoses, peptones, and gelatin, 1.31 „

Meat bases, 1.09 „

Fat, 9.89 „

Ash, .96 „

Salt, .04 „

Undetermined, .33 „

The sample, of which the above data are representative, was secured

from a mass of meat weighing 356 pounds, after passing through a

sausage grinder and being thoroughly mixed. The above data may

therefore be regarded as the representative constituents of the usual

grade, most carefully selected canning beef.

=Effect of Parboiling.=--A similar lot of meat secured in the same

way and from the same carcass weighed 358 pounds and was parboiled

as follows: The meat was placed in water in a steam-jacketed tank,

the temperature of which stood at 196 degrees F. The reduction in the

temperature caused by the meat was restored by heating the contents of

the retort, and it was kept at 196 degrees F. for 15 minutes. It is

thus seen that this parboiling was accomplished at a temperature below

the boiling point of water. After the parboiling was completed it was

found that the meat weighed 235 pounds, showing a net shrinkage in

weight of 123 pounds. This sample of meat was then tinned in two-pound

cans with the addition to each can of two ounces of canning jelly of

the following composition:

Water, 95.18 percent

Protein, 1.75 „

Common salt, 2.85 „

Ash, .22 „

After sterilizing, the cans were opened and the contents subjected to

analysis. The data obtained are as follows:

Water, 62.47 percent

Total protein, 24.88 „

Insoluble protein, 22.25 „

Proteoses, peptones, and gelatin, 2.63 „

Meat bases, 1.15 „

Fat, 9.87 „

Ash, .91 „

Salt, .19 „

_Composition of Parboiling Water._--The liquor, after parboiling the

above sample, weighed 280 pounds and had the following composition:

Water, 99.12 percent

Protein, .06 „

Meat bases, .25 „

Ash, .25 „

Salt, .05 „

The above data show that the general effect of parboiling upon the

canned meat is to diminish its content of water. Only a small quantity

of the soluble proteids is found in the liquor, and the other principal

constituents removed, aside from water, are the meat bases and mineral

content or ash. The fat in the soup liquor was not determined because

it rises to the surface and is not in any sense a constituent of

the liquor itself. Considerable quantities of fat were removed in

parboiling, the amount depending largely upon the temperature. At a low

temperature of parboiling, such as described, the amount of fat secured

is far less than when the temperature of parboiling is higher.

TABLE SHOWING THE COMPARATIVE EFFECT OF PARBOILING AND STERILIZING UPON

THE FRESH BEEF.

-------------+-----+---------+--------+-----------

| | | |COMPOSITION

| | | | OF CANNED

| | | | BEEF AS

| |EXTRACTED| |DETERMINED

|FRESH| BY |ADDED IN| BY

CONSTITUENTS.|BEEF.| BOILING.|CANNING.| ANALYSIS.

-------------+-----+---------+--------+-----------

| Lbs.| Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs.

Water, |254.8| 122.1 | 14.1 | 146.8

Protein, | 59.3| .1 | .1 | 58.5

Meat bases, | 3.9| .7 | .0 | 2.7

Fat, | 35.4| 12.2 | .... | 23.2

Ash, | 3.4| .7 | .2 | 2.1

Salt, | .1| .1 | .2 | .4

Undetermined,| 1.2| .... | .... | 1.7

|-----| ----- | ----- | -----

Total, |358.1| .... | .... | 235.4

-------------+-----+---------+--------+-----------

_Preparation of Canned Beef with More Intensive Parboiling._--In

another experiment, determining the effect of the changes produced upon

the fresh meat, more vigorous preparatory operations were performed.

Samples were secured from eight healthy carcasses for use in this

determination. Half of the sample was reduced to sausage and secured

for analysis as described, and the other submitted to parboiling,

sterilizing, and analysis.

COMPOSITION OF THE SAMPLE OF FRESH MEAT.

Water, 69.33 percent

Total protein, 16.81 „

Insoluble protein, 12.69 „

Globulins, 3.06 „

Proteoses, peptones, and gelatin, 1.06 „

Meat bases, 1.12 „

Fat, 10.68 „

Ash, 1.13 „

Salt, .24 „

The original sample represented over a thousand pounds. The opposite

sides of the carcasses were prepared for canning and produced the

following amount of articles as sold on the market:

Total weight of half carcasses, 1,761 pounds

3 ribs, 53 „

5 rolls, 43 „

5 loins, 166 „

3 tenderloins, 13 „

3 sirloin butts, 28 „

3 boneless strips, 24 „

8 rump butts, 36 „

8 flank steaks, 8 „

8 kidneys, 9 „

24 beef hams, 261 „

Shank meat, 85 „

Soft bones, 198 „

Shank bones, 107 „

Tank tallow, 132 „

Canning meat, 598 „

The above data show that only about one-third of the whole carcass is

suitable for canning purposes. The best and juiciest pieces, it is

noticed, are cut away and sold for other purposes. In explanation of

the above data it should be stated that only the fore-quarters of the

carcass were used and not the whole carcass.

In the preparation of the sample for analysis, the same selection

was made as for canning, and only the canning meat was used in the

preparation of the sample.

_Parboiling._--The parboiling of this sample was accomplished in

the following manner: The meat was first placed in cold water, 50

degrees F., and heated by means of injected steam. In five minutes

the temperature had reached 122 degrees F., and at the end of eleven

minutes the boiling temperature was reached and continued for one

hour. The soup liquor resulting from the parboiling weighed 1,500

pounds and had the following composition:

Water, 99.08 percent

Protein, .09 „

Meat bases, .23 „

Ash, .28 „

Salt, .11 „

These data show that, as in the other cases, the chief extraction from

the meat during parboiling is water and the next most important removal

is of meat bases and mineral matter or ash. After sterilization in

the usual way the cans were opened and the canned beef subjected to

analysis. The composition of the canned beef was as follows:

Water, 56.18 percent

Total protein, 31.57 „

Insoluble protein, 27.94 „

Proteoses, peptones, and gelatin, 3.63 „

Meat bases, 1.44 „

Fat, 7.72 „

Ash, .82 „

Common salt, .04 „

_Composition of the Fresh and Canned Meat._--Below is found a table

similar to that already given for the other sample, showing the

composition of fresh beef and the resulting canned beef.

-------------+-----+---------+--------+-----------

| | | |COMPOSITION

| | | | OF CANNED

| | | | BEEF AS

| |EXTRACTED| |DETERMINED

|FRESH| BY |ADDED IN| BY

CONSTITUENTS.|BEEF.| BOILING.|CANNING.| ANALYSIS.

-------------+-----+---------+--------+-----------

| Lbs.| Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs.

Water, |414.6| 243.2 | 12.9 | 184.3

Proteins, |100.5| 1.3 | .... | 101

Meat bases, | 6.7| 3.4 | .... | 4.6

Fat, | 63.9| 39.2 | .... | 24.7

Ash, | 6.8| 4.2 | .... | 2.6

Undetermined,| 5.5| .... | .... | 2.8

|-----| ----- | ----- | -----

Total, |598 | .... | .... | 320

From the above table it is seen that the shrinkage during parboiling

amounts to 46.49 percent of the weight of the fresh meat. Of this

shrinkage 82.85 percent is water, 14.11 percent is fat, 1.51 percent

ash, and 0.82 percent meat bases. It is noticed that more than half of

the water originally found in the meat is extracted by parboiling.

It seems rather anomalous that boiling a substance with water would

extract water from it, but in the case of meats it is seen that half

the water, or even more, which a meat contains is extracted from it by

boiling in water.

The two samples given are extreme cases in the method of preparing

meats for canning. In the first instance the meat is placed at once

into hot water just below the boiling point and kept there for only

a short time. In the second case the meat is placed in cold water

and is brought to the boiling point and maintained there for one

hour. In the last case the low temperature of the water in which the

meat was originally placed favors the extraction of a portion of the

soluble protein matter, namely, albumins, globulins, etc., while, on

the other hand, the long-continued boiling to which it was subjected

tends to decompose the connective tissues of the meat and causes

the loss of small particles of the insoluble protein thus separated

by disintegration. Although in the last case the shrinkage was much

greater than in the preceding experiment, practically no insoluble

protein matter was extracted, mechanically or otherwise.

_Canning of Beef without Parboiling._--To determine the amount of

shrinkage which takes place and the general effect which is produced by

canning meats without parboiling, samples were prepared, sterilized,

and canned in the usual way, with the exception of the omission of

parboiling. On opening the cans it was found in each case that the meat

had shrunk to about two-thirds of its former volume and that the place

was occupied by a liquid containing a number of particles of solid

matter. The appearance of the sample was much less inviting than that

of meat canned after parboiling.

An analysis of the sample was made, with the following results: Total

weight of sample, 31 ounces; weight of canned meat, 21 ounces.

Water, 63.83 percent

Protein, 27.25 „

Meat bases, 1.09 „

Fat, 4.62 „

Ash, 1.01 „

Salt, .04 „

Undetermined, 1.20 „

_Composition of Liquid._--The liquid in the can was examined with the

following result: Weight of liquor, 10 ounces.

Solids, 6.93 percent

Protein and gelatin, 1.94 „

Meat bases, 1.84 „

Ash, 1.22 „

Salt, 1.15 „

The above data show that the beef lost 32.06 percent of its weight in

the canning, a little over half of which is water.

It appears that less protein matter is extracted when the meat is

parboiled by being plunged into boiling water than when it is packed in

a can without parboiling and subsequently subjected to the temperature

of sterilization. In the former case the soluble proteins in meat near

the surface are coagulated before they can diffuse into the surrounding

water. In the other case, owing to the low conductivity of meat, the

temperature at the surface of the can penetrates slowly to the interior

and the juices which are extracted from the meat carry with them

protein matter in solution which is afterwards precipitated by heat

and remains in the liquid as matter coagulated at the temperature of

sterilization.

It is seen that parboiling has many advantages. It extracts less of

the valuable matter from the meat, it shrinks the meat before packing

so that the tins contain more nutrient matter, and it improves the

appearance of the meat to the consumer when opened.

=Relation of Canned to Fresh Meat.=--In the following table is given

the number of ounces of canned meat in a number of cans compared with

the equivalent amount of fresh beef used in filling them:

NO. OF CAN. CANNED BEEF, EQUIVALENT TO FRESH BEEF.

Ounces. Ounces.

1, 29 44.2

2, 29.9 42.6

3, 28.5 38.7

4, 12.6 19

5, 30.5 57

6, 30.6 50.9

---- ----

Means, 26.9 42.1

It thus appears that a can of 26.9 ounces of beef contains, as an

average content, an amount of meat equivalent to 42.1 ounces of fresh

beef, and retains practically all of the nutrient value of the larger

quantity of fresh beef.

=Canned Ham and Bacon.=--It seems unnecessary, as a rule, to can

ham and bacon properly cured and transported in a suitable manner.

There are occasions justifying the use of these products in tropical

countries and in other places far remote from the sources of

manufacture, and where the preservation of them, by reason of the

character of the climate, is difficult.

The proper preparation of these articles, packing in tins and

sterilizing, makes it possible to send them to the most distant points

and to have them consumed in the most unfavorable climatic conditions.

Canned ham, as it is found upon the market, has a higher percentage of

fat and a consequently lower percentage of protein than canned beef.

The ham is packed closely and the smaller pieces added for the purpose

of filling up interstices between the larger pieces of meat and keeping

the can full. It is reasonable to infer that the added meat is pork,

although very probably it may not always be so.

=Composition of Canned Ham and Bacon.=--The character of the canned ham

and bacon upon the market may be illustrated by the composition of the

following samples (these samples were purchased in the open market and

are presumably representative of the products as commonly sold in the

shops):

COMPOSITION OF CANNED HAM AND BACON.

---------------------------+---------------------------

|COMPOSITION OF ORIGINAL MATERIAL.

+--------+--------+--------+

| | | |

| | | +

| | | |

| |Water in| |

| |fat-free| |

| | sub- | |

DESCRIPTION. | Water. | stance.| Fat. |

---------------------------+--------+--------+--------+

|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|

Sliced Star ham, | 43.80 | 71.84 | 38.22 |

Boneless ham, | 53.30 | 64.09 | 16.84 |

Gold Band sliced ham, | 48.37 | 68.72 | 29.78 |

Boneless cooked ham, | 41.53 | 63.50 | 34.60 |

Prosciutto Scelto in Fette,| 36.77 | 57.27 | 35.79 |

Lunch ham, | 40.74 | 59.53 | 31.56 |

Huckins sandwich ham, | 36.56 | 72.17 | 49.34 |

Ham, “Coin Special,” | 50.87 | 69.12 | 26.42 |

Sliced Star bacon, | 15.34 | 21.24 | 27.79 |

Beechnut bacon, | 18.59 | 26.42 | 29.59 |

Sliced breakfast bacon, | 20.73 | 67.06 | 69.07 |

Gold Band sliced bacon, | 19.69 | 62.99 | 68.74 |

Fresh pork, rib and loin, | 51.80 | 78.32 | 33.86 |

---------------------------+--------+--------+--------+

----------------------------------------------------------------

COMPOSITION OF ORIGINAL MATERIAL.

+-----------------------------------+

| Nitrogen. |

+--------+--------+--------+--------+

| | | | |

| | pro- | by | Meat |

---------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|

Sliced Star ham, | 2.07 | 1.62 | 0.06 | 0.39 |

Boneless ham, | 3.75 | 3.15 | .10 | .50 |

Gold Band sliced ham, | 2.82 | 1.89 | .09 | .84 |

Boneless cooked ham, | 3.03 | 2.50 | .12 | .41 |

Prosciutto Scelto in Fette,| 3.05 | 1.96 | .19 | .90 |

Lunch ham, | 3.68 | 3.21 | .16 | .31 |

Huckins sandwich ham, | 2.04 | 1.77 | .07 | .20 |

Ham, “Coin Special,” | 2.94 | 2.55 | .34 | .05 |

Sliced Star bacon, | 6.68 | 4.75 | .74 | 1.19 |

Beechnut bacon, | 5.74 | 4.10 | .26 | 1.38 |

Sliced breakfast bacon, | 1.07 | .92 | .07 | .08 |

Gold Band sliced bacon, | 1.40 | .91 | .10 | .39 |

Fresh pork, rib and loin, | 2.15 | 1.57 | .25 | .33 |

---------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

----------------------------------------------------------------

COMPOSITION OF ORIGINAL MATERIAL.

+-----------------------------------+

| Nitrogenous substances. |

+--------+--------+--------+--------+

| (N × | pro- | by | Meat |

---------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|

Sliced Star ham, | 12.94 | 10.12 | 0.38 | 1.22 |

Boneless ham, | 23.44 | 19.69 | .62 | 1.56 |

Gold Band sliced ham, | 17.62 | 11.81 | .56 | 2.62 |

Boneless cooked ham, | 18.94 | 15.62 | .75 | 1.28 |

Prosciutto Scelto in Fette,| 19.06 | 12.25 | 1.19 | 2.81 |

Lunch ham, | 23.00 | 20.06 | 1.00 | .97 |

Huckins sandwich ham, | 12.75 | 11.06 | .44 | .62 |

Ham, “Coin Special,” | 18.38 | 15.94 | 2.12 | .16 |

Sliced Star bacon, | 41.75 | 29.69 | 4.62 | 3.72 |

Beechnut bacon, | 35.88 | 25.62 | 1.62 | 4.31 |

Sliced breakfast bacon, | 6.69 | 5.80 | .44 | .25 |

Gold Band sliced bacon, | 8.75 | 5.69 | .62 | 1.22 |

Fresh pork, rib and loin, | 13.44 | 9.81 | 1.56 | 1.03 |

---------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

Foods and Their Adulteration Origin, Manufacture, and Composition of Food Products; Description of Common Adulterations, Food Standards, and National Food Laws and Regulations · 第 1 / 19 章