[1] A [Greek: biblion epistolôn] is spoken of in the formula of
abjuration, and an _Epistola ad virginem Menoch_ by Augustine.
Fabricius has collected the "Greek Fragments of Manichaean Epistles"
in his _Bibliotheca Graeca_ (vii. 311 seq.).
[2] The _Canticum amatorium_ is cited by Augustine.
[3] Zittwitz assumes that this epistle was in its original form of
much larger extent, and that the author of the _Acts_ took out of it
the matter for the speeches which he makes Mani deliver during his
disputation with Bishop Archelaus. The same scholar traces back the
account by Turbo in the _Acts_, and the historical data given in the
fourth section, to the writings of Turbo, a Mesopotamian, who is
assumed to have been a Manichaean renegade and a Christian. But as to
this difference of opinion is at least allowable.
[4] Analogous to this is the veneration in which the Catholic monks
and the Neoplatonic "philosophers" were held; but the prestige of the
Manichaean _electi_ was greater than that of the monks and the
philosophers.
MANIFEST (Lat. _manifestus_, clear, open to view), in commercial law, a
document delivered to the officer of customs by the captain of a ship
before leaving port, giving a description of the shipped goods of every
kind, and setting forth the marks, numbers and descriptions of the
packages and the names of the consignors thereof. In England, by the
Revenue Act 1884, s. 3, where goods are exported for which no bond is
required, a manifest must be delivered to the officer of customs by the
master or owner of the ship within six days after the final clearance,
or a declaration in lieu thereof, the penalty in default being a sum not
exceeding five pounds.
MANIHIKI (MANAHIKI, MONAHIKI), a scattered archipelago in the central
Pacific Ocean, between 4° and 11° S., and 150° and 162° W., seldom
visited, and producing only a little copra and guano. It may be taken to
include the Caroline or Thornton Islands, Vostok and Flint to the east;
Suvarov, Manihiki or Humphrey, and Tongareva or Penrhyn to the west, and
Starbuck and Malden to the north, the whole thus roughly forming the
three corners of a triangle. There are pearl and pearl-shell fisheries
at Tongareva and Suvarov. The natives (about 1000) are Polynesians and
nominally Christian. There are ancient stone buildings of former
inhabitants on Malden Island. The islands were mostly discovered early
in the 19th century, and were annexed by Great Britain mainly in
1888-1889.
MANIKIALA, a village of India, in Rawalpindi district of the Punjab.
Pop. (1901), 734. It contains one of the largest _stupas_ or Buddhist
memorial shrines in N. India, and the one first known to Europeans, who
early detected traces of Greek influence in the sculpture. The _stupa_
was excavated by General Court in 1834, and has been identified by Sir
A. Cunningham with the scene of Buddha's "body-offering."
MANILA, the capital city and principal port of the Philippine Islands,
situated on the W. coast of the island of Luzon, on the E. shore of
Manila Bay, at the mouth of the Pasig river, in lat. 14° 35´ 31´´ N.,
and in long. 120° 58´ 8´´ E. It is about 4890 m. W.S.W. of Honolulu,
6990 m. W.S.W. of San Francisco, 628 m. S.E. of Hong-Kong, and 1630 m.
S. by W. of Yokohama. Pop. (1876), 93,595; (1887), 176,777; (1903),
219,928. Of the total population in 1903, 185,351 were of the brown
race, 21,838 were of the yellow race, 7943 were of the white race, and
232 were of the black race (230 of those of this race were
foreign-born), and 4564 were of mixed races; of the same total 131,659,
or nearly 60% were males. The foreign-born in 1903 numbered 29,491,
comprising 21,083 natives of China, 4300 natives of the United States of
America, 2065 natives of Spain, and 721 natives of Japan. Nearly all of
the brown race were native-born, and 80.6% of them were Tagalogs.
The city covers an area of about 20 sq. m. of low ground, through which
flow the Pasig river and several _esteros_, or tidewater creeks. To the
west is the broad expanse of Manila Bay, beyond which are the rugged
Mariveles Mountains; to the eastward the city extends about half-way to
Laguna de Bay, a lake nearly as large as Manila Bay and surrounded on
three sides by mountains. On the south bank of the Pasig and fronting
the bay for nearly a mile is the "Ancient City," or Intramuros, enclosed
by walls 2½ m. long, with a maximum height of 25 ft., built about 1590.
Formerly a moat flanked the city on the land sides, and a drawbridge at
each of six gates was raised every night. But this practice was
discontinued in 1852 and the moat was filled with earth in 1905. In the
north-west angle of the walled enclosure stands Fort Santiago, which was
built at the same time as the walls to defend the entrance to the river;
the remaining space is occupied largely by a fine cathedral, churches,
convents, schools, and government buildings. Outside the walls the
modern city has been formed by the union of several towns whose names
are still retained as the names of districts. The Pasig river is crossed
by two modern steel cantilever bridges. Near the north-east angle of
Intramuros is the Bridge of Spain, a stone structure across the Pasig,
leading to Binondo, the principal shopping and financial district; here
is the Escolta, the most busy thoroughfare of the city, and the Rosario,
noted for its Chinese shops. Between Binondo and the bay is San
Nicholas, with the United States custom-house and large shipping
interests. North of San Nicholas is Tondo, the most densely populated
district; in the suburbs, outside the fire limits, the greater part of
the inhabitants live in native houses of bamboo frames roofed and sided
with nipa palm, and the thoroughfares consist of narrow streets and
navigable streams. Paco, south-west of Intramuros, has some large cigar
factories, and a large cemetery where the dead are buried in niches in
two concentric circular walls. Ermita and Malate along the bay in the
south part of the city, San Miguel on the north bank of the river above
Intramuros, and Sampaloc farther north, are the more attractive
residential districts.
Most of the white inhabitants live in Ermita and Malate, or in San
Miguel, where there are several handsome villas along the river front,
among them that of the governor-general of the Philippines. The better
sort of houses in Manila have two storeys, the lower one built of
brick or stone and the upper one of wood, roofed with red Spanish tile
or with corrugated iron; the upper storey contains the living-rooms,
and the lower has servants' rooms, storehouses, stables,
carriage-houses and poultry yards. On account of the warm climate the
cornices are wide, the upper storey projects over the lower, and the
outer walls are fitted with sliding frames. Translucent oyster shells
are a common substitute for glass; and the walls are white-washed, but
on account of the frequency of earthquakes are not plastered. More
than one half of the dwellings in the city are mere shacks or nipa
huts. Few of the public buildings are attractive or imposing. There
are, however, some churches with graceful towers and beautiful façades
and a few attractive monuments; among the latter are one standing on
the Magellan Plaza (Plaza or Paseo de Magellanes) beside the Pasig, to
the memory of Ferdinand Magellan, the discoverer of the islands; and
another by A. Querol on the shore of the bay, to the memory of Don
Miguel de Legaspi (d. 1572), the founder of the Spanish city, and of
Andres de Urdaneta (1498-1568), the Augustinian friar who accompanied
Legaspi to Cebu (but not to what is now Manila).
Many improvements have been made in and about the city since the
American occupation in 1898. The small tram-cars drawn by native ponies
have been replaced by a modern American electric street-railway service,
and the railway service to and from other towns on the island of Luzon
has been extended; in 1908, 267 m. were open to traffic and 400 m. were
under construction. Connected with Manila by electric railway is Fort
William McKinley, a U.S. army post in the hills five miles away,
quartering about 3000 men. The scheme for dredging some of the _esteros_
in order to make them more navigable and for filling in others has been
in part executed. But the greatest improvement affecting transportation
is the construction of a safe and deep harbour. Although Manila Bay is
nearly landlocked, it is so large that in times of strong winds it
becomes nearly as turbulent as the open sea, and it was formerly so
shallow that vessels drawing more than 16 ft. could approach no nearer
than two miles to the shore, where typhoons of the south-west monsoon
not infrequently obliged them to lie several days before they could be
unloaded. Two long jetties or breakwaters have now been constructed,
about 350 acres of harbour area have been dredged to a depth of 30 ft.,
and two wharves of steel and concrete, one 600 ft. long and 70 ft. wide,
and the other 650 ft. long and 110 ft. wide, were in process of
construction in 1909. The Pasig river has been dredged up to the Bridge
of Spain to a depth of 18 ft. and from the Bridge of Spain to Laguna de
Bay to a depth of 6 ft. The construction of the harbour was begun about
1880 by the Spanish government, but the work was less than one-third
completed when the Americans took possession. Among other American
improvements were: an efficient fire department, a sewer system whereby
the sewage by means of pumps is discharged into the bay more than a mile
from the shore; a system of gravity waterworks (1908) whereby the city's
water supply is taken from the Mariquina river about 23 m. from the city
into a storage reservoir which has a capacity of 2,000,000,000 gallons
and is 212 ft. above the sea; the extension of the Luneta, the principal
pleasure-ground; a boulevard for several miles along the bay; a
botanical garden; and new market buildings.
_Climate._--Manila has a spring and summer hot season, an autumn and
winter cooler season, a summer and autumn rainy season, and a winter
and spring dry season. For the twenty years 1883-1902 the annual
average of mean monthly temperatures was 26.8° C., the maximum being
27.4° in 1889 and 1897, and the minimum 26.2° in 1884. From May until
October the prevailing wind is south-east, from November to January it
is north, and from February to April it is east. July and August are
the cloudiest months of the year; the average number of rainy days in
each of those months being 21, and in February or March only 3. The
annual average of rainy days is 138: 94 in the wet season (average
precipitation for the six months, 1556.3 mm.) and 44 in the dry season
(average precipitation for the six dry months, 382 mm.). Thunderstorms
are frequent and occasionally very severe, between May and September;
the annual average of thunderstorms for the decennium 1888-1897 was
505, the greatest frequency was in May (average 100.3) and in June
(average 90.7); the severity of these storms may be imagined from the
fact that in a half-hour between 5 and 6 P.M. on the 21st of May 1892
the fall (probably the maximum) was 60 mm. The air is very damp: for
the period 1883-1902 the annual average of humidity was 79.4%, the
lowest average for any one month was 66.6% in April 1896 (the average
for the twenty Aprils was 70.7), and the highest average for any one
month was 89.9% for September 1897 (the average for the twenty
Septembers was 85.5). The city is so situated as to be affected by
shocks from all the various seismological centres of Luzon, especially
those from the active volcano Taal, 35 m. south of the city. At the
Manila observatory, about 1 m. south-east of the walled city, the
number of perceptible earthquakes registered by seismograph between
1880 and 1897 inclusive was 221; the greatest numbers for any one year
were 26 in 1882 and 23 in 1892, and the least, 5 in 1896 and 6 in 1889
and in 1894; the average number in each May was 1.44, in each July,
1.33, and in January and in February 0.72; the frequency is much
greater in each of the spring summer months (except June, average
0.78) than in the months of autumn and winter.
_Public Institutions._--The public school system of Manila includes,
besides the common schools and Manila high school, the American
school, the Philippine normal school (1901), the Philippine school of
arts and trades (1901), the Philippine medical school (1907) and the
Philippine school of commerce (1908). The Philippine government also
maintains here a bureau of science which publishes the monthly
_Philippine Journal of Science_, and co-operates with the Jesuits in
maintaining, in Ermita, the Manila observatory (meteorological,
seismological and astronomical), which is one of the best equipped
institutions of the kind in the East. The royal and pontifical
university of St Thomas Aquinas (generally known as the university of
Santo Tomas) was founded in 1857 with faculties of theology, law,
philosophy, science, medicine and pharmacy, and grew out of a
seminary, for the foundation of which Philip II. of Spain gave a grant
in 1585, and which opened in 1601; and of the Dominican college of St
Thomas, dating from 1611. Other educational institutions are the
(Dominican) San José medical and pharmaceutical college, San Juan de
Letrán (Dominican), which is a primary and secondary school, the
ateneo municipal, a corresponding secondary and primary school under
the charge of the Jesuits, and the college of St Isabel, a girls'
school. In 1908 there were thirty-four newspapers and periodicals
published in the city, of which thirteen were Spanish, fourteen were
English, two were Chinese, and five were Tagalog; the principal
dailies were the _Manila Times_, _Cablenews American_, _El Comercio_,
_El Libertas_, _El Mercantil_, _El Renacimiento_ and _La Democracia_.
There are several Spanish hospitals in Manila, in two of which the
city's indigent sick are cared for at its expense; in connexion with
another a reform school is maintained; and there are a general
hospital, built by the government, a government hospital for
contagious diseases, a government hospital for government employees, a
government hospital for lepers, an army hospital, a free dispensary
and hospital supported by American philanthropists, St Paul's hospital
(Roman Catholic), University hospital (Protestant Episcopal), and the
Mary Johnson hospital (Methodist Episcopal). There are several
American Protestant churches in the city, notably a Protestant
Episcopal cathedral and training schools for native teachers. In
Bibilid prison, in the Santa Cruz district, nearly 80% of the
prisoners of the archipelago are confined; it is under the control of
the department of public instruction and its inmates are given an
opportunity to learn one or more useful trades.
_Trade and Industry._--Manila is important chiefly for its commerce,
and to make it the chief distributing point for American goods
consigned to Eastern markets the American government undertook the
harbour improvements, and abolished the tonnage dues levied under
Spanish rule. Manila is the greatest hemp market in the world; 110,399
tons, valued at $19,444,769, were exported from the archipelago in
1906, almost all being shipped from Manila. Other important exports
are sugar, copra and tobacco. The imports represent a great variety of
food stuffs and manufactured articles. In 1906 the total value of the
exports was $23,902,986 and the total value of the imports was
$21,868,257. The coastwise trade is large. The principal manufactures
are tobacco, cigars, cigarettes, malt liquors, distilled liquors,
cotton fabrics, clothing, ice, lumber, foundry and machine shop
products, carriages, waggons, furniture and boots and shoes. There is
some ship and boat building. Lumber is sawed by steam power, and
cotton mills in the Tondo district are operated by steam. In the
foundries and machine shops small engines, boilers and church bells
are made, and the government maintains an ice and cold-storage plant.
With these exceptions manufacturing is in a rather primitive state.
Another industry of importance, especially in the district of Tondo,
is fishing, and the city's markets are well supplied with many
varieties of choice fish.
_Administration._--Manila is governed under a charter enacted in 1901 by
the Philippine commission, and amended in 1903. This vests the
legislative and administrative authority mainly in a municipal board of
five members, of whom three are appointed by the governor of the
Philippines by the advice and with the consent of the Philippine
commission, and the others are the president of the advisory board and
the city engineer. The administration is divided into eight departments:
engineering and public works; sewer and waterworks construction;
sanitation and transportation; assessments and collections; police,
fire, law and schools. There are no elective offices, but there is an
advisory board, appointed by the governor and consisting of one member
from each of eleven districts; its recommendations the municipal board
must seek on all important matters. The administration of justice is
vested in a municipal court and in one court under justices of the peace
and auxiliary justices; the administration of school affairs is vested
in a special board of six members; and matters pertaining to health are
administered by the insular bureau of health.
_History._--The Spanish city of Manila (named from "nilad," a weed or
bush which grew in the locality) was founded by Legaspi in 1571. The
site had been previously occupied by a town under a Mahommedan
chieftain, but this town had been burned before Legaspi gained
possession, although a native settlement still remained, within the
present district of Tondo. In 1572, while its fortifications were still
slight, the Spanish city was attacked and was nearly captured by a force
of Chinese pirates who greatly outnumbered the Spaniards. About 1590 the
construction of the present walls and other defences was begun. At the
beginning of the 17th century Manila had become the commercial
metropolis of the Far East. To it came fleets from China, Japan, India,
Malacca and other places in the Far East for an exchange of wares, and
from it rich cargoes were sent by way of Mexico to the mother country in
exchange for much cheaper goods. Before the close of the century,
however, a decline began, from which there was but little recovery under
Spanish rule. Several causes contributed to this, among them the waning
of the power of Spain, an exclusive commercial policy, dishonest
administration, hostilities with the Chinese, ravages of the Malay
pirates, and the growth of Dutch commerce. On several occasions the city
has been visited with destructive earthquakes; those of 1645 and 1863
were especially disastrous. In 1762, during war between England and
Spain, an English force under Vice-Admiral Sir Samuel Cornish (d. 1770)
and Lieut.-General Sir William Draper (1721-1787) breached the walls and
captured the city, but by the Treaty of Paris (1763) it was returned to
Spain. In 1837 the port of Manila was opened to foreign trade, and there
was a steady but slow increase in prosperity up to about 1890. During
this period, however, progress was hampered by vested interests, and the
spirit of rebellion among the natives became increasingly threatening.
About 1892 a large number of Filipinos in and near Manila formed a
secret association whose object was independence and separation from
Spain. In August 1896 members of this association began an attack; and
late in December the movement was reinforced as a result of the
execution in Manila of Dr José Rizal y Mercado (1861-1896), a Filipino
patriot. It spread to the provinces, and was only in part suppressed
when, in April 1898, the United States declared war against Spain. On
the 1st of May an American fleet under Commodore George Dewey destroyed
the Spanish fleet stationed in Manila Bay (see SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR).
The smouldering Filipino revolt then broke out afresh and an American
army under General Wesley Merritt (1836- ) was sent from San Francisco
to assist in capturing the city. The Spaniards, after making a rather
weak defence, surrendered it on the 13th of August 1898. Trouble now
arose between the Americans and the Filipinos under the leadership of
Emilio Aguinaldo, for the latter wished to establish a government of
their own. On the night of the 4th of February 1899 the Filipinos
attacked the American army which was defending the city, but were
repulsed after suffering a heavy loss. A military government, however,
was maintained in the city until August 1901.
MANILA HEMP, the most valuable of all fibres for cordage, the produce of
the leaf-stalks of _Musa textilis_, a native of the Philippine Islands.
The plant, called _abacá_ by the islanders, throws up a spurious stem
from its underground rootstocks, consisting of a cluster of sheathing
leaf-stalks, which rise to a height of from 15 to 25 ft. and spread out
into a crown of huge undivided leaves characteristic of the various
species of _Musa_ (plantain, banana, &c.). From 12 to 20 clusters are
developed on each rhizome. In its native regions the plant is rudely
cultivated solely as a source of fibre; it requires little attention,
and when about three years old develops flowers on a central stem, at
which stage it is in the most favourable condition for yielding fibre.
The stock is then cut down, and the sheathing stalks are torn asunder
and reduced to small strips. These strips in their fresh succulent
condition are drawn between a knife-edged instrument and a hard wooden
block to which it is fixed. The knife is kept in contact with the block
except when lifted to introduce the ribbons. Sufficient weight is
suspended to the end of the knife to keep back all pith when the
operator is drawing forward the ribbon between the block and knife. By
repeated scraping in this way the soft cellular matter which surrounds
the fibre is removed, and the fibre so cleaned has only to be hung up to
dry in the open air, when, without further treatment, it is ready for
use. Each stock yields, on an average, a little under 1 lb. of fibre;
and two natives cutting down plants and separating fibre will prepare
not more than 25 lb. per day. The fibre yielded by the outer layer of
leaf-stalks is hard, fully developed and strong, and used for cordage,
but the produce of the inner stalks is increasingly thin, fine and weak.
The finer fibre is used by the natives, without spinning or twisting
(the ends of the single fibres being knotted or gummed together), for
making exceedingly fine, light and transparent yet comparatively strong
textures, which they use as articles of dress and ornament. According to
Warden, "muslin and grass-cloth are made from the finest fibres of
Manila hemp, and some of them are so fine that a garment made of them
may, it is said, be enclosed in the hollow of the hand." In Europe,
especially in France, articles of clothing, such as shirts, veils,
neckerchiefs and women's hats, are made from _abacá_. It is also used
for matting and twines. It is of a light colour, very lustrous, and
possesses great strength, being thus exceptionally suitable for the best
class of ropes. It is extensively used for marine and other cordage. The
hemp exported for cordage purposes is a somewhat woody fibre, of a
bright brownish-white colour, and possessing great durability and
strain-resisting power. The strength of Manila hemp compared with
English hemp is indicated by the fact that a Manila rope 3¼ in. in
circumference and 2 fathoms long stood a strain of 4669 lb. before
giving way, while a similar rope of English hemp broke with 3885 lb. The
fibre contains a very considerable amount of adherent pectinous matter,
and in its so-called dry condition an unusually large proportion, as
much as 12% of water. In a damp atmosphere the fibre absorbs moisture so
freely that it has been found to contain not less than 40% of water, a
circumstance which dealers in the raw fibre should bear in mind. From
the old and disintegrated ropes is made the well-known manila paper. The
plant has been introduced into tropical lands--the West Indies, India,
Borneo, &c.--but only in the Philippines has the fibre been successfully
produced as an article of commerce. It is distributed throughout the
greater part of the Philippine Archipelago. The area of successful
cultivation lies approximately between 6° and 15° N. and 121° and 126°
E.; it may be successfully cultivated up to about 4000 ft. above
sea-level. The provinces, or islands, where cultivation is most
successful are those with a heavy and evenly distributed rainfall. H. T.
Edwards, fibre expert to the Philippine bureau of agriculture, wrote in
1904:--
"The opportunities for increasing the production of _abacá_ in the
Philippines are almost unlimited. Enormous areas of good _abacá_ land
are as yet untouched, while the greater part of land already under
cultivation might yield a greatly increased product if more careful
attention were given to the various details of cultivation. The
introduction of irrigation will make possible the planting of _abacá_
in many districts where it is now unknown. The _perfection_ of a
machine for the extraction of the fibre will increase the entire
output by nearly one-third, as this amount is now lost by the wasteful
hand-stripping process."
Hitherto, while numerous attempts have been made to extract the fibre
with machinery, some obstacle has always prevented the general use of
the process. The exports have increased with great rapidity, as shown by
the following table:--
1870 31,426 tons.
1880 50,482 "
1890 67,864 "
1900 89,438 "
1904 121,637 "
In 1901 the value of the export was $14,453,410, or 62.3% of the total
exports from the Philippines. The fibre is now so valuable that Manila
hemp cordage is freely adulterated by manufacturers, chiefly by
admixture of phormium (New Zealand flax) and Russian hemp.
MANILIUS, a Roman poet, author of a poem in five books called
_Astronomica_. The author is neither quoted nor mentioned by any ancient
writer. Even his name is uncertain, but it was probably Marcus Manilius;
in the earlier MSS. the author is anonymous, the later give Manilius,
Manlius, Mallius. The poem itself implies that the writer lived under
Augustus or Tiberius, and that he was a citizen of and resident in Rome.
According to R. Bentley he was an Asiatic Greek; according to F. Jacob
an African. His work is one of great learning; he had studied his
subject in the best writers, and generally represents the most advanced
views of the ancients on astronomy (or rather astrology). He frequently
imitates Lucretius, whom he resembles in earnestness and originality and
in the power of enlivening the dry bones of his subject. Although his
diction presents some peculiarities, the style is metrically correct.
Firmicus, who wrote in the time of Constantine, exhibits so many points
of resemblance with the work of Manilius that he must either have used
him or have followed some work that Manilius also followed. As Firmicus
says that hardly any Roman except Caesar, Cicero and Fronto had treated
the subject, it is probable that he did not know the work of Manilius.
The latest event referred to in the poem (i. 898) is the great defeat of
Varus by Arminius in the Teutoburgiensis Saltus (A.D. 9). The fifth book
was not written till the reign of Tiberius; the work appears to be
incomplete, and was probably never published.
See editions by J. Scaliger (1579); R. Bentley (1739); F. Jacob
(1846); A. G. Pingré (1786); and T. Breiter (Leipzig, 1907; and
commentary 1909); of book i. by A. E. Housman (1903). On the subject
generally see M. Bechert, _De emendandi Manilii Ratione_ (1878) and
_De M. M. Astronomicorum Poeta_ (1891); B. Freier, _De M. Astronom.
Aetate_ (1880); A. Cramer, _De Manilii Elocutione_ (very full; 1882);
G. Lanson, _De Manilio Poeta_, with select bibliog. (1887); P.
Monceaux, _Les Africains_ (a study of the Latin literature of Africa;
1894); R. Ellis, _Noctes Manilianae_ (1891); J. P. Postgate, _Silva
Maniliana_ (1897), chiefly on textual questions; P. Thomas,
_Lucubrationes Manilianae_ (1888), a collation of the Gemblacensis
(Gembloux) MS.; F. Plessis, _La Poesie latine_ (1909), pp. 477-483.
MANILIUS, GAIUS, Roman tribune of the people in 66 B.C. At the beginning
of his year of office (Dec. 67) he succeeded in getting a law passed
(_de libertinorum suffragiis_), which gave freedmen the privilege of
voting together with those who had manumitted them, that is, in the same
tribe as their patroni; this law, however, was almost immediately
declared null and void by the senate. Both parties in the state were
offended by the law, and Manilius endeavoured to secure the support of
Pompey by proposing to confer upon him the command of the war against
Mithradates with unlimited power (see POMPEY). The proposal was
supported by Cicero in his speech, _Pro lege Manilia_, and carried
almost unanimously. Manilius was later accused by the aristocratical
party on some unknown charge and defended by Cicero. He was probably
convicted, but nothing further is heard of him.
See Cicero's speech; Dio Cassius xxxvi. 25-27; Plutarch, _Pompey_, 30;
Vell. Pat. ii. 33; art. ROME: _History_, § II.
MANIN, DANIELE (1804-1857), Venetian patriot and statesman, was born in
Venice, on the 13th of May 1804. He was the son of a converted Jew, who
took the name of Manin because that patrician family stood sponsors to
him, as the custom then was. He studied law at Padua, and then practised
at the bar of his native city. A man of great learning and a profound
jurist, he was inspired from an early age with a deep hatred for
Austria. The heroic but foolhardy attempt of the brothers Bandiera,
Venetians who had served in the Austrian navy against the Neapolitan
Bourbons in 1844, was the first event to cause an awakening of Venetian
patriotism, and in 1847 Manin presented a petition to the Venetian
congregation, a shadowy consultative assembly tolerated by Austria but
without any power, informing the emperor of the wants of the nation. He
was arrested on a charge of high treason (Jan. 18, 1848), but this only
served to increase the agitation of the Venetians, who were beginning to
know and love Manin. Two months later, when all Italy and half the rest
of Europe were in the throes of revolution, the people forced Count
Palffy, the Austrian governor, to release him (March 17). The Austrians
soon lost all control of the city, the arsenal was seized by the
revolutionists, and under the direction of Manin a civic guard and a
provisional government were instituted. The Austrians evacuated Venice
on the 26th of March, and Manin became president of the Venetian
republic. He was already in favour of Italian unity, and though not
anxious for annexation to Piedmont (he would have preferred to invoke
French aid), he gave way to the will of the majority, and resigned his
powers to the Piedmontese commissioners on the 7th of August. But after
the Piedmontese defeats in Lombardy, and the armistice by which King
Charles Albert abandoned Lombardy and Venetia to Austria, the Venetians
attempted to lynch the royal commissioners, whose lives Manin saved with
difficulty; an assembly was summoned, and a triumvirate formed with
Manin at its head. Towards the end of 1848 the Austrians, having been
heavily reinforced, reoccupied all the Venetian mainland; but the
citizens, hard-pressed and threatened with a siege, showed the greatest
devotion to the cause of freedom, all sharing in the dangers and
hardships and all giving what they could afford to the state treasury.
Early in 1849 Manin was again chosen president of the republic, and
conducted the defence of the city with great ability. After the defeat
of Charles Albert's forlorn hope at Novara in March the Venetian
assembly voted "Resistance at all costs!" and granted Manin unlimited
powers. Meanwhile the Austrian forces closed round the city; but Manin
showed an astonishing power of organization, in which he was ably
seconded by the Neapolitan general, Guglielmo Pepe. But on the 26th of
May the Venetians were forced to abandon Fort Malghera, half-way between
the city and the mainland; food was becoming scarce, on the 19th of June
the powder magazine blew up, and in July cholera broke out. Then the
Austrian batteries began to bombard Venice itself, and when the
Sardinian fleet withdrew from the Adriatic the city was also attacked by
sea, while certain demagogues caused internal trouble. At last, on the
24th of August 1849, when all provisions and ammunition were exhausted,
Manin, who had courted death in vain, succeeded in negotiating an
honourable capitulation, on terms of amnesty to all save Manin himself,
Pepe and some others, who were to go into exile. On the 27th Manin left
Venice for ever on board a French ship. His wife died at Marseilles, and
he himself reached Paris broken in health and almost destitute, having
spent all his fortune for Venice. In Paris he maintained himself by
teaching and became a leader among the Italian exiles. There he became a
convert from republicanism to monarchism, being convinced that only
under the auspices of King Victor Emmanuel could Italy be freed, and
together with Giorgio Pallavicini and Giuseppe La Farina he founded the
_Società Nazionale Italiana_ with the object of propagating the idea of
unity under the Piedmontese monarchy. His last years were embittered by
the terrible sufferings of his daughter, who died in 1854, and he
himself died on the 22nd of September 1857, and was buried in Ary
Scheffer's family tomb. In 1868, two years after the Austrians finally
departed from Venice, his remains were brought to his native city and
honoured with a public funeral. Manin was a man of the greatest honesty,
and possessed genuinely statesmanlike qualities. He believed in Italian
unity when most men, even Cavour, regarded it as a vain thing, and his
work of propaganda by means of the National Society greatly contributed
to the success of the cause.
See A. Errera, _Vita di D. Manin_ (Venice, 1872); P. de la Farge,
_Documents, &c., de D. Manin_ (Paris, 1860); Henri Martin, _D. Manin_
(Paris, 1859); V. Marchesi, _Settant' anni della storia di Venezia_
(Turin) and an excellent monograph in Countess Martinengo Cesaresco's
_Italian Characters_ (London, 1901).
MANING, FREDERICK EDWARD (1812-1883), New Zealand judge and author, son
of Frederick Maning, of Johnville, county Dublin, was born on the 5th of
July 1812. His father emigrated to Tasmania in the ship "Ardent" in 1824
and took up a grant of land there. Young Maning served in the fatuous
expedition which attempted to drive in the Tasmanian blacks by sweeping
with an unbroken line of armed men across the island. Soon afterwards he
decided to try the life of a trader among the wild tribes of New
Zealand, and, landing in the beautiful inlet of Hokianga in 1833, took
up his abode among the Ngapuhi. With them the tall Irish lad--he stood 6
ft. 3 in.--full of daring and good-humour and as fond of fun as of
fighting, quickly became a prime favourite, was adopted into the tribe,
married a chief's daughter, and became a "Pakeha-Maori" (foreigner
turned Maori). With the profits of his trading he bought a farm of 200
acres on the Hokianga, for which, unlike most white adventurers of the
time, he paid full value. When New Zealand was peacefully annexed in
1840, Maning's advice to the Maori was against the arrangement, but from
the moment of annexation he became a loyal friend to the government, and
in the wars of 1845-46 his influence was exerted with effect in the
settlers' favour. Again, in 1860, he persuaded the Ngapuhi to volunteer
to put down the insurrection in Taranaki. Finally, at the end of 1865,
he entered the public service as a judge of the native lands court,
where his unequalled knowledge of the Maori language, customs,
traditions and prejudices was of solid value. In this office he served
until 1881, when ill-health drove him to resign, and two years later to
seek surgical aid in London, where, however, he died of cancer on the
25th of July 1883. At his wish, his body was taken back to New Zealand
and buried there. A bust of him is placed in the public library at
Auckland. Maning is chiefly remembered as the author of two short books,
_Old New Zealand and History of the War in the North of New Zealand
against the Chief Heké_. Both books were reprinted in London in 1876 and
1884, with an introduction by the earl of Pembroke.
MANIPLE (Lat. _manipulus_, from _manus_, hand, and _plere_, to fill), a
liturgical vestment of the Catholic Church, proper to all orders from
the subdeacon upwards. It is a narrow strip of material, silk or
half-silk, about a yard long, worn on the left fore-arm in such a way
that the ends hang down to an equal length on either side. In order to
secure it, it is sometimes tied on with strings attached underneath,
sometimes provided with a hole in the lining through which the arm is
passed. It is ornamented with three crosses, one in the centre and one
at each end, that in the centre being obligatory, and is often
elaborately embroidered. It is the special ensign of the office of
subdeacon, and at the ordination is placed on the arm of the new
subdeacon by the bishop with the words: "Take the maniple, the symbol of
the fruit of good works."[1] It is strictly a "mass vestment," being
worn, with certain exceptions (e.g. by a subdeacon singing the Gospel at
the service of blessing the palms), only at Mass, by the celebrant and
the ministers assisting.
The most common name for the maniple up to the beginning of the 11th
century in the Latin Church was _mappula_ (dim. of _mappa_, cloth), the
Roman name for the vestment until the time of Innocent III. The
designation _manipulus_ did not come into general use until the 15th
century. Father Braun (_Liturg. Gewandung_, p. 517) gives other early
medieval names: _sudanum_, _fano_, _mantile_, all of them meaning
"cloth" or "handkerchief." He traces the vestment ultimately to a white
linen cloth of ceremony (_pallium linostinum_) worn in the 4th century
by the Roman clergy over the left arm, and peculiar at that time to
them. Its ultimate origin is obscure, but is probably traceable to some
ceremonial handkerchiefs commonly carried by Roman dignitaries, e.g.
those with which the magistrates were wont to signal the opening of the
games of the circus. As late as the 9th century, indeed, the maniple was
still a handkerchief, held folded in the left hand. By what process it
became changed into a narrow strip is not known; the earliest extant
specimen of the band-like maniple is that found in the grave of St
Cuthbert (9th century); by the 11th century (except in the case of
subdeacons, whose maniples would seem to have continued for a while to
be cloths in practical use) the maniple had universally assumed its
present general form and purely ceremonial character.
The maniple was originally carried in the left hand. In pictures of the
9th, 10th and 11th centuries it is represented as either so carried or
as hung over the left fore-arm. By the 12th century the rule according
to which it is worn over the left arm had been universally accepted.
According to present usage the maniple is put on by priests after the
alb and girdle; by deacons and subdeacons after the dalmatic or tunicle;
by bishops at the altar after the _Confiteor_, except at masses for the
dead, when it is assumed before the stole.[2]
In the East the maniple in its Western form is known only to the
Armenians, where it is peculiar to subdeacons. This vestment is not
derived from the Roman rite, but is properly a stole, which the
subdeacons used to carry in the left hand. It is now laid over the
subdeacon's left arm at ordination. The true equivalent of the maniple
(in the Greek and Armenian rites only) is not, as has been assumed, the
_epimanikion_, a sort of loose, embroidered cuff (see VESTMENTS), but
the _epigonation_. This is a square of silk, stiffened with cardboard,
surrounded by an embroidered border, and usually decorated in the
middle with a cross or a sword (the "sword of the Spirit," which it is
supposed to symbolize); sometimes, however, the space within the border
is embroidered with pictures. It is worn only by bishops and the higher
clergy, and derives its name from the fact that it hangs down over the
knee ([Greek: gony]). It is worn on the right side, under the
_phelonion_, but when the _sakkos_ is worn instead of the _phelonion_,
by metropolitans, &c., it is attached to this. The _epigonation_, like
the maniple, was originally a cloth held in the hand; a fact
sufficiently proved by the ancient name [Greek: egcheirion] ([Greek:
cheir], hand), which it retained until the 12th century. For
convenience' sake this cloth came to be suspended from the girdle on the
right side, and is thus represented in the earliest extant paintings
(see Braun, p. 552). The name _epigonation_, which appears in the latter
half of the 12th century, probably marks the date of the complete
conventionalizing of the original cloth into the present stiff
embroidered square; but the earliest representations of the vestment in
its actual form date from the 14th century, e.g. the mosaic of St
Athanasius in the chapel of St Zeno in St Mark's at Venice.
See J. Braun, S. J., _Die liturgische Gewandung_ (Freiburg im
Breisgau, 1907), pp. 515-561. and the bibliography to VESTMENTS.