original floor plan was retained in the reconstruction. A magnificent
central hall extends through the house between the front and rear
loggias. Full-height windows flank both central entrance doors. The
elliptical stairway in the front northwest corner room, in which there
is also a pantry, dates from the 19th century, but the original stairs
may have been in the present cross hall between the two east drawing
rooms, lighted by the central arch of a Palladian window in the east
end wall. In the southwest corner is a large dining room.
Mount Airy, in good condition, is still used as a residence by Tayloe
descendants and is not open to the public. Francis Lightfoot Lee is
buried with his wife in the Tayloe family cemetery, located about 300
yards northwest of the mansion.
Nelson House (Colonial National Historical Park), Virginia ☑
_Location: York County, northwest corner of Main and Pearl Streets,
Yorktown; address: Colonial National Historical Park, P.O. Box 210,
Yorktown, Va. 23490._
Thomas Nelson, Jr., may have been born in this house in 1738, resided
fulltime in it from 1767 until 1781, and probably stayed in it on
occasion during the following 8 years prior to his death. During the
latter period, he was living in partial retirement at his Hanover
County estate, Offley Hoo.
The probable builder, between 1732 and 1741, was Thomas (“Scotch Tom”)
Nelson, Sr., the signer’s grandfather. Thomas Jr.’s father, William,
lived in the residence until about 1738, the year of his marriage, when
he moved to his own house across the street. Thomas, Jr., could have
been born at either place. After “Scotch Tom” died, in 1745, his widow
continued in residence. Upon her death in 1766, Thomas, Jr., who since
his marriage 4 years earlier had apparently lived with his father,
acquired her home and moved in the next year.
[Illustration: Nelson House.]
According to family tradition, the Nelson House served as the second
headquarters of Gen. Charles Cornwallis during the siege of Yorktown
(September-October 1781), and with Nelson’s permission American
artillery shelled and hit the house. The historical record indicates
that both British and French military personnel likely used it, but
their identities cannot be definitely ascertained. And the southeast
face of the residence does show evidence of damage from cannon fire.
The Marquis de Lafayette, who revisited the United States in 1824–25,
was quartered there when in the former year he attended the celebration
of the anniversary of the Battle of Yorktown, in which he had played a
key role.
The Nelson House is an impressive specimen of early Georgian
architecture, though the four south and five north dormers added in
the 1920’s detract from the original design. The broad roof is gabled
and pedimented at the ends, with two massive interior chimneys and
strongly dentiled cornice. The Flemish bond brickwork includes gauged
belt course, water table, and flat window arches with segmental
soffits. Corner quoins, as well as the window sills and lintels and
their tall keystones, are of stone. The quoins and two levels of tall
windows give the house a strong vertical effect. The north center door
has simple gauged and molded brick piers that are topped by a brick
pediment. Destroying the symmetry of the south facade is the off-center
door, enclosed in a vestibule. A more elaborate door on the west side
is modern, replacing an original untrimmed service opening.
On one side of the off-center hall are two small rooms, with a lobby
and service stairs between them; on the opposite side of the hall,
are two larger rooms, divided by a tiny one, probably a pantry. The
general plan is repeated upstairs, where there are four bedrooms. Most
of the original interior woodwork, highlighted by the first-floor
wall-to-ceiling paneling, is still intact. From a decorative
standpoint, the most striking chamber is the northeast drawing room.
All the fireplaces in the residence are apparently reconstructions, as
are also the balusters and handrails of the stairs.
The house remained in possession of the Nelson family until 1914. In
1920–21 its owners rehabilitated and restored it and renamed it York
Hall. In 1968 the National Park Service acquired it. When this volume
went to press, an extensive research and restoration program was being
carried out preparatory to opening the building to the public.
Poplar Forest, Virginia ∆
_Location: Bedford County, on the east side of County Route 661,
about 6½ miles west of Lynchburg._
In 1806–19 Thomas Jefferson designed and built this architecturally
significant octagonal house on his 4,000-acre Bedford County plantation
as a summer home and retreat. He occupied it intermittently until his
death in 1826.
The plantation came into the possession of Jefferson through Martha
Wayles Skelton, whom he married in 1772. For many years, whenever he
visited it to superintend its management, he resided in a two-room
cottage, the only dwelling. In June 1781, just after abdicating the
governorship and narrowly escaping capture with a group of legislators
during a British raid on Charlottesville, he temporarily moved his
family to the cottage. Before the month was out, a horse threw and
injured him. During his recuperation, he wrote _Notes on the State
of Virginia_, a study of social and political life in 18th-century
Virginia. In 1806–19 he erected Poplar Forest, whose completion
coincided with his retirement from public office. When visitors became
too numerous at Monticello or the fancy struck, he took up residence at
his retreat for a month or two, usually twice a year. As the years went
on, he refined the structure.
[Illustration: Poplar Forest.]
In 1845 a fire destroyed the roof and interior, leaving only the four
chimneys, the brick walls, and possibly the portico columns. That
same year, the present unadorned roof, octagonal and hipped like its
predecessor, and dormers were added. Prior to the fire, there was a
skylight and balustraded deck at the edge of the roof, with a Tuscan
cornice below that extended around the building. The one-story brick
building is set over a high basement. Because of the sloping ground
on the rear side, the structure is two stories high there. One- and
two-story tetrastyle Tuscan porticoes are attached to the front and
rear of the house respectively. The front one is pedimented; the
unpedimented rear one is built over a one-story arcade.
The original interior plan is unchanged. Four elongated octagonal rooms
are grouped symmetrically around the present dining room, a square
central room that was once lighted from above by the central skylight,
not replaced in 1845. No aboveground traces remain of a flat-roofed
office wing, referred to by Jefferson, but a kitchen and smokehouse
still stand.
Poplar Forest, in good condition, is a private residence and is not
open to the public.
Stratford Hall, Virginia ∆
_Location: Westmoreland County, just north of Va. 214, about 1 mile
northeast of Lerty._
This architecturally outstanding mansion along the Potomac River
was the ancestral home of the Lee family. It was the birthplace and
boyhood home of two signers of the Declaration of Independence, Richard
Henry and Francis Lightfoot Lee, as well as their three distinguished
brothers, Arthur, William, and Thomas Ludwell. A later resident was
Col. Henry “Lighthorse Harry,” hero of the War for Independence. His
son, Robert E., Confederate leader during the Civil War, was born in
the house in 1807.
[Illustration: Stratford Hall.]
Thomas Lee—planter, merchant, shipowner, and politician—built the
mansion in the years 1725–30 on his 16,000-acre plantation. Upon his
death in 1750, the residence passed to his eldest son, Philip Ludwell.
Meantime, Richard Henry had been born there in 1732 and Francis
Lightfoot 2 years later. They maintained residence until 1757 and 1758
respectively, when they moved to their own estates. In 1782 Philip
Ludwell’s oldest daughter, Matilda, wife of “Lighthorse Harry,” her
cousin, inherited the mansion. In 1790 she died, and 3 years later her
husband remarried. One of his sons by that union was Robert E. Lee, who
lived in the house only 3 or 4 years, at the end of which his parents
moved to Alexandria.
Stratford Hall is a magnificent and rare example of an H-shaped
residence and illustrates the transition from the 17th-century William
and Mary style of architecture to early Georgian. The mansion is one
story high over an elevated basement and has a hip roof. Variations
in color and size between the Flemish bond brickwork in the basement
and upper story soften the austerity of the bold mass of the house. In
the central connecting arm, the flights of stone steps leading up to
the north and south entrances, which diminish in width as they ascend
to the main floor level and are flanked by ponderous balustrades, are
conjectural reconstructions, erected in 1929. Twin sets of four huge
chimney stacks are centered over the east and west wings. The stacks
are connected by arches and encompass balustraded roof decks, from
which the Lees could view navigation on the Potomac River.
“Lighthorse Harry” Lee made many changes. By 1800 he had altered or
replaced the exterior stairs and changed most of the interior trim,
except that in the central block’s great hall, to the Adam style. The
floor plan is unusual in colonial dwellings. The two wings each have
four rooms, divided laterally by a central hallway on the main floor.
The connecting central block consists of the fully paneled great hall,
or salon—one of the most formal and monumental rooms of the early
Georgian period in the English Colonies. The basement contains service
rooms and some bedrooms; the main floor, living quarters and bedrooms.
In the east wing’s dining room is a service alcove, common in Virginia
mansions. The 18th-century stairway was removed during the 1929
restoration. The only access between floors is now a small stairway in
the east wing.
The mansion is built in the center of a square parterre, a service
building being located at each corner of the square. Flanking the
entrance forecourt are the kitchen and library, 1½-story brick
structures with jerkin-head roofs. At the rear corners are a school
and office, with hip roofs. Outside the square are balanced brick
buildings: a stable on one side and smokehouse on the other. Seven of
the 12 original structures that were still standing in 1929 have been
restored. They provide an excellent picture of plantation life in the
18th century. Farther removed from the house, near the wharf on the
river, is the reconstructed mill.
In 1929 the Robert E. Lee Memorial Foundation, Inc., acquired the
mansion and 1,100 acres. Besides reconstructing the exterior stairs,
the foundation restored the library and library closet in the west
wing, as well as the dining room and service alcove in the east wing,
to their 18th-century appearance. The east and west corridors, parlor
in the west wing, Robert E. Lee’s birthplace room, and an adjoining
bedroom in the east wing were left as they appeared about 1800. The
formal garden, just east of the mansion, has also been restored. The
foundation today operates Stratford Hall as a historic house museum.
Tuckahoe, Virginia ∆
_Location: Goochland County, on the south side of Va. 650, about 13
miles west of Richmond._
Tuckahoe, situated along the James River, was the boyhood home of
Thomas Jefferson for 7 years and the place where he obtained his
elementary education. The mansion, outbuildings, and surrounding
gardens and lands constitute an outstanding example of a Southern
colonial plantation.
[Illustration: Tuckahoe.]
The land on which Tuckahoe stands was patented in 1695 by William
Randolph. His son Thomas inherited the plantation and built the north
wing of the mansion about 1712. Sometime between 1730 and 1745, William
Randolph II enlarged the residence to its present proportions. When
Randolph died in 1745, Peter Jefferson moved his family, including
2-year-old Thomas, from Shadwell to Tuckahoe to fulfill a promise Peter
had made to Randolph, his wife’s cousin, to act as guardian of his son,
Thomas Mann Randolph. In 1752 the Jeffersons returned to Shadwell.
Like Stratford Hall, the house is an outstanding and rare example of
an H-shaped structure of early Georgian style in the Colonies. It is a
large, two-story frame structure lined with brick nogging and exterior
weatherboarded walls, except for the two solid brick ends of the south
wing. Two long gabled wings are connected by a broad central block.
Tall slender chimneys accentuate the narrow gable ends and the marked
verticality of the structure, which is further enhanced by the high
brick foundations. The chimneys in the frame ends of the north wing
project, but those in the south brick ends are flush with the walls.
The second-floor level is marked by a wooden belt course and the
roofline by a modillioned cornice.
The central doorways on the north and south sides have low porches with
square posts supporting gable roofs. The south porch is approached by
a long flight of stone steps, splayed but lacking a balustrade; the
north porch is near ground level. The doors in the center block, on
the east and west elevations, are sheltered by pedimented hoods. All
four exterior doors, one in each wing and two in the central block, are
original, as are also the weatherboarding and sash.
On the first floor of each of the wings are two rooms, divided by a
center cross hall. The north wing contains two parlors; the south,
a dining room and “children’s” room. The central connecting block
contains one large room, or salon. The second floor repeats the plan of
the first floor except that, of the original five bedrooms, the one in
the central block has been modernized and subdivided into several rooms.
The interior decoration and trim, of the finest workmanship, is
remarkably unaltered and in fine condition. All the walls are covered
with simple paneling. The original wide floorboards remain throughout
the structure. The hall stairways, especially the north one, with
elaborately turned and spiraled balusters, are outstanding examples of
early Georgian style. Mantels throughout the house date from the 19th
century, but the marble fireplace facing in the west bedroom of the
north wing is original.
East of the mansion is the small, one-room, brick, one-story
schoolhouse attended by Jefferson, as well as fine boxwood gardens. A
short distance to the west of the main house is a plantation street,
containing a complex of eight early 18th-century buildings, all in
excellent condition and little altered. They include kitchen, tobacco
house, three slave quarters, smokehouse, and barn.
Since Tuckahoe passed out of the possession of the Randolph family in
1830, a succession of individuals have owned it. It is still a private
residence, not open to the public.
Wythe House, Virginia ∆
_Location: On the west side of the Palace Green, between Duke of
Gloucester and Prince George Streets, Williamsburg._
This house in Colonial Williamsburg is a superb example of a Georgian
brick house. It was the residence of George Wythe from around 1755
until 1791, a period that spanned some of his most active years in
politics and jurisprudence. His father-in-law, the noted Virginia
architect Richard Taliaferro, designed and built it for him and his
second wife about 1755. When Taliaferro died two decades later, Wythe
inherited it and resided in it until 1791, when he moved to Richmond.
A decade earlier, the house had served as Gen. George Washington’s
headquarters prior to the siege of Yorktown.
The outstanding aspects of the little-altered early Georgian structure
are its good lines and fine brickwork, in Flemish bond. It is two
stories high over a basement and has a hip roof and two interior
chimneys. Smaller windows on the upper level create an illusion that
the modestly sized house is larger than it actually is. The simple
facade is enriched mainly by the broad muntins and wide frames of the
windows and a fine paneled double door with rectangular transom. The
flat window arches are constructed of gauged brick. Windows, doors,
and house corners have rubbed dressings, and a modillioned cornice
decorates the eaveline.
[Illustration: Wythe House.]
Each floor consists of four rooms bisected into pairs by a central
hall. Chimneys between each of the pairs afford fireplaces for all
eight rooms. The handsome but unpretentious stairway contains the
only elaborate woodwork. Plaster dadoes, however, are found in every
room, with chair rails on plasterboard, and single molded cornices. On
the first floor are study, parlor, students’ room, and dining room;
on the second, four bedrooms. The existing mantels are replacements.
Furnishings are of the late 18th century or earlier and represent
American craftmanship. Extending behind the house is the formal garden;
along the north, the kitchen, smokehouse, laundry, lumberhouse, and
stable.
In 1926, when Bruton Parish acquired the residence, it was in poor
condition. By 1931 the parish had repaired and restored it, and
utilized it as a parish house for 6 years. Colonial Williamsburg then
acquired it, and in 1939–40 accomplished additional restoration. Today
the building is one of the main attractions at Colonial Williamsburg
and is part of Williamsburg Historic District, a National Historic
Landmark.
Appendix
The Declaration and Its History
_Text of the Declaration_
IN CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776.
The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America,
When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people
to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another,
and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal
station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them,
a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should
declare the causes which impel them to the separation.
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created
equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable
Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of
Happiness.——That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted
among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the
governed.——That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive
of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish
it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such
principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall
seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence,
indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be
changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience
hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are
sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which
they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations,
pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them
under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to
throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future
security.——Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and
such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former
Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain
is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct
object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To
prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.
_He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary
for the public good._
_He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing
importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should
be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend
to them._
_He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large
districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right
of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and
formidable to tyrants only._
_He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual,
uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records,
for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his
measures._
_He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with
manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people._
_He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause
others to be elected; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of
Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise;
the State remaining in the meantime exposed to all the dangers of
invasion from without, and convulsions within._
_He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that
purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing
to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the
conditions of new Appropriations of Lands._
_He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his
Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers._
_He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of
their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries._
_He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of
Officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance._
_He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the
Consent of our legislatures._
_He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to
the Civil power._
_He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to
our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to
their Acts of pretended Legislation:_
_For Quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:_
_For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any Murders
which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:_
_For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:_
_For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:_
_For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury:_
_For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:_
_For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring
Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging
its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument
for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:_
_For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and
altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:_
_For suspending our own Legislatures and declaring themselves invested
with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever._
_He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his
Protection and waging War against us._
_He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and
destroyed the lives of our people._
_He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries
to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun
with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most
barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation._
_He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas
to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their
friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands._
_He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured
to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian
Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction
of all ages, sexes and conditions._
_In every stage of these Oppressions we have Petitioned for Redress
in the most humble terms: our repeated Petitions have been answered
only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by
every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free
people._
_Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We
have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to
extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them
of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have
appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured
them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations,
which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence.
They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity.
We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our
Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in
War, in Peace Friends._
=We, therefore=, the Representatives of the =united States of America=,
in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the
world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by
Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and
declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be =Free
and Independent States=; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to
the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and
the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and
that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War,
conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all
other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do.
And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the
protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our
Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.
_History of the Document_
The best known of all the copies of the Declaration of Independence
is the parchment copy, engrossed by Timothy Matlack. This one, signed
by 56 Delegates of the Continental Congress on and after August 2,
1776, is displayed today in Exhibition Hall at the National Archives
Building. Jefferson’s final draft of the Declaration, known as the
“rough draft,” cumulatively bearing the corrections, amendments, and
deletions of the drafting committee and of Congress as a whole, as
well as Jefferson’s marginal and textual notes, is preserved among
the Jefferson Papers at the Library of Congress. The revised draft,
adopted by the Delegates on July 4, 1776, and signed only by John
Hancock and Charles Thomson, President and Secretary of the Continental
Congress, is known as the broadside copy. It was sent to the printer
and has never been located. Sixteen copies of the printed broadside
have survived. In addition to the “rough draft,” as least six other
handwritten contemporary copies of the Declaration, one fragmentary,
have survived and are in various archival collections. Five were made
by Jefferson and one by John Adams.
The history of the parchment copy of the Declaration is fascinating.
From 1776 until 1789, along with other important national papers, it
was safeguarded by Secretary of Congress Thomson, who carried it
with him as Congress, at first to escape British troops and later for
other reasons, convened in various cities: Philadelphia, Baltimore,
Lancaster, York, Princeton, Trenton, Annapolis, and New York.
When the Constitution took effect in 1789 and Thomson left office,
he relinquished the Declaration to the newly created Department of
State, which was under the temporary stewardship of Acting Secretary
John Jay. Its offices were in New York’s old City Hall (Federal
Hall). The next March, Thomas Jefferson became the first Secretary
of State and custodian of the instrument he had created. Later that
year, Philadelphia became the seat of the Federal Government and the
Declaration returned to its birthplace. There it remained for a decade,
until 1800, when the Government moved to the new national Capital of
Washington.
Secretary of State John Marshall apparently at first stored the
Declaration in his Department’s temporary offices in the old Treasury
Building, at 15th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW., and possibly
then at Seven Buildings, 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW. After
a few months, likely in 1801, the document was transferred to the War
Office Building, at 17th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW., where
the Department of State moved its offices. The Declaration remained
there until the summer of 1814, during the War of 1812, when British
troops invaded the Capital. Shortly before they arrived, Secretary of
State James Monroe packed the instrument and other state papers in
linen sacks and sent them by wagon to a barn on the Virginia side of
the Potomac 2 miles above Chain Bridge for one night, and then to a
clergyman’s home in Leesburg, Va. Within a few weeks, after the British
threat had subsided, the documents were brought back to Washington and
probably temporarily kept in various structures because of the burning
of the War Office Building by the British.
In 1820 the Department of State moved the Declaration to its
headquarters at 15th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW. Stored for
years in scroll fashion, the document had already been damaged by
numerous unrollings, other handling, and frequent moves. In the period
1820–23 the use of a “wet” copying process to produce a facsimile
apparently divested the parchment of some of its ink, especially that
of the signatures.
Subsequently the Declaration remained relatively undisturbed until
1841, when Secretary of State Daniel Webster, concluding that it should
be on public view, ordered that it be mounted, framed, and moved to
the newly constructed Patent Office, in the block bounded by Seventh,
Ninth, F, and G Streets NW. The Patent Office was then part of the
Department of State. Placed beside George Washington’s commission
as commander in chief of the Continental Army in a large frame on a
wall of the second floor hall opposite a window, for 35 years the
Declaration endured exposure to glare, summer heat, and winter cold.
The text retained its legibility, but the parchment faded and yellowed,
cracked and warped. Many of the signatures had faded, some becoming
blurred or almost invisible.
The Federal Government in 1876 lent the Declaration to the city of
Philadelphia, site of the national Centennial Exposition. On July
4 Richard Henry Lee, grandson of the signer, read it publicly. It
was then exhibited in a fireproof safe behind a plate glass window
and seen by more people than ever before. Philadelphians, deploring
its condition, fought to retain it and only reluctantly returned
it to Washington. Heeding the outcry of those who had viewed the
timeworn parchment, a Government commission studied the possibility
of restoration and in time concluded that such an attempt might be
damaging.
Meantime, in 1877, as a safeguard the Declaration was moved from
the Patent Office to a more fireproof building at 17th Street and
Pennsylvania Avenue NW. shared by the State, War, and Navy Departments.
It had narrowly escaped destruction, for only a few months later fire
gutted the Patent Office. Finally, in 1894, for protection from the
light, State Department officials sealed the 118-year-old sheet between
two glass plates and locked it in a safe in the basement. There it lay,
except for rare occasions, in darkness and unobserved for more than a
quarter of a century.
In 1921 the Department of State, responding to the recommendation of a
special commission, relinquished custodianship of the Declaration to
the Library of Congress. The transfer was made personally by Herbert
Putnam, the Librarian, using a library mail truck, a Model T Ford.
At first he kept the document in his office. In 1924, however, he
placed it together with the Constitution, on public exhibition in
a bronze-and-marble shrine on the second floor. At this time, the
Declaration was encased between heavy glass panes specially treated to
keep out harmful rays of light.
The Declaration and the Constitution remained there until the outbreak
of World War II. On December 26, 1941, just 19 days after the Japanese
attack on Pearl Harbor, they left Washington under heavy guard by
train en route to Fort Knox, Ky., where they arrived the following
day. Specialists took advantage of the opportunity and cleaned and
restored the Declaration to the maximum degree. In 1944 both it and
the Constitution were taken back to the Library of Congress. They
remained there until 1952, at which time a tank under military escort
carried them to Washington’s National Archives Building, repository of
the Nation’s permanent records, which are under the jurisdiction of
the National Archives and Records Service of the U.S. General Services
Administration.
[Illustration: Constitution Avenue entrance of the National Archives
Building, Washington, D.C.]
[Illustration: This marble shrine at the rear center of Exhibition
Hall, National Archives Building, contains the Declaration of
Independence, the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights.]
* * * * *
Still enshrined there today, along with thousands of other priceless
national records, is the parchment copy of the Declaration. The massive
bronze doors at the Constitution Avenue entrance to the building lead
to the circular Exhibition Hall. At its rear center stands a marble
shrine containing the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution,
and the Bill of Rights. They are sealed in helium-filled bronze and
glass cases, screened from harmful light rays by special filters, and
can be lowered within seconds into a large fireproof, shockproof, and
bombproof vault.
The hall also features a “Formation of the Union” exhibit, a collection
of documents illustrating the evolution of the U.S. Government from
1774 until 1791. They include the Articles of Association (1774),
the Articles of Confederation (1777), the Treaty of Paris (1783),
and Washington’s inaugural address (1789). Above the exhibits are
two murals. In one, Jefferson is presenting the Declaration to John
Hancock, President of the Continental Congress; in the other, James
Madison is submitting the Constitution to George Washington, President
of the Constitutional Convention.
Suggested Reading
BECKER, CARL L. _The Declaration of Independence: A Study in the
History of Political Ideas._ New York: rev. ed., Harcourt, Brace,
1942. A classic and scholarly study, originally published in
1922, that analyzes the Declaration in terms of its political
background, philosophical origins, and literary merit, and
discusses subsequent reaction to it.
BOYD, JULIAN P. _The Declaration of Independence: The Evolution
of the Text as Shown in Facsimiles of Various Drafts by Its
Author, Thomas Jefferson._ Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University
Press, 1945. This valuable work is a revised edition of a study
published by the Library of Congress in 1943 in connection with
the bicentennial celebration of Jefferson’s birth. Examines the
nature and evolution of the various drafts.
BURNETT, EDMUND C. _The Continental Congress._ New York: Macmillan,
1941. Although written in a cumbersome style, this book remains
one of the best on its subject. Includes chapters dealing with
the events surrounding adoption of the Declaration.
DUMBAULD, EDWARD. _The Declaration of Independence and What It Means
Today._ Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1950.
Phrase-by-phrase study of the contents of the document and
differences in the several drafts. Also treats the underlying
intellectual and political influences.
MALONE, DUMAS. _The Story of the Declaration of Independence._ New
York: Oxford University Press, 1954. Enhancing this readable
account of the early phases of the Revolution and biographical
sketches of the signers is a fine collection of illustrations
assembled by Hirst Milhollen and Milton Kaplan.
McGEE, DOROTHY H. _Famous Signers of the Declaration._ New York:
Dodd, Mead, 1955. One of a series oriented to young readers, this
volume presents biographies of selected signers.
NATIONAL ARCHIVES. _The Formation of the Union._ Washington: National
Archives and Records Service (Pub. No. 70-13), 1970. A handsome
but moderately priced brochure that consists of a brief history
of the period 1774–91 and facsimiles of key documents.
WHITNEY, DAVID C. _Founders of Freedom in America: Lives of the Men
Who Signed the Declaration of Independence and So Helped to
Establish the United States of America._ Chicago: J. G. Ferguson,
1964. This superbly illustrated work is one of the best popular
versions of the events of the Revolutionary period and those
associated with the signing. Includes biographies of the signers
and patriots Patrick Henry and James Otis.
Criteria for Selection of Historic Sites of National Significance
=A.= National significance is ascribed to buildings, sites, objects, or
districts which possess exceptional value or quality in illustrating or
interpreting the historical (history and archeology) heritage of our
Nation, such as:
1. Structures or sites at which events occurred that have made a
significant contribution to, and are identified prominently with,
or which outstandingly represent, the broad cultural, political,
economic, military, or social history of the Nation, and from which an
understanding and appreciation of the larger patterns of our American
heritage may be gained.
2. Structures or sites associated importantly with the lives of persons
nationally significant in the history of the United States.
3. Structures or sites associated significantly with an important event
that outstandingly represents some great idea or ideal of the American
people.
4. Structures that embody the distinguishing characteristics of an
architectural type specimen, exceptionally valuable for a study of
a period, style, or method of construction; or a notable structure
representing the work of a master builder, designer, or architect.
5. Objects that figured prominently in nationally significant events;
or that were prominently associated with nationally significant
persons; or that outstandingly represent some great idea or ideal of
the American people; or that embody distinguishing characteristics of a
type specimen, exceptionally valuable for a study of a period, style,
or method of construction; or that are notable as representations of
the work of master workers or designers.
6. Archeological sites that have produced information of a major
scientific importance by revealing new cultures, or by shedding light
upon periods of occupation over large areas of the United States.
Such sites are those which have produced, or which may reasonably be
expected to produce, data affecting theories, concepts, and ideas to a
major degree.
7. When preserved or restored as integral parts of the environment,
historic buildings not sufficiently significant individually by reason
of historical association or architectural merit to warrant recognition
may collectively compose a “historic district” that is of historical
significance to the Nation in commemorating or illustrating a way of
life in its developing culture.
=B.= To possess national significance, a historic or prehistoric
structure, district, site, or object must possess integrity. For a
historic or prehistoric _site_, integrity requires original location
and intangible elements of feeling and association. The site of a
structure no longer standing may possess national significance if the
person or event associated with the structure was of transcendent
importance in the Nation’s history and the association consequential.
For a historic or prehistoric _structure_, integrity is a composite
quality derived from original workmanship, original location, and
intangible elements of feeling and association. A structure no longer
on the original site may possess national significance if the person or
event associated with it was of transcendent importance in the Nation’s
history and the association consequential.
For a historic _district_, integrity is a composite quality derived
from original workmanship, original location, and intangible elements
of feeling and association inherent in an ensemble of historic
buildings having visual architectural unity.
For a historic _object_, integrity requires basic original workmanship.
=C.= Structures or sites which are primarily of significance in the
field of religion or to religious bodies but are not of national
importance in other fields of the history of the United States, such as
political, military, or architectural history, will not be eligible for
consideration.
=D.= Birthplaces, graves, burials, and cemeteries, as a general rule,
are not eligible for consideration and recognition except in cases
of historical figures of transcendent importance. Historic sites
associated with the actual careers and contributions of outstanding
historical personages usually are more important than their birthplaces
and burial places.
=E.= Structures, sites, and objects achieving historical importance
within the past 50 years will not as a general rule be considered
unless associated with persons or events of transcendent significance.
Acknowledgments
_Advisory Board on National Parks, Historic Sites, Buildings, and
Monuments (1971)_
Durward L. Allen, _Purdue University_.
Hon. E. Y. Berry, _Rapid City, S. Dak._
Anthony A. Buford, _Clayton, Mo._
Loren C. Eiseley, _University of Pennsylvania_.
Mrs. Lyndon B. Johnson, _Stonewall, Tex._
Peter C. Murphy, Jr., _Springfield, Oreg._
Nathaniel A. Owings, _San Francisco, Calif._
Melvin M. Payne, _National Geographic Society_.
Linden C. Pettys, _Ann Arbor, Mich._
Steven Rose, _Arcadia, Calif._
William G. Shade, _Lehigh University_.
Elisha Walker, Jr., _New York, N.Y._
James W. Whittaker, _Seattle, Wash._
_National Park Service_
Edwin C. Bearss, _Historian, Historic Preservation Project (East),
Denver Service Center_.
S. Sydney Bradford, _Chief, Plans and Grants, National Register of
Historic Places_.
George S. Cattanach, Jr., _Program Coordinator, National Register of
Historic Places_.
Henry A. Judd, Chief, _Park Historic Architecture, Division of
Historic Architecture_.
Herbert E. Kahler, _Chief (retired), Division of History and
Archeology_.
Ronald F. Lee, _Special Assistant to the Director_.
John Luzader, Historian, _Historic Preservation Project (East),
Denver Service Center_.
Warren A. McCullough, _Management Assistant, Independence National
Historical Park, Pa._
John D. McDermott, _Assistant Executive Secretary, Advisory Council
on Historic Preservation_.
Thomas W. Mullen, _Student Research Assistant (Northeastern
University), Division of History_.
Denys Peter Myers, _Architectural Historian, Division of History_.
John D. R. Platt, _Historian, Independence National Historical Park,
Pa._
Charles W. Porter III, _Chief Historian (retired), Division of
History_.
Charles W. Snell, _Historian, Division of History_.
Martin I. Yoelson, _Supervisory Interpretive Specialist, Independence
National Historical Park, Pa._
_Other Individuals_
Roland A. Block, _Regional Director, Taconic State Park Commission,
Staatsburg, N.Y._
Jerry M. Bloomer, _Secretary-Registrar, R. W. Norton Art Gallery,
Shreveport_.
Edwin Cox, _President, Virginia Historical Society, Richmond_.
Alonzo T. Dill, _West Point, Va._
Educational Programs Staff, _National Archives and Records Service,
U.S. General Services Administration_.
Ms. Constance M. Greiff, _Vice President, Historical Society of
Princeton, N.J._
Ms. Virginia Gunter, _Curator, New Hampshire Historical Society,
Concord_.
Edgar R. Lafferty, Jr., _Elsing Green, King William, Va._
Charles H. McCormick, _Assistant Professor of History, Fairmont State
College, Fairmont, W. Va._
Ms. Mildred Steinbach, _Librarian, Frick Art Reference Library, New
York_.
E. Berkeley Tompkins, _Director, Division of Historical and Cultural
Affairs, Department of State, State of Delaware, Dover_.
Art and Picture Credits
The National Park Service gratefully acknowledges the assistance
of agencies and individuals furnishing illustrations and granting
permission to reproduce them.
_Page_
ii Oil (1817) by John Trumbull, after his earlier painting of
the same name (1786–95). Color separations courtesy United
States Capitol Historical Society and Eastern National Park
and Monument Association. Of the 48 individuals in the
painting, 44 are signers. The likenesses were the basis for
many later portraits by other artists.
4 Oil (date unknown) by Allan Ramsay. Library of Congress.
5 Engraving (1770) by Paul Revere. Library of Congress.
6 Lithograph (1830) by either William or John Pendleton,
after a cartoon (1774) published in London. Library of
Congress.
7 Lithograph (1846) by Nathaniel Currier. Library of Congress.
8 Engraving (1775) by Amos Doolittle. National Park Service.
9 Detail from broadside, publisher unknown. National Park
Service.
10 Engraving (ca. 1776) by an unknown artist. Library of
Congress.
11 Library of Congress.
12 Oil (ca. 1858) by Bass Otis, after George Romney.
Independence National Historical Park.
13 Mezzotint (1778) by an unknown artist, after Corbutt.
Library of Congress.
14 Oil (ca. 1782) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence
National Historical Park.
17 Library of Congress.
19 Engraving (1823) by William Stone. Library of Congress.
21 Library of Congress.
22 Engraving (1859) by John C. McRae, after Johannes A. S.
Oertel. Library of Congress.
23 Oil (date unknown) by Xavier D. Gratta. Valley Forge (Pa.)
Historical Society.
28 Oil (before 1897) by an unknown artist, after Thomas Sully.
Independence National Historical Park.
29 Oil (date unknown) by W. Trego. Valley Forge (Pa.)
Historical Society.
30 Engraving (ca. 1725–26) by William Burgis. Library of
Congress.
33 Oil (ca. 1791–94) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence
National Historical Park.
36 Oil (1873) by Nahum B. Onthank, after John S. Copley.
Independence National Historical Park.
39 Oil (1871) by Caroline Weeks, after John Trumbull.
Independence National Historical Park.
41 Oil (1901) by Albert Rosenthal, after a miniature by an
unknown artist. Independence National Historical Park. In
1913 Charles H. Hart, an authority on historical portraits,
maintained that this likeness was not Carter Braxton but was
that of his brother George.
43 Oil (1823) by Charles Willson Peale, after Rembrandt Peale.
Independence National Historical Park.
45 Oil (1819) by Charles Willson Peale, after his 1773
painting. Independence National Historical Park.
47 Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull.
Independence National Historical Park.
48 Wood engraving by an unknown artist, after F. O. C. Darley,
from Henry Howe, _Life and Death on the Ocean_ (1855).
Library of Congress.
49 Oil (1872) by Edward D. Marchant, after Charles Willson
Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
50 Pen and ink drawing by an unknown artist, from _Magazine of
American History_ (September 1880). Library of Congress.
51 Oil (1876) by Samuel B. Waugh, after John Trumbull.
Independence National Historical Park.
53 Oil (1874) by Edward L. Henry, after Ralph Earl (Earle).
Independence National Historical Park.
55 Oil (date unknown) by David Martin. Pennsylvania Academy of
Fine Arts, Philadelphia.
57 Engraving (1859) by Robert Whitechurch, after Christian
Schussele. Library of Congress.
59 Oil (1861) by James Bogle, after John Vanderlyn.
Independence National Historical Park.
62 Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of
Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of
Congress. The detail is a conjectural representation; no
portrait or reliable likeness of Button Gwinnett is known to
exist.
63 Lithograph, probably by an artist named Ferris, from William
Brotherhead, _The Book of the Signers_ (1861). Library of
Congress.
65 Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of
Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of
Congress.
67 Oil (1816) by Samuel F. B. Morse, after John S. Copley.
Independence National Historical Park.
70 Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull.
Independence National Historical Park.
71 Oil (ca. 1884) by Herman F. Deigendisch, after Henry Bryan,
Jr. Independence National Historical Park. Some authorities
have questioned the authenticity of this likeness.
73 Oil (before 1893) by an unknown artist, after Charles
Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
74 Engraving by James B. Longacre, after Charles Willson Peale,
from James Herring and James B. Longacre, _The National
Portrait Gallery of Distinguished Americans_ (1836). Library
of Congress.
75 Oil (before 1851) by Charles Fraser, after Jeremiah Theus.
Independence National Historical Park.
77 Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull.
Independence National Historical Park.
79 Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull.
Independence National Historical Park. According to one
authority, Trumbull based his likeness on the features of
Hopkins’ eldest son, Rufus, who bore a close resemblance to
his father.
81 Oil (before 1854) by Dubois (probably Samuel T.), after
Robert E. Pine. Historical Society of Pennsylvania and
Independence National Historical Park.
83 Oil (1783) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National
Historical Park.
85 Oil (1791) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National
Historical Park.
87 Library of Congress.
89 Engraving (1826) by Benjamin Tanner. Library of Congress.
90 Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of
Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of
Congress.
92 Oil (1784) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National
Historical Park.
94 Oil (1906) by Albert Rosenthal, after an engraving from John
Sanderson, _Biography of the Signers to the Declaration of
Independence_ (1824). Independence National Historical Park.
96 Oil (ca. 1770) probably by Abraham Delanoy, Jr. Frick Art
Reference Library, New York City, and Taconic State Park
Commission, Staatsburg, N.Y.
97 Pen and ink drawing by an unknown artist, from _Magazine of
American History_ (December 1885). Library of Congress.
99 Oil (1875) by Anna Lea, after John Trumbull. Independence
National Historical Park.
100 Oil (1797) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National
Historical Park.
103 Oil (1872) by Philip F. Wharton, after Benjamin West.
Independence National Historical Park.
104 Oil (1873) by Charles N. Flagg, after John Trumbull.
Independence National Historical Park.
106 Oil (ca. 1872) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence
National Historical Park.
107 Engraving by William Birch, from _The City of Philadelphia_
(1800). Independence National Historical Park.
109 Watercolor (ca. 1765) by Pierre Eugene Du Simitière. The
R. W. Norton Art Gallery, Shreveport, La.
110 Oil (ca. 1876) by William L. Sheppard, after Mason
Chamberlin. Independence National Historical Park.
112 Oil (date unknown) by Louis E. Lami. Hangs in the Virginia
State Capitol. National Park Service.
113 Oil (date unknown) by Francis B. Mayer, after Charles
Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
115 Oil (1876) by Richard M. Staigg, after Edward Savage.
Independence National Historical Park.
116 Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of
Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of
Congress.
118 Oil (1860) by Thomas Sully, after Robert E. Pine.
Independence National Historical Park.
120 Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of
Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of
Congress.
122 Oil (1873) by Philip F. Wharton, after Benjamin West.
Independence National Historical Park.
123 Oil (1783) by Charles Willson Peale. The Henry Francis du
Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, Del. Gift of Mrs. Julia
B. Henry.
125 Engraving (1799) by William Birch & Son. Library of Congress.
127 Oil (1873) by Philip F. Wharton, after James Earl (Earle).
Independence National Historical Park.
129 Oil (1874–75) by Thomas Hicks, after Ralph Earl (Earle).
Independence National Historical Park.
130 Lithograph by an unknown artist, from William Brotherhead,
_The Book of the Signers_ (1861). Library of Congress.
132 Watercolor (ca. 1760) by an unknown artist. The R. W. Norton
Art Gallery, Shreveport, La.
133 Oil (1873) by George W. Conarroe, after John Wollaston.
Independence National Historical Park.
135 Library of Congress.
137 Oil (1912) by Laura J. Schneider, probably after George T.
Pool. Independence National Historical Park.
139 Oil (date unknown) by an unknown artist. New Hampshire
Historical Society, Concord.
140 Oil (1874) by Samuel B. Waugh, after Charles Willson Peale.
Independence National Historical Park.
142 Oil (1888) by Ulysses D. Tenney, after John Trumbull. Hangs
in the Moffatt-Ladd House, Portsmouth, N.H. Photographer,
Douglas Armsden, Kittery Point, Maine.
144 Oil (1873) by James J. Sawyer, after John Trumbull.
Independence National Historical Park.
145 Oil (1873) by Philip F. Wharton, after a miniature
attributed to James Peale. Independence National Historical
Park.
146 Sketch (date unknown) by C. A. Poulson. Historical Society
of Pennsylvania and Independence National Historical Park.
149 Oil (ca. 1783) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence
National Historical Park.
150 Engraving by Henry Dawkins, after W. Tennant, from _An
Account of the College of New Jersey_ (1764). Library of
Congress.
152 Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after Ralph Earl (Earle).
Independence National Historical Park.
154 Oil (1876) by John F. Weir, after John Trumbull.
Independence National Historical Park.
164 National Park Service (Tony P. Wrenn).
165 National Park Service (Wrenn).
167 National Park Service (Wrenn).
168 National Park Service (Wrenn).
169 National Park Service (Wrenn).
171 National Park Service (Abbie Rowe).
172 Aquatint by an unknown artist, from Charles W. Janson, _The
Stranger in America_ (1807). Library of Congress.
174 National Park Service (Charles W. Snell).
175 National Park Service (John O. Littleton).
178 National Park Service (Wrenn).
179 National Park Service (Littleton).
181 National Park Service (Snell).
182 National Park Service (Littleton).
184 National Park Service (Snell).
185 National Park Service (Snell).
187 Photographer, William L. Klender.
188 National Park Service (Littleton).
190 National Park Service (Littleton).
192 Engraving (date unknown) probably by Stephen A. Schouff.
Library of Congress.
194 National Park Service (Joseph L. Winn, Jr.).
196 National Park Service (Wrenn).
197 National Park Service (Wrenn).
198 National Park Service (Snell).
200 National Park Service (Wrenn).
201 National Park Service (Wrenn).
203 National Park Service (Snell).
205 National Park Service (Snell).
206 Historical Society of Princeton, N.J. Photographer,
Constance Greiff.
207 National Park Service (Snell).
208 Department of Public Information, Princeton University,
Princeton, N.J.
210 National Park Service (Snell).
211 National Park Service (Snell).
212 National Park Service (Snell).
213 National Park Service (Snell).
215 National Park Service (Snell).
216 National Park Service (Ralph H. Anderson).
219 Engraving by an unknown artist, from Columbian Magazine
(July 1787). Library of Congress.
220 National Park Service.
223 National Park Service.
224 National Park Service (Jack E. Boucher).
225 National Park Service.
227 National Park Service (Snell).
229 National Park Service (Snell).
230 National Park Service (Snell).
232 National Park Service (Wrenn).
233 National Park Service.
235 National Park Service (Snell).
236 Photographer, Jesse Gibbes.
238 National Park Service (Snell).
239 National Park Service (Snell).
241 National Park Service (Littleton).
242 National Park Service (Littleton).
244 National Park Service (Snell).
246 National Park Service (Snell).
248 National Park Service (Snell).
250 National Park Service (Snell).
251 National Park Service (Littleton).
253 National Park Service (Snell).
256 National Park Service (Snell).
265 National Archives.
266 National Archives.
— FRONT END PAPER: Engraving (1776) by John C. McRae.
Independence National Historical Park.
— REAR END PAPER: National Park Service sketch.
Index
“A Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America
in General Congress Assembled,” _see_ Declaration of
Independence
_A Summary View of the Rights of British America_ (tract), 86, 87
Abingdon, Md., 113
Abolition of slavery, _see under_ Slaves
Academies and academic affairs, _see_ Education
Adam architectural style, 174, 239–240, 251–253
Adams, Abigail, _see_ Adams, Mrs. John
Adams, Brooks, great-grandson of signer, 33, 194, 195
Adams, Charles Francis, grandson of signer, 33, 194, 195
Adams, Charles Francis, Jr., great-grandson of signer, 33, 194
Adams, “Deacon” John, father of signer, 191–192, 193
Adams, Henry, great-grandson of signer, 33, 194
Adams, John (signer) (“Atlas of American Independence”), career of and
sites associated with, 16, 18, 20, 27, 29, 30, _33–35_, 37,
38, 58, 59, 61, 68, 74, 75, 88, 90, 93, 115, 124, 128,
_170–173_, _191–195_, 218, 222, 228, 262
Adams, John Quincy, son of signer and sites associated with, 30, 33,
35, _191–195_
Adams, John Quincy II, great-grandson of signer, 33, 194
Adams, Mrs. John (Abigail Smith), wife of signer, 34, 35, 191–192, 193
Adams, Mrs. Samuel, first wife of signer, 37
Adams, Mrs. Samuel, second wife of signer, 37
Adams, Samuel (signer) (“Firebrand of the Revolution”), career of and
sites associated with, 12, 27, 31, _36–39_, 59, 60, 68,
69, 160, 199
Adams (John) Birthplace, Mass., _191–192_
Adams (John Quincy) Birthplace, Mass., 191, _192–193_
Adams Chapter, Daughters of the American Revolution, 192
Adams (John) family and descendants, 33, 34, 191–195 _passim_
Adams Mansion, _see_ Adams National Historic Site
Adams Memorial Society, 195
Adams National Historic Site (Adams Mansion; “Old House”; “Peacefield”;
Vassall-Adams House), Mass., 160, 192, _193–195_
Admiralty boards, courts, and judges:
civil, _see_ Merchant marine and maritime affairs;
naval, _see_ Continental Navy
Advisory Board on National Parks, Historic Sites, Buildings, and
Monuments, 161, 272
Age of signers: at time of death, compared, 28–29, 43, 45, 52, 62, 98,
99, 109, 199;
at time of signing, compared, 28–29, 55, 79, 99, 123, 127.
_See also specific signers._
Agencies of U.S. Government, _see under_ United States
Agricultural Society of S.C., 76
Agriculture, _see_ Farms and farming
Alamance, Battle of, N.C., 78
Albany, N.Y., 96, 153
Albany Congress (1754) and Albany Plan of Union, 56, 79, 80
Albemarle County, Va., 86
Alcoholic beverages, 51
Alexandria, Va., 136, 252
Alison, Rev. Francis, educator, 101, 118, 132
Allen, Md., 45
Allentown, Pa., 221
Almanacs, _see_ Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts
America and Americans, _see_ United States;
_and appropriate topics throughout this index_
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 116
American Philosophical Society, 126, 221, 222, 226
American Philosophical Society Hall (Philosophical Hall), Pa., 218–226
American Revolution, _see_ War for Independence;
_and appropriate topics throughout this index_
American Revolution, Daughters of the, _see_ Daughters of the
American Revolution
American Revolution, Sons of the, _see_ Sons of the American Revolution
Amesbury, Mass., 39
Ammunition, _see_ Arms, ammunition, and ordnance
Ancestry of signers, compared, 27–28 (_and see particular signers_)
Anglican Church, 43–44, 45, 56, 62, 77, 113, 122, 136.
_See also_ Christianity and religion.
Anglo-Saxon origin of signers, 27
Annapolis and Colonial Annapolis Historic District, Md., 43, 44, 45,
46, 100, 113, 147, 170–191 _passim_, 263
Annapolis Convention (_1786_), 46, 48, 108, 119
Antifederalists and Antifederalism, 61, 94
Antislavery movement, _see under_ Slaves
Aquia Creek Quarries, Va., 171
Archeologists and archeological excavation, 177
Architects, architectural styles, and architectural features, _see
specific architects, architectural styles, and buildings
and residences_
Archives: Federal, _see_ National Archives and Records Service;
non-Federal, and Declaration of Independence, 262
Ariss, John, architect-builder, 242, 246
Aristocrats and aristocracy, 31, 37, 41, 61, 66, 76, 77, 79, 97, 99,
147
Arlington, Mass., 60
Armies, standing, 60.
_See also especially_ Continental Army;
_and various wars, battles, and nations_.
Arms, ammunition, and ordnance, 9, 22, 38, 42, 84, 103, 106, 111,
137, 138, 248
Army-Navy Museum, Pa., 224
Army of the Potomac (Civil War), 239
Arnold, Gen. Benedict, British officer, 239
Arson, and historic sites, 40
Art and artists, 81–83, 85, 134, 218, 234, 267 (_and see_ Museums _and
illustrations throughout this volume_)
Articles of Association (_1774_), 267
Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union: debated, drafted,
adopted, and signed, 29, 36, 39, 59, 71, 76, 81, 84, 90, 91,
93–94, 100, 106, 110, 117, 129, 131, 136, 145, 149, 151, 218;
document exhibited, 267;
signers of Declaration who also signed, 29, 36, 39, 59, 76, 90,
93–94, 100, 106, 117, 129, 149.
_See also_ Continental Congress.
Ashley River, 103, 237
Assemblies, colonial, provincial, and State: role of, in independence
movement, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial
clash;
signers serve in, _see specific signers_.
_See also individual colonies/States._
Assembly Room (Independence Hall, Pa.), _219–221_
Athens, Ga., 142
Attorneys and attorneys-general, _see_ Legal practice, legal
education, and jurisprudence
Augusta, Ga., 67, 141, 142, 161, 173, 175, 176
Augusta (Ga.) Chapter, Daughters of the American Revolution, 176
Authors, _see_ Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts;
Literature and literary figures;
_and particular authors_
_Autobiography_, of Benjamin Franklin, 58
Bachelor signers, 29, 73, 120
Back River, 154
Baltimore, Md., 45, 46, 50, 124, 183, 184, 185, 187, 217, 263
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, 44
Baltimore County, Md., 46
Baltimore Municipal Museum, 183
Baltimore Museum of Art, 187
Bank of England, 46
Bank of North America, 108, 147
Bank of the United States, First and Second, 218, 224, 226
Banks and banking, governmental and private, 46, 108, 147,
218, 224, 226.
_See also_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing;
Currency and money;
Speculators and speculation.
Barbados, 59
Barclay, Thomas, merchant, 229
Bartlett, Josiah (signer), career of and sites associated with, 31,
_39–41_, _199–201_
Bartlett, Mrs. Josiah, wife of signer, 40
Bartlett descendants, 201
Bartlett House, N.H., _199–201_
Battles, _see under name of battle_
Bedford County, Va., 249
Beith (town), Scotland, 149
Benezet, John, merchant, 230
Bennington, Battle of, N.Y., 40
Berkeley (Harrison’s Landing) (estate), Va., 70, 71, _239–240_
Bible, _see_ Christianity and religion
Bicentennial, U.S., 222
Bill of Rights, U.S., _see under_ United States Constitution
Birthplaces of signers, _see specific signers_
Bishop White House, Pa., 224, 226
Blacks, _see_ Slaves
Bonaparte, Joseph, Napoleon’s brother, 204
Bonaparte, Napoleon, French ruler, 204
Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts:
favor or oppose U.S. Constitution, 94, 125;
on astronomy, 130;
on monetary theory, 130;
on religion, 149;
signers write, 33, 35, 55–56, 58, 86, 87, 94, 125, 126, 130, 145,
146, 149, 150;
support Revolutionary cause, 9, 11, 12, 15, 33, 35, 86, 87,
145, 146, 150.
_See also_ Libraries;
Literature and literary figures;
_and particular works_.
Borden, Joseph, father-in-law of signer, 204
Bordentown, N.J., 82, 204, 205
Bordentown (N.J.) Chamber of Commerce, 205
Borland, Leonard Vassall, and Adams National Historic Site, 194
Boston and Boston Harbor, Mass., 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 33–34, 36, 37–39,
53–54, 59–60, 68, 69, 77, 93, 115, 116, 120, 143, 193, 199.
_See also entries immediately following._
Boston (Mass.) Latin School, 36, 68, 77, 115
Boston Massacre, 5, 34, 37, 68, 115
Boston Port Act, 111
“Boston Tea Party,” 7, 38
“Bostonians Paying the Excise-Man or Tarring and Feathering,” (The)
(cartoon), reproduced, 6
Boudinot, Annis, marries signer, 134
Boudinot, Elias, brother-in-law of signer, 207
Boyhood homes of signers, _see specific signers_
Braintree, Mass., _see_ Quincy
Brandywine, Battle of, Pa., 50
Braxton, Carter (signer), career of and sites associated with, 29,
_41–42_, 70, 71, 135, _240–242_
Braxton, George, brother of signer, 41, 240
Braxton, Mrs. Carter, first wife of signer, 41
Braxton, Mrs. Carter, second wife of signer, 41
Bridgeport, Conn., 65
Bristol, England, 62
Britain, British, British Isles, British Empire, and British
Commonwealth of Nations, _see_ Great Britain
Broadside copies of Declaration, _see under_ Declaration of
Independence
Bronx, N.Y., 105.
_See also_ New York City and New York Harbor.
Brookhaven and Brookhaven Township, N.Y., 53
Brooklyn and Brooklyn Heights, N.Y., 97, 98.
_See also_ New York City and New York Harbor.
Brothers, among signers, 92
Brown University, R.I., 80
Bruton Parish, Va., 256
Buckland, William, architect, 181–182
Bucks County, Pa., 137, 138
Builders, buildings, and building materials, _see specific
builder-architects, buildings, and residences_
Burgesses, House of, _see_ Virginia House of Burgesses
Burgoyne, Gen. John, British officer, 40, 143, 153
Burial places and burial grounds, _see_ Cemeteries and burial places
Burke County, Ga., 67
Burlington, Mass., 199
Burlington and Burlington County, N.J., 148
Business and businessmen, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing
Butterfield, Gen. Daniel, and “Taps,” 240
Byberry (“The Homestead”), Pa., 124
Byfield (plantation), Del., 120, 121
Cadwalader House, Pa., 228
Calvinists and Calvinism, 116, 149.
_See also_ Christianity and religion;
Presbyterians and Presbyterian Church.
Cambridge, Mass., 9, 60, 68, 196, 197
Cambridge University (England), 99, 103, 111
Canada, 44, 46, 173
Canals, 44
Cape Fear region of N.C., 77
Capital cities: national, _see_ United States Capitals;
State, _see particular cities_
Capital punishment, 50, 126
Capitol (U.S.), _see_ United States Capitol
Carlisle, Pa., 146
Carolinas, 115.
_See also_ North Carolina;
South Carolina.
Caroline County, Va., 117
Carpenters, 114, 201, 217, 221
Carpenters’ Company of Philadelphia, 217, 221
Carpenters’ Hall, Pa., 8, 217, 221, 224, 226
Carroll, Charles I, grandfather of signer, 185
Carroll, Charles II, father of signer, 43, 185
Carroll, Charles III, of Carrollton (signer), career of and sites
associated with, 16, 28, 31, 35, _43–45_, 46, 52, 114,
_179–181_, _183–186_
Carroll, Charles V, grandson of signer, 186
Carroll, Father John, cousin of signer, 44
Carroll, Mary, daughter of signer, 45, 183
Carroll (Charles) American Heritage Association, Inc., 185
Carroll family and descendants, 43, 179, 180, 181, 183, 185
Carroll Mansion, Md., 43, _179–180_
“Carroll Vocational School,” Md., 184
Carrollton Manor, Md., 43, _180–181_, 185
Carskerdo, Scotland, 145
Carter, Robert “King,” grandfather of signer, 41
Carter-May House, S.C., _see_ Rutledge House
Carvel Hall Hotel, Md., 189
Catasauqua, Pa., 230
Catholic Church, _see_ Roman Catholic Church
Caton, Mary Carroll, daughter of signer, 45, 183
Caton, Richard, son-in-law of signer, 45, 183
Caton family, 184
Cecil County, Md., 118, 124
Cemeteries and burial places, of signers, marked, 160 (_and see
specific signers_)
Centennial (U.S.) Exposition, 264
Chain Bridge, 263
Chancery courts, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and
jurisprudence
Channing, William Ellery, descendant of signer, 52
Chantilly (estate), Va., 92, 94
Chapels and chaplains, _see_ Christianity and religion
Charitable organizations, 166
Charles Carroll American Heritage Association, Inc., 185
Charles City and Charles City County, Va., 70
Charles County, Md., 135–136, 189
Charleston and Charleston Harbor, S.C., 65, 76, 103, 104, 127,
128, 129, 233
Charleston County, S.C., 99
Charleston “double house,” 233–234
Charleston (S.C.) Museum, 234
Charlestown, Mass., 9
Charlottesville, Va., 88, 89, 243, 250
Charter of Privileges (_1701_), 221
Chase, Mrs. Samuel, first wife of signer, 45, 46
Chase, Mrs. Samuel, second wife of signer, 46
Chase, Samuel (signer) (“Demosthenes of Maryland”), career of and
sites associated with, 16, 29, 44, _45–46_, 113, 114, 136,
161, _181–182_
Chase family and descendants, 183
Chase-Lloyd House, Md., 161, _181–183_
Chatham County, Ga., 67
“Chawton Manor,” Pa., 230
Chemistry education, 123, 124
Chericoke (estate), Va., 42, 240
Chesapeake and Ohio Canal Company, 44
Chester and Chester County, Pa., 50, 101, 109, 110, 118, 137, 138
Chestertown, Md., 114
Chew, Benjamin, lawyer-jurist, 82
Chilbury Hall, Md., 113
Children of signers, number and careers of, compared, 29–30, 41 (_and
see individual signers_)
Christ Church, Christ Churchyard, and Christ Church Burial Ground,
Pa., 58, 75, 83, 108, 123, 126, 148, 224, 226
Christ Episcopal Church, Del., 121
Christianity and religion, and historic sites, 160, 181, 186, 199;
and signers, 28, 31, 33, 43, 45, 65, 68, 73, 77, 88, 90, 95, 97,
115, 116, 122, 149–150, 181, 186;
freedom in, 88, 90, 97;
in Colonies, 55–56;
in public education, 126;
in Scotland, 149–150;
in Va., 90, 93, 263;
theologian prominent in, 52.
_See also specific denominations and churches._
Churches and church affairs, _see_ Christianity and religion
Circuit courts and judges, U.S., _see_ United States Judiciary
Cities, towns, and villages: and committees/councils of
correspondence, _see_ Committees of correspondence;
and committees/councils of safety, _see_ Committees of safety;
and historic preservation, 160;
and signers, _see particular signers_.
_See also individual cities, towns, and villages._
City Hall, old, New York City, _see_ Federal Hall
City Hall (Philadelphia), 218, 221
City Tavern (Philadelphia), 222
Civic affairs and politics, role of signers in, _see specific signers_
Civic organizations, and historic preservation, 160
Civil War (U.S.), 186, 236, 239, 251
Clark, Abraham (signer), career of and sites associated with,
_47–48_, 160
Clarke, Rev. Jonas, relative of signer, 199
Clarke Hall (Philadelphia), 222
Classical and Classic Revival architectural style, 183–184.
_See also_ Greek Revival architectural style.
Classics, studied, _see under_ Education
Clay, Henry, law student, 154, 156
Clergymen, _see_ Christianity and religion
Clymer, George (signer), career of and sites associated with, 29,
_49–51_, 134, _229_
Cobblers, 129
Codes, legal, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence
Codfish, 59
College Hill (Walton-Harper House), Ga., 142, _173–175_
College of Charleston, S.C., 104
College of New Jersey, _see_ Princeton University
College of Philadelphia, 82, 113, 124, 126, 146, 148
College of William and Mary, Va., 41, 70, 86, 154–156
Colleges and universities, and historic sites, 160;
chemistry education in, 123, 124;
classical education in, 154, 156;
legal education in, 154–156;
medical education in, 123–126;
signers aid, head, and serve, 67, 123–126, 142, 146, 148,
150–151, 154–156;
signers attend, 30 (_and see particular signers_).
_See also_ Education;
and _specific colleges and universities_.
Colonial and colonial Philadelphia architectural style, 172,
228, 246, 252
Colonial Annapolis Historic District, Md., _see_ Annapolis and
Colonial Annapolis Historic District
Colonial Dames of America, 160, 202
Colonial National Historical Park, Va., 160, 247–249
Colonial Park Cemetery, Ga., 64
Colonial Williamsburg, Va., _see_ Williamsburg, Williamsburg Historic
District, and Colonial Williamsburg
Colonies, Thirteen (British-American): and British Empire, 147, 156;
and signers, _see_ Signers of the Declaration _and individual
signers_;
architecture in, _see particular styles_;
confederations of, actual and proposed, 16, 34, 56, 79, 80 (_and
see_ Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union);
constitutions, legislatures, and governments of, 9, 15 (_and see
specific colonies/States_);
cultural heritage of, 8;
foreign nations recognize independence of, 35;
government and diplomacy of, _see_ Continental Congress;
heroes and prominent men in, 27, 31, 34, 37, 43, 55, 56, 68, 115;
independence movement in, _see_ Independence movement and
British-colonial clash, Declaration of Independence, _and_
Independence resolution;
meetings and congresses of, 56, 79, 80, 93, 132;
proprietary, 43, 56–57, 113, 120, 122, 136;
publications popular in, 15, 55–56, 81;
regions and trade of, 30, 62;
status of Ga. in, 15, 64, 89;
territory added to, 3;
wars in, _see specific wars_.
_See also_ Continental Congress;
States;
War for Independence;
_individual colonies/States and regions_;
_and appropriate topics throughout this index_.
Columbia University (King’s College), N.Y., 97
Commerce, trade, and manufacturing: and colonial protest, 97;
and historic sites, 160, 181, 228;
and signers, 27, 31 (_and see specific signers_);
Britain-Colonies, 4, 8, 9, 37–38, 62, 68;
Continental Congress regulates, 49, 52, 95;
embargoes and restrictions on, _see_ Independence movement and
British-colonial clash;
France-Colonies, 147;
in slaves, _see_ Slaves;
in various colonies, 36, 52, 55, 80, 101, 120, 184, 202;
Indian-Colonies, 4;
individuals other than signers in, 51, 59, 62, 68, 106, 111, 115,
184, 204, 251;
treaties deal with, 35, 58, 88–89.
_See also_ Banks and banking;
Merchant marine and maritime affairs;
Taxes and taxation.
Commissions and commissioners, _see individual commissions,
governmental bodies, and topics_
Committee of fifty-one, 95, 98
Committee of one hundred, 98
Committee of sixty, 95, 98
Committees, _see particular agencies, governmental bodies, topics, and
entries immediately preceding and following_
Committees of correspondence, 7–8, 37–38, 40, 44, 45, 59, 70, 72, 73,
78, 81, 93, 106, 113, 130, 136, 138, 146, 150
Committees of safety, 9, 10, 40, 42, 44, 45, 47, 49, 54, 60, 68, 72,
76, 103, 106, 114, 122, 131, 138, 139, 140, 141, 143, 145
Common Ground Cemetery, R.I., 52
Common schools, _see_ Education
_Common Sense_ (pamphlet), 11, 12, 15, 124
Community affairs and politics, role of signers in, _see specific
signers_
Companies, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing
Composers, musical, _see_ Music and musicians
Concord and Battle of Concord, Mass., 8, 9, 10, 12, 38, 42, 60, 68
Confederacy (Civil War), 251
Confederations: of Colonies, actual and proposed, _see under_ Colonies;
of Thirteen States, _see_ Articles of Confederation and Perpetual
Union;
Continental Congress
Conferences, _see particular agencies, governmental bodies, and topics_
Confiscation of lands, _see under_ Land
Congregationalists and Congregational Church, 65, 68, 77, 144, 150,
166.
_See also_ Christianity and religion.
Congresses, colonies/States, _see individual colonies/States_;
Continental, see Continental Congress;
intercolonial, _see under_ Colonies;
U.S., _see_ United States Congress
Congress Hall (County Court House), Pa., 218, 221, 223, 226
Congressional Cemetery, D.C., 62
Connecticut (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 16,
18, 24, 53, 72, 83–84, 123, 129–131, 133, 143, 144–145,
152–153, 164–170, 211
Connecticut (Great) Compromise, in U.S. Constitutional Convention, 131
Conservatives and conservatism, political, 14, 16, 18, 22–23, 37, 41,
42, 45–46, 56, 70, 71, 72, 73, 79, 80, 88, 94, 96, 101, 113,
114, 118, 119, 128, 135, 136, 141–142, 145, 147;
religious, 56, 65
_Considerations on the Nature and Extent of the Legislative Authority
of the British Parliament_ (tract), 146
Constitutional conventions and constitutions: British, _see under_
Great Britain;
colonies/States, _see specific colonies/States_;
U.S., _see_ United States Constitution _and_ United States
Constitutional Convention
Continental Army, and signers, 27, 34, 40, 60, 99–100, 107, 111;
battles and campaigns of, _see_ War for Independence;
Continental Congress regulates, 34, 49, 60, 71, 84, 91, 98, 101,
105, 115, 143, 145, 147, 151;
created, 14, 217;
Declaration distributed to, 22;
financed, 14, 60, 106–108;
inspected, 134;
leadership of, 14, 29, 34, 41, 69, 74–75, 217, 264;
medical service and conditions in, 40, 125, 228;
recruiting poster of, reproduced, 10;
recruitment-enlistment for, 60, 121;
supplied, 14, 60, 84, 95, 106–108, 137, 138;
veterans of, 60, 114.
_See also_ Militia.
Continental Association, 9, 66, 103
Continental Congress (First and Second), adjourns and convenes, 7–8,
9, 14, 38, 93;
and Adams (John), 18, 33–35, 38;
and Articles of Confederation, _see_ Articles of Confederation and
Perpetual Union;
and Bank of North America, _see_ Bank of North America;
and Colonies, _see_ Colonies;
and committees of correspondence and safety, _see_ Committees of
correspondence _and_ Committees of safety;
and Cornwallis’ surrender, 218;
and Declaration of Independence, _see_ Declaration of Independence;
and Halifax Resolves, 74;
and Hancock, 69;
and independence from Britain, _see_ Independence movement and
British-colonial clash _and_ Independence resolution;
and Indians, _see_ Indians and Indian affairs;
and maritime matters, _see_ Merchant marine and maritime affairs;
and Olive Branch Petition, 14;
and signers, _see particular signers_;
and U.S. Constitution, _see_ United States Constitution;
book on, 268;
Delegates and delegations to, _see individual Delegates and
colonies/States and under_ Counties and parishes;
diplomatic program of, _see_ Diplomats and diplomacy;
father-son team in, 100;
fiscal problems and policies of, 31, 49–50, 60, 71, 106–108, 111,
117, 131, 141, 143, 151;
gathering place for members of, 222;
key days in, 18;
meetingplaces of, _front endpaper_, 8, 14, 50, 217, 219–221, 224,
263;
memorialized, 221;
officials of, 22, 24, 39, 52, 67, 69, 84, 92, 94, 101, 117, 136,
207, 262–263, 267;
organization and committees/commissions of, 8, 15, 16, 34, 40, 44,
49–50, 52, 54, 71, 74, 81, 84, 91, 95, 98, 105, 110, 115, 131,
138, 141, 143, 147, 151;
profiteering in, 31, 46, 106–107;
prominent men not Delegates to, 27;
regulates commerce, 49, 52, 95;
representation and voting procedures in, 8, 15, 18, 24, 27, 39, 66
(_and see individual colonies/States_);
sectional rivalries in, 74;
temper and range of political opinion in, 8–9, 14–15, 16, 18, 34,
88, 135, 136, 141, 147.
_See also entries immediately preceding and following, specific
colonies/States, and appropriate topics throughout
this index._
Continental currency, 31, 49, 69
Continental Loan Office, 52
Continental Navy, 15, 34, 52, 74–75, 81, 82, 108
Continental Navy Board, 82. _See also_ Continental Navy.
Convention of Saratoga, _see_ Saratoga and Battle of Saratoga
Conventions, _see individual conventions, colonies/States, and
appropriate topics_
Conway, Thomas, and Conway Cabal, 60, 95, 125
Coopers, 83
Corbin, Richard, father-in-law of signer, 42
Cornwallis, Gen. Charles, British officer, 218, 248
Corporations, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing
Correspondence, committees/councils of, _see_ Committees of
correspondence
Coton (estate), Va., 91
Cotton planters, _see_ Planters and plantations
Councils, _see particular councils, cities, towns, colonies/States,
and appropriate topics_
Councils of correspondence, _see_ Committees of correspondence
Councils of safety, _see_ Committees of safety
Counties and parishes, and committees/councils of correspondence and
safety, _see_ Committees of correspondence _and_ Committees of
safety;
militia of, _see_ Militia;
offices in and affairs of, role of signers in, _see specific
signers_;
send Delegates to Continental Congress, 54, 66, 141.
_See also individual colonies/States and counties/parishes._
Counting rooms and houses, 36, 184, 202
County Court House, Pa., _see_ Congress Hall
Courts, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence
Coventry Forge, Pa., 137
Criteria of eligibility of sites and buildings for National Historic
Landmark status, 161, 270–271
Crown, British, _see_ Colonies;
Great Britain
Crown Point, N.Y., 115
Cumberland County, Pa., 122
Currency and money, and Continental Congress, _see under_ Continental
Congress;
British problems with, 3;
Continental, 31, 49, 69;
signers raise to further Revolutionary cause, 31, 49;
speculation in, _see_ Speculators and speculation;
status of signers regarding, _see_ Wealth and financial status of
signers;
theory on, 130. _See also_ Banks and banking.
Customs laws, collection, and officials, British and American, 3, 4,
6, 34, 37, 52, 68, 82, 101
Dana, Richard Henry, Sr., grandson of signer, 52
Dartmouth College, N.H., 40, 84
Daughters of signers, _see particular signers_
Daughters of the American Revolution, 160, 176, 192, 224, 227
Daughters of the Revolution, 160
Dawes, William, patriot, 10, 199
“Dean’s House,” N.J., _see_ President’s House
Deaths of signers: age at, compared, 28–29;
earliest, 62, 98, 109, 199;
latest, 35, 43;
on anniversary of adoption of Declaration, 35, 90.
_See also specific signers._
Debts and economic reversals of signers, 36–37, 46, 63–64, 69, 73, 78,
89–90, 107–108, 112, 132, 146, 148, 196, 213
“Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America in
General Congress Assembled” (A), _see_ Declaration of
Independence
Declaration of Independence, and Adams (John), 16, 18, 20, 33–34;
and Va. constitution, 20;
anniversary of, 35, 90, 264;
author of, _see_ Jefferson, Thomas;
books on, 268–269;
broadside copies of, 22, 69, 262;
building, residence, and rooms involved in creation of, 18, 159–160,
217, 222, _rear endpaper_;
celebrated and read publicly, 22, 217, 264;
contents and style of, analyzed, 20, 22;
debated, altered, adopted, and signed, 3, 18, 20, 22, 23–24, 28, 33,
34, 67, 69, 71, 72, 76, 81, 82, 88, 90, 93, 95, 100, 106, 110,
117, 120, 123, 124, 129, 136, 159–160, 217, 219–220, 222, 262
(_and see individual signers_);
desk written on, 222, 245;
displayed, in various places, 3, 262–267;
displayed, photo of, 266;
drafted, 14, 16, 18, 33, 34, 55, 57–58, 88, 90, 93, 129, 130, 217,
228, 245, 262, 263;
drafting committee of, illus. of, ii;
historical background and origins of, 3–24;
history of document, 262–267;
Jefferson presents to Hancock, in mural, 267;
misconceptions concerning, 23–24;
newspapers describe and publish, 21;
parchment copy of, 23–24, 69, 262–267;
parchment copy of, facsimile of, reproduced, 19;
political philosophy of, 20;
preamble of, 20;
predicted, 78, 82;
presented to Continental Congress, illus. of, ii;
printed and distributed, 22, 23–24, 262;
reflects unanimity, 23;
revised draft of, 262;
rough draft of, illus. of first page of, 17;
rough drafts of, 17, 18, 20, 262;
signatures on, order and nature of, 23–24, 39, 60, 67, 93, 100, 139,
140, 153, 155, 217, 262;
signers of, _see_ Signers of the Declaration _and specific signers_;
significance and influence of, 3, 20;
text of, reprinted, 259–262;
titles of, 23;
traditions concerning, 52, 58, 69, 79.
_See also_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash;
Independence resolution.
“Declaration of Independence” (The) (painting), reproduced, ii
“Declaration of Rights,” 20.
_See also_ Rights.
Degrees, academic and honorary, signers earn, _see individual signers_
Deists, 28
Delaware (Three Lower Counties) (colony and State), history of and
historic sites in, 16, 18, 24, 27, 100–102, 118–121, 122, 135.
_See also_ Pennsylvania.
Delaware County, Pa., 109
Delegates, _see particular legislative bodies and appropriate topics_
Democracy, 3.
_See also appropriate related topics throughout this index._
Democratic-Republicans and Democratic-Republican Party, 52, 61–62,
85, 89, 102.
_See also_ Jeffersonians.
Departments of U.S. Government, _see appropriate departments
following_ United States
Derry Village, N.H., 139, 203
Descendants of signers, achieve distinction, 29–30;
and historic sites, 160.
_See also specific signers and individuals_.
Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence,
Inc., 160
Deshler-Morris House, Pa., 224, 226
Deshon, Christopher, merchant, 183
Deshon-Caton-Carroll House, Md., 45, _183–185_
Dickinson, John, lawyer-legislator, 18, 69, 93, 110, 119, 146
Dickinson College, Pa., 126
Dinwiddie, Robert, British official, 154
Diplomats and diplomacy, 15, 16, 29, 33, 35, 44, 46, 55, 58, 61, 71,
85, 88, 93, 95, 98, 128, 136, 143, 151, 193–196
Disease, sickness, and physical afflictions of signers, _see
particular signers_
District courts, U.S., _see_ United States Judiciary
District of Columbia, _see_ Washington, D.C.
Doctors, medical education, medical practice, and hospitals, 31,
39–40, 56, 65, 66, 67, 97, 98, 121, 123–127, 139–140, 152,
201, 203, 218, 228.
On the health of individual signers, _see specific signers._
Dorchester, Mass., 129
Dorchester, S.C., 65
Doric architectural style, 166, 176, 186, 244
“Double house,” 233–234
Doughoregan Manor, Md., 43, 45, 179, 180, 183, _185–186_
Dover, Del., 18, 101, 119, 120, 121
Down Hatherly (village), England, 62
Drafting, of Articles of Confederation, _see_ Articles of Confederation
and Perpetual Union;
of Declaration, _see_ Declaration of Independence;
of key State documents, _see individual States_;
of U.S. Constitution, _see_ United States Constitution
Drafts, various, of Declaration, _see_ Declaration of Independence
Dublin, Ireland, 118, 172
Duels, 62, 63, 64, 117
Duke of Leinster, 172
Dunmore, Lord John M., British official, 42, 111
Durham Furnace, Pa., 137, 138
Dutch, _see_ Holland
Duties, _see_ Customs laws, collection, and officials
East Cemetery, Conn., 153
East River, 97
East Windsor, Conn., 153
Eastern Shore, _see_ Maryland
Easton, Pa., 137, 138, 230
Easton Cemetery, Pa., 138
Economic matters, _see mainly_ Banks and banking;
Commerce, trade, and manufacturing
Economic status of signers, _see_ Wealth and financial status of
signers
Edenton, N.C., 73, 78, 148
Edge, Gov. (N.J.) and Mrs. Walter E., and Morven, 208
Edinburgh, Scotland, 134, 149
Education, and Jefferson, 85, 86;
and Lowell, 195–196;
classical, 39, 45, 154;
in chemistry, 123, 124;
in various colonies/States, 84, 102, 229, 245, 252, 255;
legal, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence;
medical, _see_ Doctors, medical education, medical practice,
and hospitals;
of signers, compared, 27, 28, 30 (_and see specific signers_);
reform of, 126;
religious, in public schools, 126 (_and see_ Christianity
and religion);
signers further as teachers, professors, and administrators, 33, 56,
65, 67, 80, 85, 115, 142, 154–156.
_See also_ Colleges and universities.
Elections and elective officials, _see particular legislative bodies,
offices, individuals, and colonies/States_
Electors, presidential, _see under_ United States Presidents
and Presidency
Elementary schools, _see_ Education
Eligibility of sites and buildings for National Historic Landmark
status, _see_ National Historic Landmarks
Elizabeth City County, Va., 154
Ellery, William (signer), career of and sites associated with,
_51–52_, 160
Elmwood (Oliver-Gerry-Lowell House), Mass., _195–197_
Elsing Green (estate), Va., 41, 42, _240–242_
Emancipation of slaves, _see_ Slaves
Embargoes, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash
Emley, John, _see_ Imlay, John
England and Englishmen, _see_ Colonies;
Great Britain
English language and literature, _see_ Literature and literary figures
Epidemics, _see_ Doctors, medical education, medical practice,
and hospitals
Esopus, N.Y., 98
Essays and essayists, _see_ Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts
_Essays: Literary, Moral, and Philosophical_ (book), 126
Essex County, N.J., 47
Eton (school), England, 99
Europe, and _Poor Richard’s Almanac_, 55–56;
architecture in, 172;
capital from, 148;
colonists from, and western lands, 148;
culture of, 88;
medical students from, 126;
signers visit and study in, 30, 43, 88, 92, 95, 103, 179, 180,
192, 193, 235;
U.S. diplomats in, _see_ Diplomats and diplomacy.
_See also specific countries._
Excavation, archeological, 177
“Exceptional value,” sites and buildings of, _see_ National
Historic Landmarks
Excise taxes, _see under_ Taxes and taxation
Exeter, N.H., 143
Exhibition Hall (National Archives Building, D.C.), 262, 266, 267
Exports, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing
Facsimiles of Declaration, _see under_ Declaration of Independence
Fairfax County, Va., 91
Families of signers, suffer during War for Independence, 31, 47, 54,
71–72, 94–95, 104–105, 110.
_See also specific signers and families._
Farms and farming: and signers, 31, 45, 47, 53, 72, 80, 83, 85, 101,
109, 110, 117, 124, 129, 134, 140, 164, 203, 209, 210–211,
212–213;
in various areas, 33, 76, 101, 117, 138, 140, 164, 166, 230, 255.
_See also_ Planters and plantations.
Farmville, Va., 141
Federal, _see United States entries and those immediately following_
Federal City, _see_ Washington, D.C.
Federal Hall (old City Hall), New York City, 263
Federal period architecture and literature, 81, 170
Federalists and Federalist Party, 35, 44, 46, 52, 61, 89, 102, 108,
116, 119, 128, 131, 156.
_See also_ Hamilton, Alexander, and Hamiltonians.
Ferries, 140
Financial matters, _see_ Currency and money;
Wealth and financial status of signers
Finian (estate), N.C., 77, 78, 79, 214
Finns and Finland, 109
Fire Island National Seashore, N.Y., 160, 210–212
Fires, and historic sites, 40, 86, 97, 159, 199, 207, 247, 250, 263
First Bank of the United States, _see_ Bank of the United States
First Bank of the United States Building, Pa., 224, 226
First Baptist Church, N.J., 72
First Continental Congress, _see_ Continental Congress
First Presbyterian Church Cemetery, Pa., 133
First South Carolina Regiment of Continentals, 99
Fiscal matters, _see_ Currency and money
Floor plans, _see specific houses_
Florida (region and State), 76, 104, 128, 233
Floyd, Mrs. William, first wife of signer, 53
Floyd, Mrs. William, second wife of signer, 54
Floyd, Nicoll, son of signer, 54, 211, 212
Floyd, William (signer), career of and sites associated with,
_53–54_, _210–213_
Floyd Birthplace (Fire Island National Seashore), N.Y., 53, 54,
160, _210–212_
Floyd family and descendants, 54, 210–213
Floyd (General) House, N.Y., _see_ General Floyd House
Flushing, N.Y., 95
Food shortages, 147
Foreign affairs, _see_ Diplomats and diplomacy
Foreign born signers, 27–28 (_and see particular signers_)
“Formation of the Union” exhibit, 267
Fort Knox, Ky., 265
Fort Oswego, N.Y., 95
Fort Stanwix, N.Y., Second Treaty of (_1784_), 153
“Fort Wilson” (residence), Pa., 146, 147, 222
Foundations, historic, and historic sites, 160
Founders’ Monument, Ga., _see_ Signers’ Monument
France, and Democratic-Republicans, 61;
and signers, 35, 43, 58, 95, 100, 145, 147;
and War for Independence, 145;
artist-engineer from, 171;
cedes land to Britain, 3, 4;
commerce of, 147;
diplomacy of and U.S. diplomats in, 35, 55, 58, 61, 88;
fortress of, 139;
loans money to Continental Congress, 108;
revolution in, 35, 88–89;
undeclared war of, with U.S., 35, 61;
wallpaper from, 202;
wars of, _see specific wars_.
_See also_ New France.
Franklin, Benjamin (signer), career of and sites associated with, 16,
18, 20, 27, 28, 29, 35, 44, _55–58_, 79, 82, 88, 110, 124,
128, 147, 160, 221, 222, 224
Franklin, James, half-brother of signer, 55
Franklin College, Ga., 67, 142
Franklin stoves, 204
Frederick and Frederick County, Md., 43, 135
French and Indian War, 3, 56, 95, 97, 115, 144
French language, 44
French Revolution, 35, 88–89
Friends Meeting House Cemetery, N.J., 51
Frontier and frontiersmen, 4, 54, 56, 78, 85, 86, 108, 141,
147, 148, 212
Fulling mills, 72