TIBET (6,000), a country of Central Asia, and dependency of China
since 1720, called by the natives themselves Bod or Bodyul, comprises a
wide expanse of tableland, "three times the size of France, almost as
cold as Siberia, most of it higher than Mount Blanc, and all of it,
except a few valleys, destitute of population"; enclosed by the lofty
ranges of the Himalaya and Kuen-lun Mountains, it has been left
practically unexplored; possesses great mineral wealth, and a large
foreign trade is carried on in woollen cloth (chief article of
manufacture); polyandry and polygamy are prevailing customs among the
people, who are a Mongolic race of fine physique, fond of music and
dancing, jealous of intrusion and wrapt up in their own ways and customs;
the government, civil and religious, is in the hands of the clergy, the
lower orders of which are numerous throughout the country; a variation of
Mongol Shamanism is the native religion, but Lamaism is the official
religion of the country, and the supreme authority is vested in the Dalai
Lama, the sovereign pontiff, who resides at Lhassa, the capital.
TIBULLUS, ALBIUS, Roman elegiac poet, a contemporary of Virgil and
Horace, the latter of whom was warmly attached to him; he accompanied
Messala his patron in his campaigns to Gaul and the East, but had no
liking for war, and preferred in peace to cultivate the tender
sentiments, and to attune his harp to his emotions.
TICHBORNE, a village and property of Hampshire, which became
notorious in the "seventies" through a butcher, from Wagga Wagga, in
Australia, named Thomas Castro, otherwise Thomas Orton, laying claim to
it in 1866 on the death of Sir Alfred Joseph Tichborne; the "Claimant"
represented himself as an elder brother of the deceased baronet, supposed
(and rightly) to have perished at sea; the imposture was exposed after a
lengthy trial, and a subsequent trial for perjury resulted in a sentence
of 14 years' penal servitude. Orton, after his release, confessed his
imposture in 1895.
TICINO (127), the most southerly canton of Switzerland, lies on the
Italian frontier; slopes down from the Lepontine Alps in the N. to
fertile cultivated plains in the S., which grow olives, vines, figs, &c.;
the inhabitants speak Italian, and the canton, from the mildness of its
climate and richness of its soil, has been called the "Italian
Switzerland," embraces most of Lakes Lugano and Maggiore, and is
traversed by the St. Gothard Railway.
TICINO, a river of Switzerland and North Italy; springs from the S.
side of Mount St. Gothard, flows southwards through Lake Maggiore and SE.
through North Italy, joining the Po 4 m. below Pavia, after a course of
120 m.
TICKELL, THOMAS, a minor English poet, born at Bridekirk,
Cumberland; enjoyed the friendship and favour of Addison, who praised him
in the _Spectator_, and held till his death the appointment of secretary
to the Lords Justices of Ireland; his poetry does not count for much in
the history of English literature, but he was happy in the composition of
occasional poems, e. g. "The Prospect of Peace," "The Royal Progress,"
and in ballads, such as "Colin and Lucy," &c., and his translation of the
first book of the "Iliad" was so good as to rouse the jealousy of Pope
(1686-1740).
TICKNOR, GEORGE, American man of letters, born in Boston; studied in
various European cities, where he was received in the best literary
circles, and of which he has left in his journal interesting impressions;
held the professorship of French and Spanish in Harvard University for a
number of years; published in 1849 his "History of Spanish Literature,"
the standard work on the subject; also wrote lives of Lafayette and
Prescott, &c. (1791-1871).
TICONDEROGA (3), a township of New York, on Lake Champlain, 100 m.
N. of Albany; has various factories, mines in the vicinity, &c.; a place
of much prominence during the struggles with the French and later during
the revolutionary war.
TIECK, LUDWIG, German poet, born in Berlin; was one of the founders
of the Romantic school in Germany, was a friend of the Schlegels and
Novalis; wrote novels and popular tales and dramas; his tales, in
particular, are described by Carlyle as "teeming with wondrous shapes
full of meaning; true modern denizens of old fairyland ... shows a gay
southern fancy living in union with a northern heart;... in the province
of popular traditions reigns without a rival" (1773-1853).
TIENTSIN (950), an important city and river-port of China, on the
Pei-ho, 34 m. from its mouth and 80 m. SE. of Peking, of which it is the
port; since 1858 has been one of the open treaty ports, and in 1861 a
British consulate was established; three months of the year the Pei-ho is
frozen over; there is an increasing transit trade with Russia.
TIERRA DEL FUEGO, a compact island-group at the southern extremity
of the South American continent, from which it is separated by the Strait
of Magellan; the most southerly point is CAPE HORN (q. v.); of
the group Tierra del Fuego, sometimes called King Charles South Land,
belongs partly to the Argentine and partly to Chile, to which also belong
the other islands, except Staten Island, an Argentine possession; save
for a few fertile plains in the N., where some sheep-farming goes on, the
region is bleak, barren, and mountainous, with rocky, fiord-cut coasts
swept by violent and prolonged gales; scantily peopled by now harmless
Indians of a low type.
TIERS ÉTAT (third estate), name given to the Commons section in the
States-General of France.
TIFLIS (105), capital of a mountainous, forest-clad government (875)
of the same name and of Russian Caucasia, on the Kar, 165 m. SE. of the
Black Sea; is a city of considerable antiquity and note, and owes much
to-day to the energy of the Russians, who annexed it in 1802; noted for
its silver and other metal work.
TIGRIS, an important river of Turkey in Asia; rises in the mountains
of Kurdistan, flows SE. to Diarbekir, E. to Til (where it receives the
Bitlis), and hence SE. through a flat and arid country, till, after a
course of 1100 m., it unites with the Euphrates to form the Shat-el-Arab,
which debouches into the Persian Gulf 90 m. lower; is navigable for 500
m. to Bagdad; on its banks are the ruins of Nineveh, Seleucia, and
Ctesiphon.
TILBURY FORT, on the Essex bank of the Thames, opposite Gravesend;
the main defence of the river above Sheerness; in 1886 extensive docks,
quays, a tidal basin, &c., were opened.
TILLOTSON, JOHN ROBERT, archbishop of Canterbury, born in Sowerby,
Yorkshire, of a Puritan family, and trained on Puritan lines; studied at
Clare Hall, Cambridge, came under the influence of CUDWORTH (q. v.),
conformed to the Established Church at the Restoration and became
king's chaplain and a prebend of Canterbury, till at length he rose to be
dean and primate; was an eloquent preacher, a man of moderate views, and
respected by all parties; his "Sermons" were models for a time, but are
so no longer (1630-1694).
TILLY, JOHANN TSERKLAES, COUNT OF, one of the great generals of the
THIRTY YEARS' WAR (q. v.), born in Brabant; was designed for the
priesthood and educated by Jesuits, but abandoned the Church for the
army; was trained in the art of war by Parma and Alva, and proved himself
a born soldier; reorganised the Bavarian army, and, devoted to the
Catholic cause, was given command of the Catholic army at the outbreak of
the Thirty Years' War, during the course of which he won many notable
battles, acting later on in conjunction with Wallenstein, whom in 1630 he
succeeded as commander-in-chief of the imperial forces, and in the
following year sacked with merciless cruelty the town of Magdeburg, a
deed which Gustavus Adolphus was swift to avenge by crushing the Catholic
forces in two successive battles--at Breitenfeld and at Rain--in the
latter of which Tilly was mortally wounded (1559-1632).
TILSIT (25), a manufacturing town of East Prussia, on the Memel or
Niemen, 65 m. NE. of Königsberg; here was signed in 1807 a memorable
treaty between Alexander I. of Russia and Napoleon, as the result of
which Friedrich Wilhelm III. of Prussia was deprived of the greater part
of his dominions.
TIMBUCTOO (20), an important city of the Western Soudan, situated at
the edge of the Sahara, 8 m. N. of the Upper Niger, at the centre of five
caravan routes which lead to all parts of North Africa; carries on a
large transit trade, exchanging European goods for native produce; was
occupied by the French in 1894.
TIMOLEON, a celebrated general of ancient Greece, born, of a noble
family, in Corinth, about 395 B.C.; ardently espoused the cause of the
Greeks in Sicily, who were in danger of forfeiting their liberties to the
Carthaginians, and headed an army to Syracuse, where he defeated and
drove out Dionysius the Younger (344), subsequently cleared the island of
the oppressors, and brought back order and good government, after which
he quietly returned to private life, and spent his later years at
Syracuse, beloved by the Sicilians as their liberator and benefactor;
_d_. 337 B.C.
TIMON OF PHLIUS, a Greek philosopher, a disciple of PYRRHO
(q. v.), flourished 280 B.C.; wrote a satirical poem on the whole
Greek philosophy up to date, which is the source of our knowledge of his
master's opinions. Also the name of a misanthrope of Athens, a
contemporary of Socrates.
TIMOR (500), the largest of the long chain of islands which
stretches eastward from Java, of volcanic formation, mountainous, wooded,
and possessing deposits of various metals, but mainly exports maize,
sandal-wood, wax, tortoise-shell, &c.; population consists chiefly of
Papuans, whose native chiefs are the real rulers of the island, which
belongs, the W. portion of it to Holland and the E. to Portugal; E. of
Timor lies a group of three low-lying islands of coral formation, known
as Timor-Laut or Tenimber Islands (25); Dutch possession.
TIMOTHY, a convert of St. Paul's, associate and deputy, to whom, as
in charge of the Church at Ephesus, he wrote two epistles in the interval
between his imprisonment and death at Rome, the First Epistle to direct
him in the discharge of his pastoral duties, and the Second to invite him
to Rome, and counsel him, should he not be dead before he arrived.
TIMUR THE TARTAR. See TAMERLANE.
TINDAL, MATTHEW, English deistical writer, born in Devonshire;
studied at Oxford, became Fellow of All Souls', was first a Protestant,
then a Catholic, and then a free-thinker of a very outspoken type,
exhibited in a polemic which provoked hostility on all sides; his most
famous work was "Christianity as old as Creation; or, the Gospel a
Republication of the Religion of Nature," a work which did not attack
Christianity, but rationalised it (1656-1733).
TINEWALD, THE, name of the Manx Parliament.
TINNEVELLI (23), a town of Madras Presidency, SE. India, capital of
a district (1,916) of the same name; lies 50 m. N. of Cape Comorin, and
adjoins Pallamcotta, head-quarters of the British military and
government; is a centre of Protestant mission work, and possesses a Sind
temple and a Hindu college.
TINTAGEL HEAD, a rocky headland, 300 ft high, on the W. Cornish
coast, 22 m. W. of Launceston; associated with the Arthurian legend as
the site of King Arthur's castle and court; 6 m. distant lies Camelford,
the famous Camelot.
TINTERN ABBEY, one of the most beautiful ruined abbeys of England,
founded by the Cistercian monks in 1131 on the Wye, in Monmouthshire, 5
m. above Chepstow; associated with Wordsworth's great poem, "Lines
composed a few miles above Tintern Abbey."
TINTORETTO, baptized JACOPO ROBUSTI, a famous Italian artist,
one of Ruskin's "five supreme painters," born at Venice; save for a few
lessons under Titian he seems to have been self-taught; took for his
models Titian and Michael Angelo, and came specially to excel in grandeur
of conception and in strong chiaroscuro effects; amongst his most notable
pictures are "Belshazzar's Feast," "The Last Supper," "The Crucifixion,"
"The Last Judgment," "The Resurrection," &c.; some of these are of
enormous size (1518-1594).
TIPPERARY (173), a south-midland county of Ireland, in the province
of Munster, stretching N. of Waterford, between Limerick (W.) and
Kilkenny (E.); possesses a productive soil, which favours a considerable
agricultural and dairy-farming industry; coal is also worked; the Suir is
the principal stream; the generally flat surface is diversified in the S.
by the Galtees (3008 ft.) and Knockmeledown (2609 ft.), besides smaller
ranges elsewhere; county town Tipperary (7), 110 m. SW. of Dublin; noted
for its butter market.
TIPPOO SAIB, son of HYDER ALI (q. v.), whom he succeeded in
the Sultanate of Mysore in 1782; already a trained and successful warrior
in his father's struggles with the English, he set himself with
implacable enmity to check the advance of British arms; in 1789 invaded
Travancore, and in the subsequent war (1790-1792), after a desperate
resistance, was overcome and deprived of half of his territories, and
compelled to give in hostage his two sons; intrigued later with the
French, and again engaged the English, but was defeated, and his capital,
Seringapatam, captured after a month's siege, himself perishing in the
final attack (1749-1799).
TIPTON (29), an iron-manufacturing town of Staffordshire, 8½ m. NW.
of Birmingham.
TIRABOSCHI, GIROLAMO, an Italian writer, who for some time filled
the chair of Rhetoric at Milan University, and subsequently became
librarian to the Duke of Modena; is celebrated for his exhaustive survey
of Italian literature in 13 vols., a work of the utmost value
(1731-1794).
TIRESIAS, in the Greek mythology a soothsayer, who had been struck
blind either by Athena or Hera, but on whom in compensation Zeus had
conferred the gift of prophecy, and length of days beyond the ordinary
term of existence.
TIRNOVA (11), a fortified town of Bulgaria, 35 m. SSE. of Sistova;
is the seat of the Bulgarian patriarch; formerly the State capital.
TIRYNS, an ancient city of Greece, excavated by Schliemann in
1884-1885; situated in the Peloponnesus, in the plain of Argolis, 3 m.
from the head of the Argolic Gulf; legend associates it with the early
life of Hercules; has ruins of a citadel, and of Cyclopean walls
unsurpassed in Greece.
TISCHENDORF, CONSTANTIN VON, biblical scholar, born in Saxony; spent
his life in textual criticism; his great work "Critical Edition of the
New Testament" (1815-1874).
TISIPHONE, one of the three FURIES (q. v.).
TITANIA, the wife of Oberon and the queen of the fairies.
TITANIUM, a rare, very hard metal, always found in combination.
TITANS, in the Greek mythology sons of Uranos and Gaia, beings of
gigantic strength, and of the dynasty prior to that of Zeus, who made war
on Zeus, and hoped to scale heaven by piling mountain on mountain, but
were overpowered by the thunderbolts of Zeus, and consigned to a limbo
below the lowest depths of Tartarus; they represent the primitive powers
of nature, as with seeming reluctance submissive to the world-order
established by Zeus, and symbolise the vain efforts of mere strength to
subvert the ordinance of heaven; they are not to be confounded with the
Giants, nor with their offspring, who had learned wisdom from the failure
of their fathers, and who, Prometheus one of them, represented the idea
that the world was made for man and not man for the world, and that all
the powers of it, from highest to lowest, were there for his behoof.
TITHONUS, in the Greek mythology son of Laomedon, who was wedded to
Eos, who begged Zeus to confer on him immortality but forgot to beg for
youth, so that his decrepitude in old age became a burden to him; he was
changed into a cicada.
TITIAN, VECELLIO, great Italian painter, born at Capo del Cadore,
the prince of colourists and head of the Venetian school; studied at
Venice, and came under the influence of Giorgione; he was a master of his
art from the very first, and his fame led to employment in all directions
over Italy, Germany, and Spain; his works were numerous, and rich in
variety; he was much in request as a portrait-painter, and he painted
most of the great people he knew; he ranks with Michael Angelo and
Raphael as the head of the Italian renaissance; lived to a great age
(1477-1576).
TITIENS, TERESA, a famous operatic singer, born of Hungarian parents
in Hamburg; made her _début_ in 1849 at Altona, in the character of
Lucrezia Borgia (1849), and soon took rank as the foremost singer on the
German lyric stage; appeared with triumphant success in London (1858),
and henceforth made her home in England, associated herself with the
management of Mapleson; visited America in 1875; her commanding physique
and powerful acting, together with her splendid voice, made her an ideal
interpreter of such tragic characters as Norma, Fidelio, Margarita,
Ortrud, &c. (1834-1877).
TITMARSH, MICHAEL ANGELO, pseudonym assumed for a series of years by
Thackeray.
TITUS, a convert of St. Paul, a Greek by birth, appears to have
accompanied St Paul on his last journey, and to have been with him at his
death; Paul's Epistle to him was to instruct and encourage him during his
ministry in Crete.
TITUS, FLAVIUS VESPASIANUS, Roman emperor, born at Rome, the son of
Vespasian, served in Germany and Britain, and under his father in Judæa;
on his father's elevation to the throne persecuted the Jews, laid siege
to Jerusalem, and took the city in A.D. 70; on his accession to the
throne he addressed himself to works of public beneficence, and became
the idol of the citizens; his death was sudden, and his reign lasted only
three years; during that short period he won for himself the title of the
"Delight of Mankind" (40-81).
TITYUS, a giant whose body covered nine acres of land, son of Zeus
and Gaia, who for attempting to force Latona was punished in the nether
world by two vultures continually gnawing at his liver.
TIVERTON (11), an interesting old town of Devonshire, pleasantly
situated between the Exe and Loman, 12 m. N. by E. of Exeter; possesses
public baths, assembly rooms, almshouses, and a 17th-century
grammar-school; noted for its lace manufactures.
TIVOLI (9), a town of Italy, known to the ancients as Tibur,
beautifully situated on the Teverone, 18 m. E. of Rome; was much resorted
to by the wealthy Roman citizens, and is celebrated by Horace; is full of
interesting remains.
TLAXCALA (138), a State of North Mexico, and formerly an Aztec
republic; capital, Tlaxcala (4); has woollen manufactures.
TOBAGO (21), one of the WINDWARD ISLANDS (q. v.), the most
southerly of the group; a British possession since 1763, politically
attached to Trinidad; is hilly, picturesque, and volcanic; exports rum,
molasses, and live-stock.
TOBIT, THE BOOK OF, a book of the Apocrypha giving account of the
life and vicissitudes of a pious Israelitish family in the Assyrian
captivity, that consisted of Tobit, Anna his wife, and Tobias his son;
all three are held up to honour for their strict observance of the Law of
the Lord and their deeds of charity to such as loved it, and notable for
the prominence given in it to the ministry of angels, both good and bad,
among the former Raphael and among the latter Asmodeus, and is the work
of a Jew whose mind was imbued with Oriental imagery.
TOBOLSK (20), a town and government (1,313), of W. Siberia,
picturesquely planted at the confluence of the Irtish and Tobol, 2000 m.
E. of St. Petersburg; has a cathedral, barracks, theatre, prison for
Siberian slaves, &c.
TOBY, UNCLE, the hero of Sterne's "Tristram Shandy," a retired
captain, distinguished for his kindness, gallantry, and simplicity.
TOCANTINS, one of the great rivers of Brazil, rises in the State of
Goyaz; flows northwards, and after a course of 1500 m. enters the estuary
of the Pará, one of the mouths of the Amazon, 138 m. from the Atlantic;
receives the Araguay from the S., an affluent 1600 m. long.
TOCQUEVILLE, ALEXIS CLÉREL DE, French economist, born at Verneuil,
of an old Norman family, bred to the bar, and specially distinguished as
the author of two works in high repute, "La Democratie en Amérique" and
"L'Ancien Régime et la Révolution"; died at Cannes, leaving much of his
work unfinished (1805-1861).
TODHUNTER, ISAAC, mathematician, born at Rye; educated at University
College, London, and at Cambridge, where he graduated senior wrangler and
Smith's prizeman in 1848; elected Fellow and principal mathematical
lecturer of his college (St. John's), and soon became widely known in
educational circles by his various and excellent handbooks and treatises
on mathematical subjects (1820-1884).
TODLEBEN, EDUARD IVANOVITCH, a noted Russian general of German
descent, who, trained in the engineer corps, greatly distinguished
himself by his defensive operations at Sebastopol during its siege by the
French and English in the Crimean War, and subsequently by the reduction
of Plevna, his greatest achievement, which brought to a close the war
with Turkey in 1877; subsequently became commander-in-chief in Bulgaria
(1818-1884).
TODMORDEN (25), a cotton town prettily situated amid hills on the
border of Lancashire and Yorkshire, on the Calder, 21 m. NE. of
Manchester; coal abounds in the vicinity.
TOGA, an outer garment, usually of white wool like a large blanket,
folded about the person in a variety of ways, but generally with the
right arm free, thrown over the left shoulder, and hanging down the back;
it was at once the badge of manhood and Roman citizenship.
TOGOLAND, a German protectorate on the Slave Coast, in Upper Guinea,
Gold Coast Colony on the W., and Dahomey on the E.; exports palm-oil and
ivory.
TOKAY (5), a Hungarian town on the Theiss, 130 m. NE. of Pesth;
greatly celebrated for its wines, of which it manufactures 34 different
sorts.
TOKYO or TOKEI (1,376), formerly called Yeddo, capital of the
Japanese Empire, situated on a bay of the same name on the SE. coast of
Hondo, and partly built on the delta of the river Sumida; is for the most
part flat and intersected by canals and narrow irregular streets, and has
a finely-wooded river-side avenue 5 m. long; on account of frequent
earthquakes most of the houses are of light bamboo structure, which,
however, renders them liable to destructive fires; has a fine castle,
government offices, university, and some 700 schools and colleges; as the
political, commercial, and literary metropolis it possesses an
overshadowing influence over the national life of the empire. Yokohama,
17 m. distant, is the port of entry.
TOLA, a weight in India for gold and silver, equal to 180 grains
troy.
TOLAND, JOHN, political and deistical writer, born in Derry, of
Catholic parents; abandoned the Catholic faith; studied at Leyden and
Oxford; his first work, "Christianity not Mysterious," which created a
great stir, and was burned in Ireland by the common hangman; it was
succeeded, along with others, by "Nazarenus," which traced Christianity
to conflicting elements in the early Church; he was a disciple of Locke
(1669-1722).
TOLEDO (20), a city of Spain, capital of a province (360), and
former capital of the kingdom, occupies a commanding site amid hills, on
the Tagus, 40 m. SW. of Madrid; within and without presents a sombre and
imposing appearance; is the see of the primate of Spain, and possesses a
noble Gothic cathedral, ruins of the Cid's castle, and remains of the
Moorish occupation (712-1085); the manufacture of sword-blades, famous in
Roman times, is still carried on in a government establishment a mile out
of the city.
TOLEDO (131), capital of Lucas County, Ohio, on the Maumee River, 80
m. W. of Lake Erie; is a busy centre of iron manufactures, and does a
large trade in grain, flour, lumber, &c., facilitated by a fine harbour,
canal, and railway systems.
TOLERATION ACT, a statute passed in 1689 to relieve all Dissenters
from certain penalties, except Roman Catholics and Unitarians.
TOLSTOI, COUNT LEO, novelist, social reformer, and religious mystic,
born in Tula, of a noble family; served for a time in the army, soon
retired from it, and travelled; married, and settled on his estate near
Moscow in 1862; his two great works are "War and Peace" (1865-68) and
"Anna Karenina" (1875-78); has written many works since, all more or less
in a religious vein, and in the keenest, deepest sympathy with the
soul-oppression of the world, finding the secret of Christianity to lie
in the precept of Christ, "Resist not evil," and exemplifying that as the
principle of his own life; _b_. 1828.
TOMMY ATKINS, the British soldier, as Jack Tar is the British
sailor, from a hypothetical name inserted in a War Office schedule at one
time issued to each soldier.
TOMSK (37), a town and government (1,300) of W. Siberia, on the
Tom, 55 m. from its confluence with the Obi; has a university, and is an
important depôt on the trade-route to China.
TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE, Irish patriot, born in Dublin; called to the
bar in 1789; found a congenial sphere for his restless, reckless nature
in the disturbed politics of his time, and was active in founding the
"United Irishmen," whose intrigues with France got him into trouble, and
forced him to seek refuge in America, and subsequently France, where he
schemed for a French invasion of Ireland; eventually was captured by the
English while on his way with a small French squadron against Ireland;
was condemned at Dublin, but escaped a death on the gallows by committing
suicide in prison (1763-1798).
TONGA ISLANDS or FRIENDLY ISLANDS (19), an archipelago in the
S. Pacific, 250 m. SE. of Fiji; Tonga-tabu is the largest; volcanic and
fruit-bearing; missionary enterprise (Wesleyan Methodist) has done much
to improve the mental, moral, and material condition of the natives, who
belong to the fair Polynesian stock, and are a superior race to the other
natives of Polynesia, but are diminishing in numbers. See FRIENDLY
ISLANDS.
TONGALAND (100), a native State on the E. coast of South Africa,
stretching N. of Zululand.
TONGKING, TONQUIN, or TONKIN (9,000), a fertile northern
province of ANNAM (q. v.), ceded to France in 1884; is richly
productive of rice, cotton, sugar, spices, &c., but has an unhealthy
climate.
TONGRES (9), an episcopal city of Belgium, 12 m. NW. of Liège; its
church of Notre Dame dates from 1240.
TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE, the name given to certain duties first levied
in Edward II.'s reign on every _tun_ of imported wine, and on every
_pound_ weight of merchandise exported or imported; Charles I.'s attempt
to levy these without parliamentary sanction was one of the complaints of
his Long Parliament; were swept away by the Customs Consolidation Act of
1787.
TOOKE, JOHN HORNE, baptismal name JOHN HORNE, born, the son of
a well-to-do poulterer, in London; graduated at Cambridge, and to please
his father took holy orders in 1760, but after some years, during which
he had tutored abroad, zealously assisted Wilkes in his election to
Parliament, and successfully encountered "Junius"; he abandoned the
Church and studied for the bar, to which, on account of his holy orders,
he was refused a call; became an active political free-lance, and
acquired great popularity as a strenuous advocate of parliamentary
reform; entered Parliament in 1801, but in the following year was
excluded by an Act making it illegal for any one in priest's orders to be
returned; inherited the fortune and assumed the name of his friend
William Tooke of Purley; is best known as the author of the "Diversions
of Purley," "a witty medley of etymology, grammar, metaphysics, and
politics" (1736-1812).
TOOLE, JOHN LAWRENCE, a celebrated comedian, born in London, where
he was educated at the City School, and afterwards put to business, but
soon took to the stage, serving his apprenticeship and gaining a
considerable reputation in the provinces before making his appearance at
St. James's Theatre in London in 1854; became the leading low-comedian of
his day, and in 1880 took over the management of the Folly Theatre, which
he re-named Toole's Theatre; has unrivalled powers of blending pathos
with burlesque, and in such characters as Paul Pry, Caleb Plummer,
Chawles, &c., is a special favourite all over the English-speaking world;
_b_. 1832.
TOOM TABARD. See TABARD.
TOPE, the popular name in Buddhist countries for a species of
cupola-shaped tumulus surmounted by a finial, in shape like an open
parasol, the emblem of Hindu royalty; these parasol finials were often
placed one upon the top of the other until a great height was reached;
one in Ceylon attains a height of 249 ft., with a diameter of 360 ft.;
were used to preserve relics or to commemorate some event.
TOPEKA (34), capital of Kansas, on the Kansas River, 67 m. W. of
Kansas City; is a spacious, well laid out town, the seat of an Episcopal
bishop, well supplied with schools and colleges, and busy with the
manufacture of flour, heavy iron goods, &c.
TÖPFFER, RUDOLF, caricaturist and novelist of Geneva, where he
founded a boarding-school, and became professor of Rhetoric in the Geneva
Academy; author of some charming novels, "Nouvelles Genévoises," "La
Bibliothèque de mon Oncle," &c. (1799-1846).
TOPLADY, AUGUSTUS MONTAGUE, hymn-writer, born at Farnham, Surrey;
became vicar of Broad Hembury, Devonshire, in 1768; was an uncompromising
Calvinist, and opponent of the Methodists; survives as the author of
"Rock of Ages," besides which he wrote "Poems on Sacred Subjects," and
compiled "Psalms and Hymns," of which a few are his own (1740-1778).
TORGAU (11), a fortified town of Prussia, on the Elbe, 70 m. SW. of
Berlin; has a church consecrated by Luther, and in the town-church the
wife of the great reformer lies buried; scene of a victory of Frederick
the Great over the Austrians in November 1760.
TORONTO (181), the second city of Canada, and metropolis of the W.
and NW. regions, capital of Ontario; situated on a small bay on the NW.
coast of Lake Ontario, 315 m. SW. of Montreal; is a spacious and
handsomely built city, with fine churches, a splendidly equipped
university, Parliament buildings, law courts, theological colleges,
schools of medicine and music, libraries, &c.; does a large shipping and
railway trade in lumber, fruit, grain, coal, &c.
TORQUAY (26), a popular watering-place of South Devon, on Tor Bay,
23 m. S. of Exeter; with a fine climate and beautiful surroundings, has
since the beginning of the century grown from a little fishing village to
be "the Queen of English watering-places"; a great yachting centre, &c.
TORQUEMADA, THOMAS DE, a prior of a Dominican monastery who became
in 1483, during the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, head of the
Inquisition, a "holy office" he administered with merciless cruelty
(1420-1498).
TORRES STRAIT separates Australia from New Guinea, 80 m. broad, and
from its numerous islands, shoals, and reefs is exceedingly difficult to
navigate.
TORRES-VEDRAS (5), a town of Portugal, 26 m. N. of Lisbon;
celebrated for the great lines of defence Wellington constructed in 1810,
and behind which he successfully withstood the siege of the French under
Massena, thus saving Lisbon, and preparing the way for his subsequent
expulsion of the French from the Peninsula.
TORRICELLI, EVANGELISTA, a celebrated Italian physicist; devoted
himself to science, and attracted the attention of Galileo, whom he
subsequently succeeded as professor at the Florentine Academy; discovered
the scientific principle of the barometer, which is sometimes called the
Torricellian tube, and made notable advances in mathematical and physical
science (1608-1647).
TORRINGTON (3), a market-town of North Devon, built on an eminence
overlooking the Torridge, 10 m. SW. of Barnstaple; manufactures gloves;
was the scene of a Parliamentary victory in 1646, during the great
rebellion.
TORTURE, JUDICIAL, torture to extort a confession, practised in
England till 1588, and in Scotland by thumbscrews and the boot till 1690.
TORY, the old name for a Conservative in politics, generally of very
decided type; originally denoted an Irish robber of the English in
Ireland.
TOTEMISM, division of a race into tribes, each of which has its own
Totem, or animal, as the symbol of it and the name, and as such treated
with superstitious veneration, as involving religious obligation.
TOTNES (4), a quaint old market-town of Devonshire, overlooking the
Dart, 29 m. SW. of Plymouth; has interesting Norman and other remains; a
centre of agricultural industry.
TOUL (12), a strongly-fortified town of France, on the Moselle, 20
m. W. of Nancy; has a noble Gothic cathedral and lace and hat
manufactures; was captured by the Germans in 1870.
TOULON (74), chief naval station of France, on the Mediterranean,
situated 42 m. SE. of Marseilles; lies at the foot of the Pharon Hills,
the heights of which are strongly fortified; has a splendid 11th-century
cathedral, and theatre, forts, citadel, 240 acres of dockyard, arsenal,
cannon foundry, &c.; here in 1793 Napoleon Bonaparte, then an artillery
officer, first distinguished himself in a successful attack upon the
English and Spaniards.
TOULOUSE (136), a historic and important city of South France,
capital of Haute-Garonne, pleasantly situated on a plain and touching on
one side the Garonne (here spanned by a fine bridge) and on the other the
Canal du Midi, 160 m. SE. of Bordeaux; notable buildings are the
cathedral and Palais de Justice; is the seat of an archbishop, schools of
medicine, law, and artillery, various academies, and a Roman Catholic
university; manufactures woollens, silks, &c.; in 1814 was the scene of a
victory of Wellington over Soult and the French. Under the name of Tolosa
it figures in Roman and mediæval times as a centre of learning and
literature, and was for a time capital of the kingdom of the Visigoths.
TOURCOING (65), a thriving textile manufacturing town of France, 9
m. NE. of Lille.
TOURNAMENTS, real or mock fights by knights on horseback in proof of
skill in the use of arms and in contests of honour.
TOURNAY (35), a town of Hainault, Belgium, on the Scheldt, 35 m. SW.
of Brussels; in the 5th century was the seat of the Merovingian kings,
but now presents a handsome modern appearance; has a fine Romanesque
cathedral and flourishing manufactures of hosiery, linen, carpets, and
porcelain.
TOURNEUR, CYRIL, a later Elizabethan dramatist, who seems to have
led an adventurous life, and whose "Atheist's Tragedy" and "Revenger's
Tragedy" reach a high level of dramatic power, and have been greatly
praised by Swinburne; wrote also the "Transformed Metamorphosis" and
other poems; lived into James I.'s reign; almost nothing is known of his
life.
TOURS (60), a historic old town of France, on the Loire, 145 m. SW.
of Paris; presents a spacious and handsome appearance, and contains a
noble Gothic cathedral, archbishop's palace, Palais de Justice, besides
ancient châteaux and interesting ruins; is a centre of silk and woollen
manufactures, and does a large printing trade; suffered greatly by the
Revocation of the Edict of Nantes and during the Franco-German War;
became the seat of government after the investment of Paris and until its
capitulation to the Germans.
TOURVILLE, ANNE HILARION DE COTENTIN, COUNT DE, a French naval hero,
born at Tourville, La Manche; entered the navy in 1660, established his
reputation in the war with the Turks and Algerines, and in 1677 won a
victory over the Dutch and Spanish fleets; supported James II. in 1690,
and in the same year, as commander of the French Channel fleet, inflicted
a crushing defeat on the Dutch and English; but off Cape La Hogue in
1692, after a five days' engagement, had his fleet all but annihilated, a
memorable victory which freed England from the danger of invasion by
Louis XIV.; was created a marshal in 1693, and a year later closed his
great career of service by scattering an English mercantile fleet and
putting to flight the convoy squadron under Sir George Rooke (1642-1701).
TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE, a negro hero of Hayti, born, the son of an
African slave at Breda; took part in the native insurrection of 1791, and
in 1797 became a general of brigade in the service of the French, and by
gallant soldiership cleared the English and Spanish out of Hayti; became
president for life of the republic of Hayti, and began to work for the
complete independence of the island; in 1801, when Napoleon endeavoured
to re-introduce slavery, he revolted, but was subdued by a strong French
force and taken to France, where he died in prison; is the subject of a
well-known sonnet by Wordsworth (1743-1803).
TOWER HAMLETS, a parliamentary division of London E. of the city,
originally a group of hamlets at one time within the jurisdiction of the
Lieutenant of the Tower.
TOWERS OF SILENCE, towers in Persia and India, some 60 ft. in
height, on the top of which the Parsees deposit their dead to be gnawed
by vultures.
TOWNSHEND, CHARLES, VISCOUNT, statesman, born at Raynham, Norfolk;
succeeded to the title on his father's death, and after taking his seat
in the Upper House turned Whig, and soon became prominent in the party;
was one of the commissioners who arranged the Scottish Union; accompanied
Marlborough as joint-plenipotentiary to the Gertruydenburg Conference
(1709); got into political trouble for signing the Barrier Treaty while
acting as ambassador to the States-General; under George I. rose to high
favour, became acknowledged leader of the Whigs, passed the Septennial
Act, but after 1721 was eclipsed in the party by the greater abilities of
Walpole, and after unpleasant rivalries was forced to withdraw from the
ministry (1730); gave himself then to agricultural pursuits (1674-1738).
TOWNSHEND, CHARLES, statesman and orator, grandson of preceding;
entered Parliament in 1747 as a Whig, and after his great speech against
the Marriage Bill of 1753 ranked among the foremost orators of his day;
held important offices of State under various ministers, Bute, Chatham,
and Rockingham, and as Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1767 was
responsible for the imposition of the paper, tea, and other duties on the
American colonies which provoked the War of Independence and led to the
loss of the colonies; a man of brilliant gifts and noted wit, but led by
what Burke termed "an immoderate love of fame" to play "the weathercock"
in politics; died when on the point of attaining the premiership
(1725-1767).
TOWTON, a village of Yorkshire, 3 m. SE. of Tadcaster, where in
1461 Edward IV. at the head of the Yorkists completely routed the
Lancastrians under the Duke of Somerset.
TOYNBEE HALL, an institution in Whitechapel, London, founded in 1885
for the social welfare of the poor in the district, established in memory
of Arnold Toynbee (1852-1883), who had come under Ruskin's influence and
took a deep interest in the working-classes, his zeal for whose benefit
shortened his days.
TRACTARIANISM, the tenets of the High Church party in the English
Church advocated in "Tracts for the Times," published at Oxford between
1833 and 1841, the chief doctrine of which was that the Church, through
its sacraments in the hands of a regularly-ordained clergy, is the only
divinely-appointed channel of the grace of Christ.
TRADE, BOARD OF, a Government office which, as now constituted,
dates from 1786, but whose functions within recent times have been
considerably widened; consists of a president (a Cabinet minister), and
_ex officio_ the Lord Chancellor, Archbishop of Canterbury, First Lord of
the Treasury, the principal Secretaries of State, Chancellor of the
Exchequer, the Speaker, and others, but the actual work of the Board is
left in the hands of the president and his secretarial staff; comprises
five departments: (1) statistical and commercial; (2) railway; (3)
marine; (4) harbour; (5) financial.
TRAFALGAR, CAPE, on the S. coast of Spain, at the NW. entrance of
the Strait of Gibraltar; scene of naval engagements in which Nelson lost
his life after inflicting (October 21, 1805) a crushing defeat on the
combined fleets of France and Spain.
TRAJAN, MARCUS ULPIUS, Roman emperor, born in Spain; his great deeds
in arms won him a consulship in 91, and in 97 Nerva invited him to be his
colleague and successor; a year later he became sole emperor, ruled the
empire with wisdom and vigour, set right the finances, upheld an
impartial justice, and set on foot various schemes of improvement;
suppressed the Christians as politically dangerous, but with no fanatic
extravagance; remained above all a warrior and true leader of the
legions, and crowned his military fame by his successful conquest of
Dacia, in commemoration of which he is said to have erected the famous
Trajan Column, which still stands in Rome (56-117).
TRAJAN'S COLUMN, a column erected by Trajan in the Forum at Rome in
memory of his victory over the Dacians, and sculptured with the story of
his exploits, is 125 ft. in height, and ascended by 185 steps; was
surmounted by a statue of Trajan, for which Pope Sextus V. substituted
one of St. Peter.
TRANSCAUCASIA, an extensive tract of Russian territory stretching E.
and W. between the Caucasus (N.) and Turkey in Asia and Persia (S.). See
CAUCASIA.
TRANSCENDENTALISM, name now principally employed to denote the great
doctrine of Kant and his school, that there are principles of _a priori_
derivation, that is, antecedent to experience, that are regulative and
constitutive of not only our thoughts but our very perceptions, and the
operation of which is antecedent to and sovereign over all our mental
processes; which principles are denominated the categories of thought;
the name is also employed to characterise every system which grounds
itself on a belief in a supernatural of which the natural is but the
embodiment and manifestation. See NATURAL SUPERNATURALISM.
TRANSMIGRATION, the doctrine prevalent in the East, that the soul is
immortal, and that when it leaves the body at death it passes into
another, a transition which in certain systems goes under the name of
reincarnation.
TRANSUBSTANTIATION, the doctrine of Roman Catholics as defined by
the Council of Trent, that the bread and wine of the Eucharist is, after
consecration by a priest, converted mystically into the body and blood of
Christ, and is known as the docrine of the Real Presence.
TRANSVAAL, formerly SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC (1350), a country of
SE. Africa, stretching northwards from the Vaal River, and bounded N. by
Matabeleland, E. by Portuguese E. Africa and Swaziland, S. by Natal and
the Orange River Colony, and W. by Bechuanaland and Bechuanaland
Protectorate; comprises elevated plateaux, but is mountainous in the E.;
about the size of Italy; has a good soil and climate favourable for
agriculture and stock-raising, to which latter the inert Dutch farmer
chiefly devotes himself; its chief wealth, however, lies in its extremely
rich deposits of gold, especially those of the "Rand," of which it
exports now more than any country in the world; its advance since the
gold discoveries has been great, but the trade is almost entirely in the
hands of the British immigrants; JOHANNESBURG (q. v.) is the
largest town, and Pretoria (15) the seat of Government. In 1856 the
region was settled by Dutch farmers, who had "trekked" from Natal
(recently annexed by Britain) to escape British Rule, as in 1835, for a
similar reason, they had come from the Cape to Natal. Fierce encounters
took place with the native Basutos, but in the end the "Boers" made good
their possession. In 1877 the Republic, then in a disorganised and
impoverished condition, and threatened with extinction by the natives,
came under the care of the British, by whom the natives were reduced and
the finances restored. In 1880 a rising of the Boers to regain complete
independence resulted in the Conventions of 1881 and 1884, by which the
independence of the Republic was recognised, but subject to the right of
Britain to control the foreign relations. Within recent years agitations
were carried on by the growing "Uitlander" population to obtain a share
in the government to which they contributed in taxes the greater part of
the revenue, and a succession of attempts were made by the British
Government to get the Boers to concede the franchise to the "Uitlanders"
and remedy other grievances; but the negotiations connected therewith
were suddenly arrested by an ultimatum of date 9th October 1899,
presented to the British Government by the Transvaal, and allowing them
only 48 hours to accept it. It was an ultimatum they were bound to
ignore, and accordingly, the time having expired on the 11th, war was
declared by the Boers. It proved a costly and sanguinary one to both
sides in the conflict; but the resistance of the Boers was ultimately
overcome, and hostilities ceased in May 1902. Previously to this, the
Colony had been annexed by Great Britain (1900). It is at present (1905)
administered by a Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, and an Executive
Council; but it is proposed that, in the near future, representative
institutions should be granted.
TRANSYLVANIA (2247), eastern division of the Austrian Empire; is a
tableland enclosed NE. and South by the Carpathians, contains wide tracts
of forests, and is one-half under tillage or in pasture; yields large
crops of grain and a variety of fruits, and has mines of gold, silver,
copper, iron, &c., though the manufactures and trade are insignificant;
the population consists of Roumanians, Hungarians, and Germans; it was
united to Hungary in 1868.
TRAPANI (32), an ancient seaport of Sicily, known in Roman times as
DREPANUM, in the NW., 40 m. W. of Palermo; presents now a handsome
modern appearance, and trades in wheat, wine, olives, &c.
TRAPPISTS, an order of Cistercian monks founded in 1140 at La
Trappe, in the French department of Orne, noted for the severity of their
discipline, their worship of silence and devotion to work, meditation,
and prayer, 12 hours out of the 24 of which they pass in the latter
exercise; their motto is "Memento Mori"; their food is chiefly
vegetables.
TRASIMENE LAKE, a historic lake of Italy; lies amid hills between
the towns Cortona and Perugia; shallow and reedy, 10 m. long; associated
with Hannibal's memorable victory over the Romans 217 B.C.
TRAVANCORE (2,557), a native State in South India, under British
protection, between the Western Ghâts and the Arabian Sea; it is
connected with the Madras Presidency; it is traversed by spurs of the
Western Ghâts, beyond which, westward, is a plain 10 m. wide, covered
with coco-nut and areca palms; the population mainly Hindus; there are
native Christians and some black Jews; Trivandrum is the capital.
TRAVIATA, an opera representing the progress of a courtezan.
TREBIZOND (50), a city and thriving seaport NE. of Asia Minor, the
outlet of Persia and Armenia, on the Black Sea; is walled, and outside
are various suburbs; manufactures silks.
TRELAWNEY, EDWARD JOHN, friend of Shelley and Byron; entered the
navy as a boy, but deserted and took to adventure; met with Shelley at
Pisa; saw to the cremation of his body when he was drowned, and went with
Byron to Greece; was a brave, but a restless mortal; wrote "Recollections
of the Last Days of Shelley and Byron" (1792-1881).
TRELAWNEY, SIR JONATHAN, one of the seven bishops tried under James
II.; is the hero of the Cornish ballad, "And shall Trelawney die?" _d_.
1721.
TRENCH, RICHARD CHEVENIX, archbishop of Dublin, born in Dublin;
educated at Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge; took orders; became
curate to Samuel Wilberforce, and wrote "Notes on the Miracles and
Parables" and "The Study of Words"; was Dean of Westminster before he
became archbishop (1807-1886).
TRENCK, BARON VON, general, first in the service of Austria, then of
Russia; dismissed from both; commanded a regiment of pandours in the
Austrian Succession War in the interest of Maria Theresa; tried to
capture Frederick the Great; was caught, tried, and condemned to prison,
escaped, was captured, and took poison; had a cousin with a similar fate
(1711-1749).
TRENT, an English river, rises in NW. of Staffordshire, flows NE.,
and unites with the Ouse, 15 m. W. of Hull.
TRENT (21), an Austrian town in S. of Tyrol, in a valley on the
Adige, 60 m. N. of Verona; has an Italian appearance, and Italian is
spoken.
TRENT, COUNCIL OF, an oecumenical council, the eighteenth, held at
Trent, and whose sittings, with sundry adjournments, extended from 13th
December 1545 until 4th December 1563, the object of which was to define
the position and creed of the Church of Rome in opposition to the
doctrines and claims of the Churches of the Reformation.
TRENTON (73), capital of New Jersey State, on the Delaware River, 57
m. SW. of New York; divided into two portions by Assanpink Creek, and
handsomely laid out in broad, regular streets; public buildings include a
state-house, federal buildings, &c.; is the great emporium in the United
States of crockery and pottery manufactures.
TREPANNING, an operation in surgery whereby portions of the skull
are removed by means of an instrument called a trepan, which consists of
a small cylindrical saw; resorted to in all operations on the brain.
TREVELYAN, SIR GEORGE OTTO, politician and man of letters, born at
Rothley Temple, Leicestershire, son of Sir Charles Trevelyan (a
distinguished servant of the East India Company, governor of Madras,
baronet, and author) and Hannah, sister of Lord Macaulay; educated at
Harrow and Cambridge, and entered Parliament as a Liberal in 1865; has
held successively the offices of parliamentary secretary to the Board of
Admiralty, Chief Secretary for Ireland, Chancellor of the Duchy of
Lancaster with a seat in the Cabinet, and Secretary for Scotland;
resigned his seat in 1897; has written "Life and Letters of Lord
Macaulay," "Early History of Charles James Fox," "The American
Revolution," &c., all of which are characterised by admirable lucidity
and grace of style; _b_. 1838.
TRÈVES (36), a famous old city of Prussia, beautifully situated on
the Moselle, 69 m. SW. of Coblenz; held to be the oldest city in Germany,
and claiming to be 1300 years older than Rome; is full of most striking
Roman remains, and possesses an interesting 11th-century cathedral,
having among many relics the celebrated seamless "Holy Coat," said to
have been the one worn by Christ; manufactures woollens, cottons, and
linens, and wine.
TRIBUNES, in ancient Rome officers elected by the plebs to preserve
their liberties and protect them from the tyranny of the aristocratic
party, their institution dating from 493 B.C., on the occasion of a
civil tumult.
TRICHINOPOLI (91), capital of a district of same name in Madras
Presidency, on the Kaveri, 56 m. inland; is a fortified town, with an
imposing citadel, barracks, hospital, &c.; noted for its cheroots and
jewellery; seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric and college.
TRICOLOUR, a flag adopted by the French Revolutionists in 1789, and
consisting of three vertical stripes, blue, white, and red, the blue next
the staff.
TRIDENT, originally a three-pronged fork used by fishermen, and at
length the symbol, in the hands of Poseidon and Britannia, of sovereignty
over the sea.
TRIESTE (158), an ancient town and still the first seaport of
Austro-Hungary; at the head of the NE. arm of the Adriatic, 214 m. SW. of
Vienna; an imperial free city since 1849; consists of an old and a new
town on the level fronting the sea; has a fine harbour and extensive
manufactures, embracing shipbuilding, rope-making, &c.