FIRE AND ITS DANGERS.
Fire, although most useful in its proper place, is the source of almost
countless loss and destruction, and has well earned the character often
given it, of being the best of servants but the worst of masters.
Everyone knows how it has been feared by men from the world’s
commencement, and worshipped by idolaters even to the present day, when
millions still bow down to what they fear instead of to a Being they can
love.
And perhaps it is not only its destructive power that causes fire thus
to be reverenced by the ignorant, and dreaded in many forms by the more
enlightened. Its mysterious origin and power of spontaneously coming
into existence help to characterise it as the most remarkable of the
elements, and to increase the liability to dangerous results when it has
fuel to feed upon.
It is not my purpose to notice the various applications of fire in ways
that cause it to bring about incalculable good to mankind. A moment’s
thought as to what would result if fire could not be applied in
numberless needful instances, and we had nothing to supply its place,
will convince us that its value is far greater than all the loss it
causes. But there often is loss, and to a considerable extent; and as
this is generally preventable, it will be well for us to consider what
are the proper means to adopt in order to guard against it.
The buildings in which fires occur most frequently are our ordinary
dwelling-houses, because they largely outnumber all other classes of
buildings--not perhaps because they are more liable to be burnt than
others. I can find no authentic return of fires that have occurred
throughout Great Britain, and therefore cannot give statistics of the
relative proportions of the various kinds of structures that have been
burnt. It seems to me a great mistake not to have an accurate report of
every fire that happens, with full details of its cause, the damage
done, &c.; the particulars might be registered more easily, and with
less expense, than births and deaths are; and it is open to question if
the benefit derived from such a course would not be of at least equal
good. When a death results from fire the inquest often discloses facts
which, if known before, might have prevented death; and it would be
little trouble to arrange for the coroner or some qualified official to
hold an enquiry--without a jury, of course--concerning every fire
reported to him by the fire brigade in his district. If this had been
done in bygone years there would not now be that ignorance of
construction and of the right means of saving life and property which
unhappily prevails. Why the insurance offices have not supported and
carried into practice some such idea is possibly to be explained by the
undoubted fact that a good fire brings them fresh business.
The number of fires is increasing rapidly every year in a proportion
quicker than the increase of building or population; the explanation
being that as the houses get crowded together they are more liable to be
set on fire by external agency. But the increase, serious as it appears,
is curiously small when one takes into account the causes, multiplying
every day, by which this destruction may be effected. In the last few
years London and many large towns have become intersected by railways,
and the fires and sparks of engines are frequently scattered about as
if the stations and dwellings near were bomb-proof. Vessels may be seen
on the Thames and elsewhere getting up steam close to the windows of
warehouses with inflammable goods inside; steam, with its attendant
dangers, is used in places and for purposes never thought of a short
time since. Gas, with its unmistakable smell, however, making it
somewhat safe, is in large use; while its modern rivals, the explosive
oils, are being too carelessly used in an increasing extent.
Friction-matches only a few years ago were not to be found in the houses
of the poor, but are now used by everyone. The use of tobacco has
extended, and there is reason to believe very many fires are due
directly or indirectly to it. Stoves, instead of the open fireplaces,
are in larger request, and their flues are more dangerous than the
old-fashioned wide chimneys. These, and other less important facts, will
explain the following statistics given in evidence by Captain Shaw
before a Parliamentary Committee: ‘During the 34 years since 1840, the
population of London has increased from 1,907,036 to 3,342,490, or 75
per cent.; and the number of houses from 258,425 to 479,329, or 82 per
cent. But during the same period the number of fires has more than
doubled, having jumped from 681 to 1,548--equal to an increase of 127
per cent. The total number of fires throughout the 34 years was 38,241.’
Only a small proportion of these 38,000 fires were very serious ones;
yet the majority of them might have been so but for the precautions and
appliances at hand to prevent the mischief spreading. The best way of
combating this foe for the future is to ensure better house-building,
and to hold an enquiry into the cause of each fire, as already
suggested. But we have to deal with cities and towns already built, and
with the greater part of their buildings ready to form bonfires when any
carelessness lets even the smallest portion ignite. In another chapter
I have spoken of fireproof construction, and have given instances of the
danger many of our public buildings are in. But dwelling-houses are
scarcely ever built to be fireproof, space and cheapness being the
_desiderata_, and it will ever be so. The construction of the older ones
causes them to burn out, when once fairly alight, in an incredibly short
space of time, affording but little opportunity for the escape of
inmates, even should they be able to withstand the choking smoke.
The following is a complete list of causes of fires in London for the
year 1873:--
Airing linen 17
Bleaching baskets 3
Boiler, overheating of 8
Boiling acids 1
Boiling over, chemicals, oil, pitch, spirits, tar, &c. 23
Burning out paint-pot 1
Candle 187
Chemicals, bottle of, breaking 1
Chemicals, explosion of 1
Children playing with cartridges 1
Children playing with fire 21
Children playing with lucifers 29
Clothes coming in contact with fire 7
Copper, overheat of 1
Copper, leaking 1
Cylinder, overheat of 1
Damper, defect in 1
Detonating caps 1
Doubtful 14
Drawing off paraffin oil 1
Drying apparatus, overheat of 1
Drying-room, overheat of 1
Fire, goods placed too near 1
Fireplace blocked up 2
Fireplace, defect in 1
Fireplace adjoining, defect in 1
Fireworks, explosion of 1
Fireworks, letting off 1
Flue, blocked up 10
Flue, defect in 58
Flue, foul 24
Flue, overheat of 10
Flue, timber in 1
Flue, adjoining, defect in 15
Flue, adjoining, foul 5
Flue, adjoining, overheat of 4
Flue, copper, defect in 4
Flue, copper, overheat of 4
Flue, furnace, defect in 1
Flue, furnace, overheat of 3
Friction of machinery 6
Friction of vesuvians 1
Fumigating bags 4
Furnace, overheat of 5
Furnace, hothouse, overheat of 1
Furnace, adjoining, overheat of 1
Gas, escape of 45
Gasfitters at work 6
Gasfitters at work in street 1
Gas, lighting 6
Gas, seeking for an escape of, in street 17
Gas, swinging bracket 21
Gaslight 2
Gaslight, curtains or window-blinds coming in contact with 8
Gaslight, goods coming in contact with 12
Gaslight, goods placed too near 4
Gaslight, overheat of 7
Gaslight, holly placed too near 1
Gaslight, paper blown on 1
Gaslight, sunblind placed too near 1
Glue, heating 1
Hearth, defect in 4
Hearth, fire on 4
Hearth, adjoining, fire on 2
Hot ashes 37
Hot plate, overheat of 1
Hot iron 2
Hot rivets 3
Hot soldering-iron 1
Incendiarism 11
Intoxication 6
Kiln, overheat of 2
Lamp, bag falling on 1
Lamp, lighting 1
Lamp, lighted, falling on benzoline 1
Lamp, gas, upset 1
Lamp, curtains or window-blinds coming in contact with 2
Lamp, oil, upset 1
Lamp, paraffin, explosion of 3
Lamp, spirit, upset 41
Light thrown down 115
Light thrown down area 9
Light thrown from street 19
Lighted taper 2
Lime-slaking 7
Lime slaked by rain 5
Lucifers 43
Oven, overheat of 5
Paraffin oil coming in contact with lighted candle 1
Phosphorus 3
Pipe-stove, overheat of 6
Pipe, steam, overheat of 2
Plumbers at work 3
Rags, overheat of 1
Roasting chicory 1
Smoke-hole, overheat of 1
Smoking tobacco 36
Spark from fire 172
Spark from copper fire 1
Spark from copper flue 1
Spark from copper flue adjoining 2
Spark from furnace 5
Spark from locomotive 9
Spark from oil-lamp 3
Spark from oven fire 1
Spark from smoke-hole 1
Spontaneous ignition 15
Spontaneous ignition of red fire 1
Still, overheat of 1
Still, leaking 1
Stove, overheat of 11
Stove, adjoining, overheat of 3
Stove, improperly set 4
Stove, drying, overheat of 11
Stove, drying, adjoining, overheat of 1
Stove, drying, rags falling on 1
Stove, ironing, rags falling on 1
Stove, ironing, overheat of 1
Stove, ironing, linen falling on 1
Stove, gas, overheat of 10
Sun, heat from 2
Tar-pot upset 1
Turpentine upset 1
Vapour of spirits coming in contact with flame 8
Varnish coming in contact with flame 1
Unknown 276
----
Total 1548
The proportion of unknown causes so frequently reported is far too
large. An intelligent consideration of the circumstances which may give
rise to chemical action would often solve the difficulty. There were
lately reported some curious fires which occurred at Manchester, caused
by the slow combustion of green wax-tapers which had been blown out but
imperfectly extinguished. The smouldering wick gradually consumed away,
setting the wax and surrounding materials on fire.
It has long been known that _green wax_ office-tapers would thus
gradually smoulder away if they are not carefully extinguished after
they have been used. This danger arising from tapers may be guarded
against by using any other colour than green.
Many things popularly deemed uninflammable are far from being so; for
instance, tin is not a common combustible, but it will burn with
considerable energy under peculiar conditions. This may be proved by
placing a small portion of nitrate of copper upon a sheet of tin-foil.
Both materials are inactive as long as they are dry, but upon moistening
them with water the chemical action first heats the tin, which
eventually will break out into flame. Lead is not usually regarded as
liable to do more than melt, but under favourable circumstances it will
burn with vehement heat. On the other hand, a room filled with coal-gas
is by many persons supposed to be dangerously explosive, whereas it
cannot even take fire excepting at the openings of the room, where, by
coming into contact with the air, the necessary combination of atoms
occurs so as to let the gas ignite and burn.
As most fires break out at night, the necessity is shown of examining a
building at the latest possible hour. In warehouses, factories, and such
like, a watchman should be employed.
The tell-tale clocks frequently used to prove whether the watchman has
done his duty are of doubtful service, for it is better to rely upon an
honest man’s carefulness than to compel him to go certain fixed rounds
which may prevent his being able to give an alarm at the right moment.
One watchman is generally best even in very large buildings. ‘An
instance[4] is on record in which a building standing in its own
grounds was watched by four men, two of whom patrolled within and two
without the walls, and yet the alarm of fire which happened in this
building was first given by a street-constable who happened to see the
light while going round his beat. If there had been but one watchman, or
two, it might have been possible to impute some blame to them, but as
there were four it was much more reasonable to assume that they were
engaged in pegging clocks or carrying out some other so-called
self-registering scheme of recording their duties instead of really
transacting them.’
With regard to watching private houses this must be left chiefly to the
police, but it should be seconded by an examination made by the master
himself every night the last thing before retiring to rest. Many fires
commence from a spark or ash falling out of the fire when it is not
properly protected by a guard or fender. The habit of raking out a fire
at night is a popular but mischievous one. If left to burn in the grate
there is far less chance of danger than in raking out the hot ashes,
which are likely to split the hearth-stone or fall on the floor or
carpet. Gas-burners are dangerous when placed near the ceiling. A
remarkable instance of this took place where a gas-jet set fire to a
ceiling 28½ inches from it.
More attention should be paid to keeping chimneys swept, which operation
should be done at regular intervals, and not left till the occupier
_thinks_ it is time they were done, or is reminded of it by a black
shower of soot falling some wet day.
Notwithstanding that all owners of chimneys on fire can be fined for
neglecting to have the flues cleaned, it has been recorded that as many
as 2,435 cases of burning chimneys occurred in 1873 in London to which
the firemen were called. The number is so large that the penalty
appears to be too small to effect its object, and might with advantage
be increased, as the risk to property from these chimney-fires is
considerable. A district in Liverpool occupied by the Irish poor is
stated to have had its chimneys freed from soot by the summary process
of purposely setting fire to them; and I have read a statement giving a
description of the curious sight witnessed when a whole district had its
chimneys alight at once. This is fortunately not a fashionable way of
‘sweeping,’ but more care must be taken by those who prefer the
customary mode.
Dustbins very often cause serious losses. In one instance 30,000_l._ to
40,000_l._ were lost, apparently from hot ashes being thrown into a
dustbin. No heaps of rubbish or lumber of any sort should be allowed in
a building of any value, and dustbins should always be placed in the
open air.
The following with reference to the prevention of fires appeared in the
‘Builder’ for May, 1867:--
‘Keep matches in metal boxes, and out of the reach of children; wax
matches are particularly dangerous, and should be kept out of the way of
rats and mice; be careful in making fires with shavings and other light
kindling; do not deposit coal or wood ashes in a wooden vessel, and be
sure burning cinders are extinguished before they are deposited; never
put firewood upon the stove to dry, and never put ashes or a light under
a staircase; fill fluid or spirit lamps only by daylight, and never near
a fire or light; do not leave a candle burning on a bureau or a chest;
always be cautious in extinguishing matches and other lighters before
throwing them away; never throw a cigar-stump upon the floor or spitbox
containing sawdust or trash without being certain that it contains no
fire; after blowing out a candle never put it away on a shelf, or
anywhere else, until sure that the snuff has gone entirely out; a
lighted candle ought not to be stuck up against a frame-wall, or placed
upon any portion of the woodwork in a stable, manufactory, shop, or any
other place; never enter a barn or stable at night with an uncovered
light; never take an open light to examine a gas-meter; do not put gas
or other lights near curtains; never take a light into a closet; do not
read in bed, either by candle or lamp light.
‘The principal register of a furnace should always be fastened open;
stove-pipes should be at least four inches from woodwork, and well
guarded by tin or zinc; rags ought never to be stuffed into stove-pipe
holes; openings in chimney-flues for stove-pipes which are not used
ought always to be securely protected by metallic coverings; never close
up a place of business in the evening without looking well to the
extinguishing of lights, and the proper security of the fires; when
retiring to bed at night always see that there is no danger from your
fires.’
If these directions can all be constantly observed, we may have a
tolerable sense of security.
With respect to the detection of fires there is very little to say; for
though many plans for arranging electric wires, or tubes with certain
chemicals inside, have been tried, I know of none that have met with
general acceptance. The truth is, if there were any pressing demand for
such a thing, plenty of sensible inventions would be forthcoming; but
fire generally discovers itself before _anything else_ would show that
it existed, and therefore our energies are chiefly directed to the
extinction of it when once begun.
The number of lives endangered by fire is so numerous that I feel the
subject would not be complete without a few words respecting escape from
a burning house. The apathy that exists as to the best means of getting
safely from such a perilous position can only be accounted for on the
supposition that the probability of fire is too small to induce people
to think seriously of it. But a time is likely to come in the lives of
some of us when previous thought on the subject may become of enormous
importance; and although at such a critical moment, when, perhaps
aroused from a sound sleep, one finds oneself in a house on fire,
presence of mind is the first thing required, yet a few simple
suggestions that will start to the memory may be of value.
If on the first discovery of the fire it is found to be confined to one
room, and to have made but little progress, it is of the utmost
importance to shut, and keep shut, all doors and windows. On this
particular Mr. Braidwood said: ‘It may often be observed, after a house
has been on fire, that one floor is comparatively untouched, while those
above and below are nearly burned out. This arises from the doors on
that particular floor having been shut, and the draught directed
elsewhere. If the fire appears at all serious, and there are
fire-engines at a reasonable distance, it is best to await their
arrival, as many buildings have been lost from opening the doors and
attempting to extinguish fires with inadequate means. If no engines are
within reach, and you have not a hand-pump or an extincteur, the next
best thing is to collect as many buckets outside the room on fire as can
be obtained, keeping the door shut while more water is being collected.’
Since the above was written, a valuable invention has been brought
forward, by use of which a person may enter dense smoke that it would be
otherwise impossible to exist in. The Smoke Respirator, which has the
unattractive appearance shown by the engraving, is an apparatus to act
as a filter for the separation of the pure air from an atmosphere
charged with impurities detrimental to the healthy action of the lungs.
It is on the system spoken of and recommended by Professor Tyndall, in
his popular lectures upon ‘Dust and Smoke,’ and is useful for other
purposes than that already named, such as in the case of metal-grinding,
or in cleaning cotton, where the operators are subject to inconvenience
from particles of dust. I mention this respirator because it not only
serves the firemen in entering buildings, but would prevent many of the
deaths caused in case of fire by suffocation. In lieu of this, however,
a rough-and-ready protection from breathing the smoke may be had by
thoroughly wetting a towel and fastening it firmly round the face over
the mouth and nostrils. If I remember rightly, a man saved his life by
doing this when the Star and Garter Hotel, at Richmond, was destroyed by
fire.
[Illustration]
But if the flames have too great a hold to allow of escape by the
staircase or roof, and the window of the room is the only means of
egress, the situation becomes a serious one, unless its possibility has
been foreseen and guarded against.
Only as _the last_ resource should a person run the risk of jumping to
the ground; either endeavour by tying the bedclothes together to make
some sort of rope, fastening one end to a heavy piece of furniture, and
going down the rope hand-over-hand--a rather difficult thing to do
without practice--or, if within reach of one, wait as long as possible
for the arrival of a fire-escape or ladder. Some people always keep a
stout knotted rope in their room, and have an iron hook fixed inside the
window, to which it may be affixed. This certainly gives a chance of
escape, but after all it is from the _outside_ that the most effectual
assistance can be had. Captain Shaw’s experience is that the danger to
life is increasing, because of the enormous height to which buildings in
London are being carried, without any precautions whatever for safety in
the upper storeys. He states that a ‘fire-escape such as those now in
use can, immediately on its arrival, reach a height of 30 feet; after
about half a minute’s delay, about 40 feet; after a minute’s delay, it
can reach 50 feet, but it cannot reach higher; and, consequently,
persons living in the lofty buildings so common in the metropolis should
invariably make their own arrangements for getting down externally to
spots within reach of these machines, which are at present the only
means of escape available from the outside. For this purpose there are
many obvious plans which might be adopted, but among these there are two
which appear to be specially easy of attainment, and within the reach of
all concerned, at a moderate cost. The first is to fix on buildings
external ladders of wrought-iron or some other material able to resist
the effects of fire at its commencement, and extending from the roof to
within 40 feet of the ground; the other, to provide on every storey
continuous balconies of wrought-iron or any other material proof against
immediate destruction by heat; and if the balconies on the several
storeys were made to communicate with each other by means of external
stairs, great additional safety would be attained. Indeed, with such an
arrangement it is certain that heavy loss of life would be most
improbable in any fire, however rapid in its action and otherwise
serious in its results. In rows of houses the use of balconies is
manifest, but even in detached buildings there can be very little doubt
that, if sufficiently long, they would serve as a means of egress for
those inside, and of access for those giving help from without. It may
be assumed that the reason of their not being generally adopted is the
double fear which owners of premises have--first, of their servants and
other inmates getting out too frequently; secondly, of persons breaking
in for improper purposes. But those who guard themselves from these
dangers should remember at what cost they do so, and should be prepared
to accept the results of a fire, causing loss of life or property, as
the direct and inevitable consequence of their own state of
preparation.’ Captain Shaw goes on to say: ‘I have always hoped to
procure higher ladders than those now in use, within the limits of
weight to which, for the sake of rapid travelling, I have been compelled
to restrict myself; and I take this opportunity of repeating here what I
have for years explained to all inventors who have come to me from
various parts of the world on the subject, viz., that our present
machines, the running weight of which is under 14 cwt., are capable of
throwing to a height of about 50 feet, and of carrying half-a-ton weight
on the weakest part when so extended, and that any machine which can be
rapidly run and worked as these are by one skilled man and two unskilled
assistants, and can throw to a greater height, would be considered an
improvement, provided that it can safely carry the same weight and is
free from any complicated gearing likely to cause delay or difficulty
when subjected to rough usage in the dark.’
Mr. Wright, the Secretary of the Royal Society for the Protection of
Life from Fire, has kindly placed at my disposal the following
directions for saving life at fires, being the result of long and varied
experience. I understand he is desirous of spreading the knowledge thus
gained, and will be happy to send these directions, printed on a large
scale, to any person who will get them hung up where others may read and
profit by them:--
PLAIN DIRECTIONS FOR AIDING ENDANGERED PERSONS TO ESCAPE FROM
BUILDINGS ON FIRE, AVOIDING ACCIDENTS, AND FOR THE TREATMENT OF
INJURIES.
The want of coolness and presence of mind at the time of an alarm of
fire is by far the greatest hindrance to an escape, and for this no
regulation can be laid down; but a few simple directions to be observed
by the bystanders and inmates, well considered and reflected upon in
time of safety, will in a great measure tend to discreet and successful
efforts in the hour of danger.
_For Bystanders._
1. Immediately on the fire being discovered give an alarm to the nearest
fire-escape station, not delaying an instant; do not wait to see if it
is wanted. Life is more precious than property, and events have too
often proved how fatal even a moment’s hesitation is in sending for the
fire-escape. It is the fire-escape man’s duty to proceed to the place of
alarm immediately.
2. In the absence of a fire-escape, or pending its arrival, ladders and
ropes should be sought for. Two constables or other qualified persons
should ascend to the roof through the adjoining houses. The most
efficient assistance can sometimes be rendered by an entrance to the
upper part of the house on fire, either by the attic windows, the
loft-door, or by removing the tiles; or sometimes the aid of one end of
a rope (knotted) might be afforded from the adjoining window, which,
being passed by the person in danger round some article in the room, he
could lower himself or others into the street, and the other end of the
rope being controlled of course by those rendering the aid from the
adjoining house. A short ladder can often be made available at the
second or perhaps the third, floor of houses built with a balcony or
portico, by the constable or other person first ascending to the
balcony, and then placing the ladder thereon, reach the rooms above.
3. In a narrow street or court assistance may be given from the windows
of the opposite house, particularly by a ladder placed across the street
from window to window.
4. When no other means present themselves the bystanders had better
collect bedding at hand, in case the inmates throw themselves from the
windows. A blanket or carpet held stretched out by several persons will
serve the purpose. The Metropolitan Fire Escape Brigade carry
jumping-sheets with them for use upon emergency.
5. Do not give vent to the fire by breaking into the house unnecessarily
from without, or, if an inmate, by opening doors or windows. Make a
point of shutting every door after you as you go through the house.
_For Inmates._
1. Every householder should make each person in his house acquainted
with the best means of escape, whether the fire breaks out at the top or
the bottom. Provide fire-guards for use in every room where there is a
fire, and let it be a rule of the household not to rake out a fire
before retiring for the night, but to leave the guard on. In securing
the street-door and lower windows for the night avoid complicated
fastenings or impediments to immediate outlets in case of fire.
Descriptions and drawings of fire-escapes for keeping in dwelling-houses
may be seen upon application at the offices of the Royal Society for the
Protection of Life from Fire, 66 Ludgate Hill.
2. Inmates at the first alarm should endeavour calmly to reflect what
means of escape there are in the house. If in bed at the time, wrap
themselves in a blanket or bedside carpet; open neither windows nor
doors more than necessary; shut every door after them (this is most
important to observe).
3. In the midst of smoke it is comparatively clear towards the ground;
consequently, progress through smoke can be made on the hands and knees.
A silk handkerchief, worsted stockings, or other flannel substance,
wetted and drawn over the face, permits free breathing, and excludes to
a great extent the smoke from the lungs. A wet sponge is alike
efficacious.
4. In the event of being unable to escape either by the street-door or
roof, the persons in danger should immediately make their way to a
front-room window, taking care to close the door after them; and those
who have the charge of the household should ascertain that every
individual is there assembled.
5. Persons thus circumstanced are entreated not to precipitate
themselves from the window while there remains the least probability of
assistance; and even in the last extremity a plain rope is invaluable,
or recourse may be had to joining sheets or blankets together, fastening
one end round a bedpost or other furniture. This will enable one person
to lower all the others separately, and the last may let himself down
with comparatively little risk. Select a window over the doorway rather
than over the area.
6. Do not give vent to the fire by breaking into the house unnecessarily
from without, or, if an inmate, by opening doors or windows. Make a
point of shutting every door after you as you go through the house. For
this purpose doors enclosing the staircase are very useful.
_Accidents to Persons._
1. Upon discovering yourself on fire reflect that your greatest danger
arises from draught to the flames, and from their rising upwards. Throw
yourself on the ground, and roll over on the flame, if possible, on the
rug or loose drugget, which drag under you; the table-cover, a man’s
coat, anything of the kind at hand, will serve your purpose. Scream for
assistance, ring the bell, but do not run out of the room or remain in
an upright position.
2. Persons especially exposed to a risk of their dresses taking fire
should adopt the precaution of having all linen and cotton fabrics
washed in a weak solution of chloride of zinc, alum, or tungstate of
soda.
3. As a means for the prevention of accidents, especially where there
are women and children, the provision of a fire-guard is urgently
recommended. These are now made at such a reasonable price that it is
incumbent upon even the poorest to obtain them. The Royal Society have
it in contemplation to give orders on manufacturers at a reduced price
to subscribers’ recommendations.
_Treatment of Injuries._
1. Send for medical aid. Let the sufferer be put to bed as quickly as
possible; remove all remains of clothing about the injured parts,
cutting with extreme caution, as it is of the first importance to avoid
tearing the skin or breaking a blister.
2. As the readiest thing at hand, cover all the injured parts tenderly
with clean cotton or wool, what is commonly known as wadding, the
cleaner and purer the better (the best for the purpose is kept by
druggists); it relieves by excluding the air. Linen rag soaked in a
mixture of equal parts of lime-water and linseed-oil also forms a good
dressing. Common whiting is very good applied wet, and continually
damped with a sponge.
3. It is better to avoid cold applications; they certainly allay pain,
but unless the cold be maintained the momentary relief is followed by a
considerable aggravation of the suffering. In extensive burns, moreover,
cold water freely applied is not unattended by danger.
4. From thirty-six to fifty hours after the injury the blisters will
present a milky appearance, and show surrounding inflammation. When this
is the case they may be opened with the point of a large needle.
Dressing for burns may then be simply wax and oil spread on lint; but so
much depends on circumstances and the state of health of the sufferer,
that it is desirable as soon as possible to secure medical attendance.
5. To recover a person in a state of insensibility from the effect of
smoke, dash cold water in the face, or cold and hot water alternately.
Should this fail, turn him on his face, with the arms folded under his
forehead. Apply pressure along the back and ribs, and turn the body
gradually on the side; then again slowly on the face, repeating the
pressure on the back. Persevere with these alternate rolling movements
about sixteen times in a minute, until respiration is restored. A warm
bath will now complete the recovery.
As to the origin of fires, a list has already been given of the various
causes of fires last year, but I may supplement it by one or two
instances worthy of notice. Spontaneous combustion is often a cause of
destruction, and a curious example of this was when a mass of iron
filings and turnings, which had been allowed to accumulate at a large
factory, ignited. The heap was sprinkled day by day with water in the
process of laying the dust previously to sweeping the floor. One night,
after all the men had left, a fire broke out, which was soon arrested;
but was most clearly traced to the spontaneous combustion of the iron
turnings. It is well known that iron decomposes water, combining with
its oxygen and liberating its hydrogen, and in this case the grease on
the turnings was oxydised at the expense of oxygen, condensed by the
finely-divided metal, and so lent its aid in raising the temperature;
and thus the heat soon reached a point that set fire to the wood in the
neighbourhood.
The uselessness of covering wood with sheet or cast iron, which has been
but recently shown at the Pantechnicon, was also exemplified in a fire
which happened at the Bank of England many years since. The hearth on
which the stove was placed was cast-iron an inch thick, with 2½ inches
of concrete underneath it, but the timber below that was fired. It is
difficult to account for this unless there had been some bad workmanship
or an undiscovered flaw existing in the iron or a crack in the concrete.
A rather uncommon case, although it might have been serious in its
results, was that of a fire caused by an incendiary in the
counting-house of a relation of mine. One night a man got access to the
adjoining warehouse, and intending to steal the wages he wrongly
suspected were in the office ready for paying away on the morrow, broke
through the lath-and-plaster wall. With much difficulty he got in; but,
finding no plunder, in his disappointment he set fire to a heap of
papers and hastened to retreat. But the hole he came in at formed, in
consequence of the broken laths, a sort of eel-trap, and he was in great
danger of being burnt alive. Finally he got through, the fire burnt
itself out without great damage, and the burglary was discovered. The
man not long afterwards was caught, and sentenced to the penal servitude
he so richly deserved.