different kinds of materials of construction. Different sorts of
batteries. Methods of construction. Repairing of damaged batteries, and
the calculation generally of all the materials necessary for
constructing them.
Purpose and equipment of besieging batteries, with the preparations,
special and general, for a regular attack.
Proceedings in the regular attack, and their modifications in irregular
sorts of attack, occasioned by the situation of the fortress with
reference to the surrounding ground, or by the special nature of the
defenses.
Proceedings after capture, and when the siege is raised.
b. _For Defense._
The equipment of the fortress. Determination of its artillery.
Preparations in the fortress when it is declared in a state of siege.
Conduct of the artillery in the regular attack, and against irregular
modes of attack, as well as in particular cases, such as when in
detached isolated works, when the place is relieved, or when the
garrison fight its way out.
C. IN THE THIRD CŒTUS.
In the artillery course of the first and second cœtus, the students have
gained a general knowledge of the materials of artillery, as well as its
organization and use as an Arm; but the lectures were for the most part
limited to what was of the greatest immediate consequence, viz., the
description of the actual condition and relations of the Prussian
artillery.
The object of the instruction given in the third cœtus is, on the one
hand, to expose the scientific laws of artillery and its various parts,
and, on the other, to track the historical development of the Arm, so as
by this means, and by consideration of the constitution of foreign
artilleries, to extend the views of the students beyond our own
practice, thus, to form their judgment, and induce them to think and
contrive for themselves.
In the comparison of our own and foreign existing systems with the
results of scientific considerations, the teacher should proceed with
caution, and not raise in the young men the inclination to or the habit
of crude and officious criticism. Investigation of things as they exist
must, therefore, not confine itself to the mere search after defects; it
can be only profitable when employed to test our own powers at
improvements, and to discern thereby the difficulties and impediments
that accompany them. The value which speculative reasoning has for the
purposes of the artillery ought to be properly esteemed by the students,
but, in face of the results of experience, not be estimated too highly;
and in the comparison of different artilleries one with another, the
influence must not be overlooked which the peculiarities and the history
of a country ever exert on its institutions.
The final aim of the artillery instruction in the third cœtus must be a
higher degree of preparation for the future practical ability of the
students. As regards the material portion of the artillery, the students
are to acquire a general knowledge of the construction, fabrication, and
proving of the _matériel_, and for the tactical part, it is above all
things to be made an object that they be made capable, by the
instruction given them, of greater dexterity and confidence in dealing
with special cases in the field or in siege operations.
The instruction commences with:--
1. Organization of the artillery service. The general relations of the
artillery service are to be explained according to its different
purposes, as an arm both in technical and administrative respects, then
the principles for the organization of the service and of its separate
portions in peace and war are to be developed, and comparison made with
those carried out in the principal foreign artilleries.
At the same time, on the one hand, more details are to be gone into on
the different branches of the artillery service (field, siege, fortress,
and coast artillery, the technical and the administrative branches,)
than was done in the second cœtus; and on the other, those
considerations must be kept sight of in which the artillery appears as a
portion of a greater whole, as in its relation to the Army and to the
State.
2. Artillery, regarded as an arm. Since the elementary rules for the use
of artillery in war have been given already in the second cœtus it will
be the object in the third cœtus, first, to develop the principles of
artillery tactics in the field, and in sieges, from an extended point of
view, and then to apply the rules for the movements, placing in position
and fighting of the artillery to the bodies now actually used in war,
and to examine the great questions that may hence arise. For the field
artillery, the tactics of single batteries and of masses of artillery
and the collective relations of the artillery of a _corps d’armée_ and
of an army, must be shown. For sieges there will be less occasion to
treat of the separate means of defense by artillery than of the various
combinations under different circumstances, of its diversified
applications.
To give this instruction its most practical tendency, historical
examples of battles are to be taken, and not merely their results
adduced, but the circumstances gone through in detail. These are to be
compared with the rules previously given, and the causes and effects of
any discrepancies, as far as practicable, and with caution, explained.
Themes are then given out of campaigns and sieges, in working which the
students are to show applications of tactical rules under given
circumstances.
As regards the preparation for the field and the conduct in marches,
quarters, camps, or bivouacs, what was necessary has already been taught
in the second cœtus, as far as concerns a corps of artillery as large as
a battery. In the third cœtus, therefore, only more extensive and
important relations have to be explained.
Finally, as the students at the close of the third cœtus are to enter
immediately into active service in the regiments, it will be useful to
give them a general view of artillery duties in time of peace, of which
no mention was made in the first and second cœtus, and to show the
principles on which they rest. Further, the education of the men, the
selection, management, and care of the artillery horses, instruction in
riding and driving, the various exercises in serving and moving the
guns, artillery practice, the different fatigue duties, conduct in
manœuvres, detachments, &c., are to be particularly explained.
3. Artillery in a technical and administrative point of view. In the
instruction given in the first and second cœtus, a descriptive notice
only was given, as regards artillery material, of the arrangement and
effect of what actually exists; and the reasons for this arrangement
were added only so far as was necessary for this principal object.
In the third cœtus the pupils are to learn by the inductive process how,
according to existing principles of natural science and of tactics, with
the known mathematical and technical aids, artillery material must be
contracted, manufactured, and proved, so as to obtain the desired end in
the highest degree; and then our existing material and that of other
countries are to be compared in the manner above stated with the results
thus obtained.
To this end, in the lectures, first, the necessary explanations of
artillery requirements are to be brought forward from the doctrine of
mechanics; after that the fabrication, proving, and action of gunpowder
are to be introduced; and finally, the construction, fabrication, and
examination of cannon, carriages, and ammunition of the artillery and of
small-arms.
Of course the details of powder-mills, of cannon foundries, of artillery
workshops, of laboratories and small-arms manufactories, are here to be
explained.
The action of projectiles and the mode of applying it, are to be
scientifically explained, by the aid of the parabolic and projectile
theory, as well as the principles upon which artillery experiments are
to be conducted.
Finally, the principles of the management of the artillery material in
the artillery dépôts are to be explained.
4. The course of instruction will be closed by an historical description
of the progress of artillery, and by an historical review of its
literature.
D. GENERAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE TIME.
The total number of hours is, according to the constitution of the
school--
For the first cœtus, 35 weeks of 4 hours = 140 hours.
“ second “ 35 “ 3 “ = 105 “
“ third “ 35 “ 8 “ = 280 “
The exact number of hours dedicated to each division must be stated by
the teacher in the first instance in his special plan for lessons, as
they in part depend upon his general experience. But, at all events, all
the above-stated subjects for the first cœtus must be taught in the
prescribed periods.
The lecture in the first cœtus must by no means be a mere mechanical
preparation for the _Officer’s examination_; even here the understanding
of the pupil is not to remain unoccupied, though the memory is to be had
recourse to in a very high degree, and the historical form, that is,
description of objects as they are, predominates.
The principles of the arrangements can only be taken up in their chief
features, (partly because) time will not allow a farther advance, and
partly because the progress of the students in the other studies is not
yet sufficiently forward.
In the second cœtus the advantage has been obtained that the students
have gained a knowledge of the entire material of artillery in its
various relations, and the lecture gives, therefore, an introduction to
the use of artillery in the field and in sieges; and with special regard
to a fundamental knowledge of the details, and with the view to what is
necessary to complete the Engineer pupil and make an efficient
preparation of the Artillerist for the third cœtus, aims at a somewhat
more scientific treatment, without going into the full comprehensive
details reserved for the latter student. For the same reason, this
portion of the lectures is confined nearly throughout to the explanation
of existing conditions of our artillery, and only where the necessities
of the Engineer student may demand it, can mention be made of the
earlier material, or of the most important matters of foreign
artilleries.
The instruction, therefore, of the first and second cœtus is directed
more to the general and historical, that of the third cœtus, more to the
special and scientific culture of the student; the materials were there
collected which are here to be worked up.
From this general point of view proceed also the methods which are to be
observed by the teachers in each cœtus.
The principal point to be kept hold of in all three cœtus is, that
everything that can be shown the students, or which they can learn by
their own manipulation, should be brought visibly before them, and as
far as time and circumstances permit, should be actually put in
practice. The material objects, in their actual state for use, must as
often as possible be shown and explained, for which the Practical
Exercises offer the best opportunity to which reference is here
therefore made.
After these, a collection of models, diagrams, tables, and literary
notices are necessary, which may be partly used for immediate
instruction in the class, and partly furnished the pupils as a necessary
and time-saving aid to the memory.
Deficiencies in these aids to the lectures are to be laid before the
Direction and Board of Studies by the teacher, and supplied as far as
the existing means allow.
Those cases in which the proceedings are fixed by certain regulations
require special mention; for instance, the transport of powder,
examination of cannon, drills, harnessing of horses, stable and camp
service, &c.
All these regulations are grounded on certain principles, from which no
deviation can take place without evil. The method of drawing them up is,
however, variable, on which times and circumstances, and even the views
of the superior authorities, have influence.
It is, therefore, highly necessary that in this respect the essential be
carefully in the instruction separated from the accidental, and by
omitting the latter, not only gain time, but hinder that the students
accustom themselves in a slovenly manner to look only to forms, and to
seek in them the true being and life of artillery.
A true exposition of the principles on which these regulations rest
ought not to be omitted from the lectures. They will suffice to prepare
the students to act correctly in every case that occurs, for which
actual service gives them, moreover, the separate instruction. The more
completely the teacher keeps this point in view the less need he fear to
form his pupils to immature critics, since the well-informed officer
will more easily enter into the spirit of each such regulation, and more
exactly carry it into execution for the benefit of the service, than he
who has been accustomed to keep without reflection only to the dead
letter; this, in the varied phases of practical life, will often enough
leave him without guidance, unless he knows how to find it within
himself.
As amongst the many existing class and hand-books for the artillery,
none is entirely adapted to form a basis for the lectures, the formation
of a special plan of lectures for each cœtus is indispensable, that the
lecturer may have a defined path, and the students an assistance in
their repetitions.
II. GENERAL AND SPECIAL ENGINEERING IN THE FIRST AND SECOND CŒTUS
The lecture commences with the first principles of fortification,
supposes no previous knowledge, and comprises--
(_a._) Field fortification, attack and defense of a redoubt,
communication in the field, and,
(_b._) Permanent fortification, the art of besieging, with the example
of a siege that has actually taken place.
In the first cœtus it must be so far carried out that the pupil is
capable of passing his _Officer’s examination_ according to the
regulation of the 26th March, 1846. In the second cœtus the general
knowledge of field and permanent fortification acquired in the first is
carried on in such a degree as both Artillery and Engineer officers
require to form a good foundation for the particular professional study
of both arms in the third cœtus.
In the formation of the special plan of the lecture the
instruction-regulations for artillery and exclusive engineering in the
third cœtus are to be kept in view, so as to prepare for these subjects
by the nature and the method of the instruction.
The principal contents of the lecture are--
A. IN THE FIRST CŒTUS.
a. _In Field Fortification._
A correct description of the profile, the ground plan, the technical
obstacles and modes of strengthening, the construction, and elementarily
also, the use of field-works; attack and defense of a redoubt, and the
military communications in the field, as roads, fords, and bridges.
b. _In Permanent Fortification._
Exposition of the essential principles for plan and profile;
acquaintance with the parts of a bastioned fortress with the outworks;
special acquaintance with a work on Vauban’s first system, and its
improvements by Cormontaigne. Knowledge of the characteristics of the
Italian, Dutch, and French fortification, of the ideas of Rimpler and
Montalembert, as well as of the latest fortifications in Prussia;
lastly, a knowledge of sieges as regards a regular attack and defense.
The art of construction is taught to the Engineers in the third cœtus.
B. IN THE SECOND CŒTUS.
Applied art of fortification, and, namely, attack and defense of the
various sorts of field-works, castrametation, permanent fortification,
provisional fortification, and sieges. At their proper places, are to be
introduced the precepts of military constructions which are suitable
alike to the Artillerist and the Engineer, as well as the conduct of
infantry and cavalry, and the duty of the Engineers in sieges.
_Distribution of Time._
The first cœtus receives four, the second three hours weekly; therefore,
in thirty-five weeks, the first 140, the second 105 hours. The number of
hours which are to be dedicated to each portion will be indicated by the
teacher in his special plan of the lectures, as it in part depends upon
his experiences. All the above-named subjects must, however, be gone
through within the prescribed period.
Before every principal division of the lectures, a general statement of
its purport and essential principles is given; then follows a short
historical exposition which is to explain the connection, the
employment, and the thence arising conditions of the subject under
consideration in reference to the other parts of the art of war.
The precepts hence deducible on the form of the parts of a
fortification, and on the subsisting relations of fighting, are to form
the latest and principal portion of each lecture.
The lecture is to be given in detail in such a manner, that its precepts
may be deduced from one another in a way suited to the powers of
perception of the pupils, and their mental powers accustomed to the
carrying out of principles, rather than to a blind adherence to absolute
regulations. To avoid repetition, the details of those doctrines which
belong to different places are to be given only once, namely, where they
are first required; and afterwards reference only made to them.
The military element, as indispensable both for the Artillerist and
Engineer alike, is to be kept continually in view.
As regards the principal divisions, oral repetitions may be made from
time to time for greater clearness; and, since individual and continued
attention and self-reflection alone render a well-grounded progress in
the student possible, written themes, besides those prescribed, are
particularly recommended. It will not be necessary to submit each
individual essay to a separate correction, but the teacher may content
himself each time with giving a general view of important defects in the
treatment of the subject, and then reading aloud one or more of the
essays that have best succeeded, and showing by their analysis how the
subject could be best treated.
In both cœtus, the existing models and full sized drawings in the
school, as also the models in the arsenal, and for the second cœtus more
especially the models of fortresses in the model-house, are to be used.
The means employed to complete the instruction in both cœtus, are
fortification drawing, practical exercise in field-works, and an
inspection of the fortress of Spandau.
The lectures are given without any fixed hand-book, from manuscript
drafts or notes.
III. EXCLUSIVE ENGINEERING IN THE THIRD CŒTUS.
The instruction in General Engineering in the first cœtus was intended
to teach the Artillerist and Engineer so much of the art of
fortification, of sieges, and of field-works as is requisite for
officers of every arm, and is necessary for the students to pass their
_Officer’s examination_.
In the second cœtus this instruction was enlarged, and connected with
its application to field and permanent fortification, to such extent as
the kindred arms of the artillery and engineer corps required equally to
know, that they may execute effectually their separate duties in
fortification and sieges.
The instruction in Exclusive Engineering in the third cœtus is, however,
intended solely for Engineers, as it teaches only professional matters
which the engineer shares with no other arm of the service; while, on
the other hand, the Artillerist receives a special instruction in those
branches which are only necessary for the artillery officer.
Since the lectures would receive a too great and heterogeneous
extension, if to them were to be added that portion of hydraulics which
the engineer officer ought to know, without being immediately connected
with his military constructions, and if further, civil architecture
applied to military buildings was touched on, these subjects will be
taught contemporaneously in the third cœtus by special instructors, and
are therefore in the lectures on Exclusive Engineering not to pass the
limits of that instruction. Their respective teachers must receive
reciprocally special information of each other’s plan of lectures, and
give mutual help by communications and inquiries where the studies might
come into collision.
The teacher of the Exclusive Engineer class must learn the extent of
those subjects of instruction which have been already treated in the
lectures on Special Engineering in the second cœtus, and not only by
inspection of the programme, but by personal consultation with their
respective teachers.
In more remote relation, the instruction connects itself with the
earlier lectures on artillery, tactics, history of the art of war,
mathematics, physics, chemistry, and the exercises in plan-drawing and
surveying. The special programmes of instruction of these branches of
study are also to be taken notice of by the teacher, that nothing may be
twice taught, and that where the use of doctrines from those studies is
necessary, he may merely refer to them historically.
This instruction comprises, after an introduction, the following
principal divisions.
1. The application of the rules for sieges already given to particular
cases, with a general regard to the ground, more especially of irregular
fortresses, shown by various remarkable sieges.
2. A theory of construction as auxiliary science in the execution of
engineering works for field or permanent fortification, and in the
execution of military constructions: building materials, modes of
building, and the application of both for given purposes.
To this part belong--
_a._ A knowledge of the different building materials from the animal,
vegetable, and mineral kingdoms; their production and preparation for
various building purposes, and the data, so important in practice,
regarding their durability and mode of employment.
_b._ The theory of the use and combination of these building materials
for constructive purposes, and of the building of separate portions of
an edifice.
_c._ The foundations of buildings and the means of improving the
foundation bottoms.
_d._ Construction of ordinary buildings, as inclosures, inclined or
unloaded revetments, loopholed walls, barracks and hospitals, dwelling
and guard-houses, military prisons, stables, magazines, such as
arsenals, wagon sheds, provision stores, bakeries, powder magazines,
laboratories, communications, mines, weirs and stop-sluices,
ice-breakers, &c.
_e._ Principles of machinery, with explanations of the forces necessary
to move machines, with notice of the most common for raising and moving
weights, for pumping, draining, dredging, &c.
3. The art, to apply the knowledge gained by the foregoing lectures by
means of projects for certain special purposes, and under given
circumstances of ground, such as his service may require of an
Engineer Officer. The application of field fortification to given
portions of ground is alone excepted, since the teacher of applied
Fortification-drawing has this especially assigned to him, who still is
only to give out his projects in unison with the teacher of Exclusive
Engineering.
There belongs to this part--
_a._ The method of preparing plans and estimates of buildings, in the
manner treated of under 2, at (_c_) and (_d_,) illustrated by frequent
practice in making out such plans.
_b._ Practice in plans for special objects and given ground, which
latter is to be chosen in the neighborhood of the fortress of Spandau.
_c._ Instructions generally conceived on the duties in a fortress of an
Officer of Engineers, and on the practice of building in Prussian
fortresses.
_d._ As appendix, notices on the formation and preservation of hedges,
and plantations of shrubs and trees.
The time fixed for this instruction amounts in thirty-five weeks, at ten
hours each, to 350 hours, which, according to the importance of the
different sections, may, as a general rule, be appropriated as
follows:--
Introduction and details of the first
principal section, about 20 hours.
Theory of building, namely; the lectures on materials
and their use, 140 “
Lectures on constructions, 80 “
Lectures on machinery, 30 “
Details of the third principal section, 80 “
---
Total, 350 “
The more particular distribution of this general division of time is
matter of the special lesson plan, and it only remains to be observed,
that with the approval of the Director, some afternoons are to be taken
for viewing the most remarkable buildings in Berlin and neighborhood;
and in conjunction with the teacher of applied Fortification-drawing,
three days are to be set apart for a recognizance of the works of the
fortress of Spandau, relative to the projects of fortifications
mentioned under 3 at (_b._)
The two first sections of this instruction, namely, the continuation of
the instruction on sieges, and the theory of construction, keep their
place in the regular lectures of the school, though naturally they have
an immediate applicability to practical service, and the lectures
therefore ought to be made his own by the pupil by frequent exercises
and detailed plans.
The projects for a given ground, on the contrary, must be worked out by
the pupils in conformity with the instruction given, as much as possible
independently, and as on service a young officer would do under the
guidance of his superior. The drawings need not be entirely shaded, but
may be partially executed by lines only, but they must be distinct and
clean. Here, as in Fortification-drawing, the prescriptions of the
Engineer regulation of the 25th of April, 1820, are to be observed, a
copy of which is therefore always present in the drawing-room, that they
may be seen by each student. Attention is to be given also to the
correctness of the scale, to correct coloring, entry on the drawing of
the date when done, and of the name as well as the rank of the student,
as directed by the above regulation.
In the exercises all propositions for improvements which vary from the
mode of practice now in use are excluded.
The teaching auxiliaries are the books and models of the school.
IV. HYDRAULIC CONSTRUCTIONS IN THE THIRD CŒTUS.
The instruction in hydraulics is to comprehend:--
1. Those general principles of hydraulic architecture which in the
lectures on Exclusive Engineering in the third cœtus of the school could
not be specially explained without extending them too far, and therefore
were there taken for granted.
2. Such hydraulic works, as do not immediately come within the scope of
military buildings, and therefore could not be included in a lecture on
Exclusive Engineering, but which on account of their connection with the
profession of an Engineer Officer in general, independently of military
construction proper, ought to be known by him in their most important
principles.
Since in the instruction in engineering in the third cœtus,
opportunities offer for projects of fortification, with application of
the theoretical principles given above (at 1,) the exercise problems for
the instruction in hydraulic architecture need only extend to those
hydraulic works (at 2,) not referring to fortification.
The instruction is in immediate connection with the lectures on
mathematics, physics, and exclusive engineering, the last of which will
be lectured on at the same time as hydraulics; the lectures on physics
and that portion of mathematics which is here necessary, with the
exception of hydraulics, have been already treated in the first cœtus.
In arranging the plan of the lectures, and in carrying it out, the plans
for those sciences must be considered, and conferences held with the
teachers it may concern, to prevent the frequent repetition of the same
subject.
The entire number of hours is seventy, two of which are given weekly,
which, that they may fall in at the same time with the lectures on
exclusive engineering, are thus distributed:--
Hours.
1. Introduction and laws of the motion of water in open channels
and pipes, wells, suction and forcing pumps, about 5
2. Motion of water in streams, hydrometrical measurements, 3
3. Regulation of streams by dams, cuttings, &c., explanation
of ice-floats, and of the means to prevent their destructive
power, 5
4. Execution and construction of these works and of securing the
banks by dikes, packing, and weirs, 14
5. Historical description of the works for internal navigation,
canals, sluices, towing-paths, &c., 4
6. Draining and irrigation works, inundations, 4
7. Harbors, moles, sands, lighthouses, roadsteads, &c., 6
8. The principles of foundations under water, with accompanying
notice of the usual pile and scoop machines, 12
9. The general principles of bridge building; historical relation
of the most remarkable works executed of this kind, 17
--
Total, 70
To make the lecture plainer, and to exercise the student in
comprehending existing hydraulic buildings, eight afternoons, at the
choice of the teacher, after a previous consultation with the director,
are to be appropriated to the inspection and drawing of hydraulic
constructions, at Berlin, namely, the sluices and mills.
Although this instruction embraces a large field in a very short period,
it must not be extended over too many objects, but rather to be confined
to what is indispensable to the practical use of the engineer; the
matter of these, however, to be treated fundamentally and thoroughly,
and all superficiality be avoided.
The lectures are to be given from private notes, without any prescribed
hand-book.
V. TACTICS.
_In the First Cœtus._
The Students of the first cœtus are to receive a thorough instruction in
elementary tactics, and the employment of the different arms, both
separately and united. The object is not merely that they may pass the
_Officer’s examination_, but that they may gain true general ideas on
these subjects, which ought not to be strange to a well-informed officer
of any arm. A frequent illustration of the lectures delivered, by
examples and problems for actual ground, is particularly recommended.
Lectures on tactics are closely connected with those on artillery,
fortification, rules of the service; and in certain respects the
lectures on plan-drawing and veterinary art, as well as practical
exercises in surveying.
More especially--
_a._ In artillery: Construction of cannon, of small-arms and side-arms,
choice and training of horses for artillery service; organization of the
artillery; regulation for the artillery on march and in camp; use of
artillery in the field, as regards the specialties of its position,
movement, and mode of fighting. The use of artillery in general, in
attack and defense, with the use of the reserve artillery in more
important battles, in village skirmishes, passage of rivers and defiles,
and field fortifications, belongs to the lectures on artillery, but only
in the second cœtus; these subjects are therefore to be treated
historically with tactics, as far as knowledge of them is required for
the _Officer’s examination_. As a general principle, however, all the
relations of detail in the constitution or the specialties of artillery
are to be treated in the lectures on that science; in the tactics, on
the contrary, only the more general relations which concern all the arms
of the service, and where the artillery acts in union with infantry and
cavalry.
_b._ In Fortification; the designing and construction of field-works and
all means of obstruction. The manner in which ground in general, and the
given position in particular, is to be used for the throwing up
field-works. Attack and defense of field-works. Complete exposition of
the art of sieges.
_c._ Veterinary art. Natural history, physiology, and general
nourishment of the horse.
_d._ Plan-drawing and surveying. Everything that is to be said on the
general physical laws of the form of the earth’s surface, and specially
on a knowledge of topography and its representation.
_e._ Rules of the service. A knowledge of military style. Discipline in
all its various branches. The internal service on detachments, convoys,
and separate commands, and some historical remarks on the provisioning
of an army.
The lectures embrace the following principal sections:--
1. Introduction. General ideas of war. War materials. Aim of war.
Conduct of war. Tactics and strategy. Army organization.
2. Organization of the Prussian army. Raising and equipping the troops.
Formation and strength. Replacing of men and materials. Supplies.
3. Special ideas of tactics. Forming, changing position, and combat.
Close and open fighting; distant and near fighting. Offensive and
defensive. The enemy. The ground. Characteristics of the different sorts
of troops. A short sketch of the development of tactics up to their
present state.
4. The proscribed tactics of the infantry, cavalry, and artillery
according to the Prussian regulations.
5. Ideas on the combination of the three Arms and order of battle.
6. Influence of ground on the use of troops. Classification of ground
and cognizance of the individual objects on it.
7. Occupation, attack, and defense of objects on the ground, as heights,
valleys, woods, river lines, farm-buildings, inhabited places, defiles,
bridges, dykes.
8. Security of troops on a march. Service of advanced posts.
Reconnaissances. Special duties for detachments, as escorting convoys in
our own or enemy’s country; foraging, surprises, ambuscades, covering of
works in the field. In conclusion, some remarks on partizan warfare.
The total number of hours comprises, according to the regulation, in
thirty-five weeks at four hours each, 140 hours, of which are to be
employed:--
For the first and second principal sections about 15 hours.
“ third “ “ 20 “
“ fourth “ “ 40 “
“ fifth and sixth “ “ 15 “
“ seventh “ “ 25 “
“ eighth “ “ 25 “
---
Total, 140 “
The lectures on tactics furnish the student with the positive knowledge
that is necessary as a general basis; but further care is particularly
taken that by the application of the problems put before the students
their knowledge is not made up of mere dead knowledge, but that
throughout their understandings are exercised. It is, therefore, a
special duty of the teacher to frame his lectures accordingly, and as
well by a development of the basis upon which the organization, the
elementary tactics, and the art of war is founded, as also by very
frequent exercises given to the pupils on the lectures to press towards
this end.
For the solution of the tactical problems, a number of plans of ground
is necessary. They are obtained on the requisition of the teacher
through the Director.
It is further necessary to illustrate the use of the different troops
upon the ground itself, as well for attack as defense, and to have the
examples and problems given by the teachers sketched by the scholars.
For such exercises four days of two or three hours each will suffice.
Of the existing hand-books, none appears perfectly qualified to serve as
a basis for instruction. The filling in, therefore, of a sketch of the
lectures, and of a special plan of instruction, is indispensable to give
the teacher a fixed basis, and the scholars an assistance in their
repetitions.
VI. MATHEMATICS.
The mathematical lecture, besides its general tendency to sharpen the
intellect, is to make the scholars acquainted with all those theories
and laws which are indispensable to the Artillery and Engineer officer
to enable him to solve with certainty and ease those problems which so
often meet him in the service.
Since these problems in part require the application of rules of the
higher branches of mathematics, lectures on these ought not to be
wanting, and consequently the mathematical instruction for at least a
portion of the pupils must embrace (with few exceptions) the entire
field of this science.
In order, however, that this demand be accommodated to the time at
disposal and the capabilities of the students, the following rules are
to be observed:--
1. The students of the first cœtus having already passed their
examination for _Portépée ensign_, and the Predicate _ziemlich gut_, in
their mathematical examination, being requisite for entry into the
School, it is to be presumed that they enter with a good or at least
sufficient preparatory knowledge. Still, as it is not to be expected
that the necessary requirement in arithmetic and algebra will be
possessed throughout, the first part of the instruction must be
considered as the most important, and be given thoroughly and
fundamentally.
2. Such portions of mathematics as are less necessary for Artillerists
and Engineers (for instance, astronomy and the higher geodesy,) are to
be entirely omitted from the lectures.
3. As even in such portions as fall within the scope of the lectures,
there is much that can not be exhausted, therefore all that belongs
solely to speculative views, or possibly only serves to the rounding or
perfecting a system, must be passed over. The instruction in mathematics
stands in near and frequent connection with the lectures on artillery,
architecture, mechanics, physics, theory of surveying, and with drawing
lessons, as well as with practical mensuration.
These belong specially--
_a._ To Artillery: architecture, mechanics; the application of all those
formulas which the mathematical lectures have to deduce and to prove.
_b._ To Physics: the theories of dioptrics, and catoptrics, which the
students require to a perfect understanding of the construction of
telescopes and reflecting instruments; what is necessary from aerometry
and aerostatics.
_c._ To Drawing lessons: practical working out of the theory of
perspection, and the construction of shadows.
_d._ To the theory of Surveying: a knowledge of all the instruments
requisite for mensuration and leveling, and the principal theorems, with
their application to cases occurring in mensuration.
The lectures on mathematics form of themselves a continuous, closely
connected whole; consequently, the same teacher who gave instruction in
the first cœtus is to retain his pupils in the second, so that each of
the two teachers commence with the first cœtus in alternate years.
For the third cœtus there will be a selection made of those students who
have made themselves noticed in the second cœtus by distinguished
ability, special application, and peculiar talent for the study of
mathematics, and have thus raised hopes that they may be conducted with
success into the higher branches of the science.
They form a separate division, whose number should always be small if
the selection be guided strictly by the contemplated purpose. All the
other students of the third cœtus form a second division, in which the
entire field of what they have already been taught in mathematics is
again gone over, with a view to its application; and at the end of this
course some other subjects necessary to the Artillerist and Engineer are
to be treated, without, however, mere scientific speculations.
For each of these divisions a separate teacher is appointed.
A. THE LECTURES IN THE FIRST CŒTUS EMBRACE,--
I. _Arithmetic and Algebra._
1. Algebra, with sums, differences, products, quotients, whole numbers,
roots, powers with real exponents and logarithms. The qualities of fixed
numbers, fractions, decimal and continued fractions. Extraction of
square and cubic roots in figures and letters, practical use of
logarithms.
2. Algebra, equations of the first and second degree, with one or more
unknown quantities, proportions, and the higher numerical equations.
3. Arithmetical and geometrical progression, calculation of interest,
theory of combination, binomial theory for real exponents, series for
powers and logarithms and analytic trigonometry.
4. Cubic and biquadratic equations, pure equation of the _n_th degree,
reciprocal equations. (4½ months.)
II. _Plane Geometry._
Similarity of figures formed by straight lines, their contents. Theory
of the circle; measurement of the circle and of its parts. Geometrical
analysis and application of algebra to geometry. (2½ months.)
III. _Plane Trigonometry._
Trigonometrical functions and their logarithms. Calculation of triangles
and polygons, certain parts being given. Application to the circle.
(2 months.)
B. THE LECTURES IN THE SECOND CŒTUS COMPRISE,--
I. _Geometry._
1. Geometry of solids. Place of lines and superfices in space. Solid
angles, solids, determination of their superfices and contents.
Applications, with consideration of the weights of material bodies.
2. Solid trigonometry, with its application to the superfices of the
earth.
3. The theories of projection and co-ordinates.
4. Conic sections. (4½ months.)
II. _Statics._-- _Geostatics and Hydrostatics._
With application to practical cases, namely, determination of center of
gravity for ordnance and their parts, pressure upon supports, rafters,
against walls, dikes and arches; stability, carrying power, strength as
well as regulation and calculation of power of machines which are moved
by animals. (4½ months.)
C. THE LECTURES IN THE FIRST SECTION OF THE THIRD CŒTUS COMPRISE,
1. Differential and integral calculation. (3 months.)
2. Higher geometry. (2½ months.)
3. Dynamics (mechanical,) and hydraulics, with application of the
determination of the strength, direction, and distribution of the recoil
upon the separate proportions of a piece of ordnance, of the science of
projectiles, of the theory of carriages, of the rise of rockets. (3½
months.)
D. THE LECTURES IN THE SECOND DIVISION OF THE THIRD CŒTUS COMPRISE,
1. Repetition of the most important results of the instruction in the
first cœtus in a series of exercises.
2. Repetition of the theory of statics and solution of numerous problems
from real life. (3 months.)
3. Dynamics and hydraulics without higher analysis, with applications.
(3 months.)
E. GENERAL APPROPRIATION OF TIME.
The number of lessons (hours) amounts, according to the prescribed plan
for the first and second cœtus, to six hours, for each division of the
third cœtus four hours, weekly; if the course be taken, after deducting
the holidays and other interruptions, at thirty-five weeks, then there
will be for the first and second cœtus, 210, and for each division of
the third, 140 hours.
The number of hours to be devoted to each portion must, in the first
instance, be determined by the teacher in his special lecture plan, as
it in part depends upon his previous experience; at all events, all the
above-named themes for the first cœtus must be treated in the stated
time. Only in special cases, in the second and third cœtus, can the
omission or transposition of one or the other, on reference to the
higher authorities, be permitted.
It has been already remarked that the course of mathematics should
impart to the students not only that amount of positive knowledge which
he requires for his immediate sphere of action and needs as incitement
and guide to further study, but also should fill the important purpose
of forming the mind of the students generally. This purpose will be the
more certainly gained the more the teacher is enabled to render the
scholar self-trusting, and in each separate study to lead to the
development of a few select principles simple and easily understood, but
comprising in natural and logical connection the whole theory, so that
the scholar fancies they are his own discovery, and therefore prizes
them as his own. The teacher must, therefore, gradually propose a series
of connected inquiries, and those naturally first on which the usual
systems are based, as questions to which the students have to submit
answers deduced from the above-named principles, with constant
application of simple common sense. By these means the students are not
only continually gaining single results, made ready to their hand by
use, but what is principally desired, they acquire thereby great mental
activity.
As regards instruction in the separate cœtus, the following rules are to
be observed:--
At the commencement in the first cœtus, the teacher should endeavor, by
frequent questions to form a full and correct judgment of the previous
knowledge of each student, that he may determine how he should proceed
with his lecture, slower or quicker, and to what subjects generally for
the entire class special notice and exercise should be devoted.
The most complete exercise of the elementary rules, forming, as it does,
the indispensable basis for all future progress is in this cœtus the
principal aim of the teacher.
In the second cœtus, in the application of the theory of co-ordinates to
the commonest curves, no investigation of the specialties of the theory
of curves is necessary, because this is reserved for later lectures, and
it would here abridge the time required for subjects of nearer interest.
The development of these theories must, therefore, be confined to the
simplest elementary use. The study, too, of the analysis of finite
numbers is to be continued only so far as the student requires for
immediate application, without any intention of going deeper into the
science. On the other hand, a suitably increased time is to be given to
statics and hydrostatics, because the student ought to be acquainted
with them in the most complete manner.
As the first division of the third cœtus consists of but few and only
the best scholars, it may be required of them to work out independently
at home separate questions given by the teacher, and submit them to him
for examination. The progress of the student is more surely gained and
advanced, the oftener he has opportunity of personally discovering
mathematical truths, or by applying them to examples to come to a
clearer comprehension and use of them.
In the second division the teacher will not always be able to avoid
giving a repetition of the reasons of propositions. This is necessary
when he perceives from the work or expressions of the students, that the
majority have not perfectly comprehended the proposition. Still the
teacher will here content himself with bringing forward the most
important points in the chain of deduction. The explanatory problems are
solved by the teacher himself, who then sets similar ones for working
out by the students at home.
For practical static problems, the teacher can use with great benefit
objects often occurring in common life, and yet regarded so little; the
numerous applications of the lever, of the inclined plane, &c., by
artillerists and engineers, for their works, carriages, draught, &c.,
furnish sufficient material for such problems; as for instance,
determination of the depth of a boat of given length and breadth when
after putting into it a piece of ordnance a given height out of water is
required; determination of the power requisite to overcome the
resistance of a log lying in the track of a vessel; determination of the
pressure of a laden beam on two or more supports with reference to the
flexibility of the beam; determination of the center of gravity in an
excentric hollow shot, both theoretically with given radius and known
centers, as well as more practically when the centers and the radius of
its interior are unknown, as by dipping the hollow shot into
quicksilver; determination of the counterpoise of a drawbridge and
examination of the best position for the axle ; investigation of the
strength of metal and wood pipes which are to serve as water-pipes at
given heights of pressure, &c.
At the same time the teacher ought not to leave unnoticed the advantages
which theory can offer to practice when rightly applied, by which is in
no way meant that the practical man should enter every time into a
prolix and anxious calculation, but from the improvement his mind and
capacities have received, he may apply readily what he has learnt to the
purposes of common life.
Dynamics and hydraulics will be rather treated in a physical and
historical point of view; here, too, the application of known
professional results is the principal object.
As the limited time will not allow separate mathematical repetitions,
the teacher should therefore be the more careful to make his lectures as
much as possible applicatory. To insure progress the students must,
besides the usual writing out the lecture, have frequent themes given to
them for work at home, and of which their own execution should be
secured by proper means.
It is perfectly necessary that a hand-book should form the basis of the
instruction, from which the teacher should lecture, and the students
make repetitions.
The hand-books are to be proposed by the teacher to the Board of
Studies, and must not be changed without permission.
These books, as well as the logarithm tables, every student must have a
copy of, as he can not do without them in the school, and may frequently
require them in future life.
Models of solids, to illustrate the projection theory, are in the
collection of the models of the school.
VII. PRACTICAL ARTILLERY EXERCISES.
The practical artillery exercises are intended, in the first place, to
furnish the students with a sight of that portion of the material of the
artillery which they have had no previous opportunity of knowing, and of
which the knowledge is indispensable for a complete understanding of the
theoretical lecture. The exercises should follow the lecture as
immediately as possible, and occur therefore during the continuance of
the theoretical course.
The students are besides to become acquainted with the methods of
execution of the most important artillery duties, in an extent
compatible with their position, and the time at their disposition. For
this portion of the exercises, the months of July, August and September
are to be preferred.
In the major part of these exercises, the engineer students take part so
as to gain a knowledge of such parts of the artillery service as seem to
be of the greatest importance to them.
The artillery exercises separate into numerous subdivisions, of which
the following may be particularly remarked:--
I. EXERCISES OF THE FIRST COETUS.
A. _Visits._
The visits happen, as already noted, at the period of the theoretical
instruction. The students are to be divided into as many sections as is
necessary, that each may gain the desired information. There belong to
this part--
_a._ Visiting the foundry and the boring machine. All the students of
the first coetus are to be taken by the artillery teacher of this
coetus, on two afternoons, to the foundry, and to the new boring
machine.
They will see the general construction of the foundry and the boring
machine, and, in case such work is going on, the molding, boring, and
turning, and receive the explanations necessary.
_b._ Examination of ordnance, gun-carriages, and ammunition wagons.
Those in the arsenal, as well as the exercising pieces of the regiment
of artillery of the guard, are to be used for this purpose, to exhibit
the construction of ordnance both in the Prussian and foreign
artilleries, and also those of an earlier date, from the specimens kept
there. In the same way as has been remarked for the ordnance, the
gun-carriages and equipages of the guard artillery regiment in store
will offer opportunity for a more exact scrutiny of these carriages,
limbers, and wagons. For these visits four afternoons are to be taken.
_c._ Visit to the workshops of the artillery:--
The students will, in two afternoons, gain there a knowledge of the
following objects:
1. The mode of work in general.
2. Processes in the manufacture of the most important objects of
artillery material, as axles, wheels, carriages, mountings, sponges,
harness, ropes, &c.
3. The raw material (wood, iron, leather.)
4. Objects furnished to field, siege, and fortress artillery.
_d._ Visit to the small-arms factory and powder-mills in Spandau:--
The scholars of the first coetus will be conducted into both
manufactories, to obtain a general insight into the various works.
In order that the work of the manufactories may receive no interruption,
the teacher of the first coetus is to communicate beforehand with their
respective superintendents, and take the students in suitable small
parties, and before entering the powder manufactory to insist, most
carefully, on all the proper precautions being observed.
These visits are to take place during the theoretical course on the same
day as is fixed for the first coetus to visit the fortress of Spandau to
study its fortifications; and, therefore, an agreement should be made
between the teacher of artillery and the teacher of general engineering.
_e._ Visit to the armory at the arsenal:--
The students are to be conducted on an afternoon to the armory of the
arsenal, where the superintendent will explain to them the peculiarities
of match and wheel locks, with the most remarkable projects for loading
at the breech, and with the form of small arms amongst other nations.
B. _Exercises._
_a._ Examination of small arms:--
The students are to be taken by their teacher to the musket manufactory,
where they will be shown the mode of proof of small arms in general, and
with reference to the theoretical lecture then in progress.
Each student then receives a faulty musket, with direction to examine
and note its defects. The teacher revises and corrects these notes.
_b._ The management of machines:
In the presence of the students the management of various machines, &c.,
as well as the repair of damaged carriages, will be undertaken.
According to the means at disposal, such exercises will be selected as
are most instructive, in exhibiting arrangement, strength, and care in
their application.
The students will be permitted to lend a hand only in such cases as it
is foreseen that their strength will be sufficient. For all other
purposes where strength is necessary, workmen must be employed.
II. EXERCISES IN THE SECOND CŒTUS.
When the teacher judges proper, some of the previous visits are repeated
on the afternoons disposable during the theoretical course.
A. _Marking out and Tracing Batteries._
The students undertake these exercises under inspection of their teacher
of artillery on two days in the last three months of the course.
The teacher instructs them then how to ascertain the prolongation of the
enemy’s lines, and the mode of determining the line of fire of the first
embrasure of the different batteries, as well as the other points to be
marked out, both with the use of the usual instruments, and with simple
measurement by pacing, and laying down right angles by the eye.
A complete construction of a battery is not possible on account of the
shortness of time, paucity of means, and strength of the students. The
exercise, therefore, is confined to an explanation of the formation of
the material and tool depots; to marking out and tracing horizontal and
sunk batteries on even, irregular, and sloping ground, and to the
construction of the powder magazine.
B. _Practical Exemplification of the Rules for Placing Ordnance
according to the Ground._
These exercises are to be carried out on two afternoons by all the
students, under the inspection of their artillery teacher.
They have only reference to the ground, and leave out of consideration
all tactical considerations. This object may be fully attained even
without guns, and the necessary instruction may be given without them,
as it would not be easy to form all the batteries in the desired number.
The teacher chooses the ground, explains it by means of a plan to the
students, and goes with them to the place. He divides them into various
sections, and lets each select positions for from two to eight pieces,
both for attack and defence with different kinds of ordnance, giving
only generally the direction and distance at which the enemy is
operating.
Each position is inspected by the teacher, and the views and reasons for
it received and discussed as regards effect, mode of firing, and
covering and free movement, and where it is necessary, improved; and at
the same time the requisite precautions taken for the limbers and
wagons.
C. _Drawings of Ordnance Carriages and Wagons._
These exercises are to be undertaken by the artillerists of the second
cœtus, under inspection of the teacher of artillery-drawing, on twelve
afternoons in June.
The drawing of a piece of ordnance is to be clearly distinguished from
the examination of it. For the first, taking the necessary measures is
alone necessary, but not their comparison with given models.
The teacher will order these exercises, so that the students learn
principally--
1. What scale they ought to take for a given object, so as to execute a
drawing with the precision necessary for being afterwards worked from.
2. With what instruments and method of procedure they may most easily
obtain their end.
3. How notices of improvements are to be taken and arranged.
4. How the rough draft is to be jotted down.
It must be here particularly remarked that our guns, carriages, &c.,
have no mathematically exact forms, and that therefore the number of
measures to be taken must be often multiplied to have a true figure of
the body.
A fair drawing from these measures in the above period is so much the
less possible, as the number of objects is as much as possible
multiplied. It is fully sufficient, however, for the purpose of this
exercise, that the students learn to take complete and useful rough
drafts.
On their entrance into the third cœtus, the complete drawings from these
rough drafts take place.
In his selection of objects to be drawn, the teacher must, in having
regard to variety, take care that the drawings by too great difficulty
do not exceed the time and power of the students, nor by too great
simplicity cease to be instructive.
Ordnance carriages, limbers, wagons, and the machines required in
artillery, are the most suitable for choice, and are easiest obtainable
in the arsenal.
The students must be divided into sub-sections, of at most three or four
persons, and to each a separate task given.
The teacher is to be present at the drawings to see to their proper
execution, and has delivered to him the notices and rough sketches to
amend any errors that may be in them.
The relative section of the second edition of Burg’s “_Drawing of
Artillery Material_” is to be taken as the basis for these exercises. In
addition to them, the students receive guidance and suitable instruction
in drawing artillery objects off-hand by the eye, without the use of
instruments. The first two days are to be chosen for this, and the
students by this use of off-hand drawing receive at the same time a
useful preparation for the drawings subsequently required to be taken by
the aid of instruments.
D. _Exercises necessary in regard to Sieges_--
Are to be conducted by the teacher of artillery and special engineering
jointly, and are given more in detail under _exercises in
fortification_.
III. EXERCISES IN COMMON OF THE FIRST AND SECOND CŒTUS.
A. _Proof of Powder._
This exercise is to be conducted by all the students of the first and
second cœtus at the time of the gun-practice, and comprises--
1. Firing different sorts of powder from the proof mortar.
2. Firing different sorts of powder purposely brought into an abnormal
state.
3. Instruction in weighing and measuring the powder.
B. _Artillery Practice._
All the students of the second and third cœtus take part in the practice
under the inspection of the two teachers of artillery, for which
fourteen days in August and September are fixed. If possible, it is to
be undertaken in the morning, and only when the practice-ground is
otherwise occupied is it to be deferred till the afternoons.
The practice comprises--
1. The necessary preparation for firing; namely, laying down the
platform, marking the range, fixing the targets, preparing the lists to
note the shots.
2. Firing from different kinds of ordnance and with different
projectiles.
3. Instruction of the students in the service of the guns; selection of
the charge and direction under given circumstances, and their
correction; effects of distance; noting and jotting down the shots and
the time of flight; calculation of the length of fuse, of ranges and
averages from the different data, and remarks on the effects sought.
4. Burning a portion of prepared laboratory materials for observation of
its action and effect.
The following are to be objects of practice:--
_a._ Rounds of six, twelve, and twenty-four lbs. shot and shell out of
the short 24-pounders, to note--
_aa._ The grazes, distances, and deviations at different elevations, and
as regards ricochet fire.
_bb._ Probability of hitting upright targets at various distances.
_cc._ As regards dismounting.
_dd._ As regards firing against heads of saps.
_b._ Seven, ten and twenty-five lb. shells, carcases, and light balls,
to note--
_aa._ The grazes, distances, and deviations at different elevations and
charges, also as regards ricochet firing.
_bb._ The probability of hitting upright targets at various distances.
_c._ Shells, carcases, and light balls from mortars, to note--
_aa._ The probability of hitting upright targets at different distances.
_bb._ The calculation of the charge or elevation when one of these
elements and the distance are given, or _vice versâ_.
_cc._ Calculation of lengths of fuse for given distances.
_d._ Throwing hand grenades, stones, 1-pound case shot, and 3-pound
balls at various distances for comparison of the effects.
_e._ Firing from the hand and stock-mortars at differing distances.
_f._ Case shot from 6 or 12-pounders, also from short or long
24-pounders and 7 and 50-pound howitzers at different distances against
planks, and both with case shot, and grape shot, for observing the
effect:
_aa._ Of different charges.
_bb._ Of different weights of the entire case.
_cc._ Of the weight and size of balls used.
_dd._ There is also to be observed the scattering, the number of hits
and wide balls, and determination of the best line.
_g._ Shrapnel shells from field-pieces against planking.
5. The number of the before-named rounds is not to be too great, partly
not to increase expense, partly in regard to time, since the practice is
intended for instruction, and therefore not to be hurried. Still for
shot, shell, and grape shot, ten rounds is the _minimum_, if a result is
to be drawn; for the small mortar five rounds are sufficient.
Notwithstanding this limit, it will not be possible to take the practice
all in one year. It seems, therefore, expedient to divide the whole into
two portions, so that the most important practice happens indeed in each
year, generally however, in one year the practice is to take place with
field-pieces, in the following year with siege-pieces, so that the
student who is present once in the first year and once in the second can
complete the necessary course.
The teachers have, therefore, to determine, in the proposed plans for
these exercises, the sort and number of rounds they judge necessary for
the following year.
C. _Practice in the Laboratory._
As the students of the artillery, by the present regulations of their
education in the regiments, have not sufficient opportunity to learn the
service of the laboratory perfectly, particular attention must be paid
to this work in the school.
The students of the engineer corps also take part in it, in the second
cœtus, not to become perfect proficients in the different operations,
but so as to gain a general knowledge of ammunition, matches, and
compositions, and the duties of the laboratory.
All the students of the first, and the artillery students of the second
cœtus are therefore to be occupied by their teachers for twelve
afternoons in the laboratory.
For the superintendence, so necessary in these works, and for variety of
practice, the fireworkers employed as assistant teachers in the school,
and others from the proof department of the artillery, and also five or
six artillery officers of the third cœtus, are to be present at this
practice, so that each of these students is present twice or thrice on
the average.
The work embraces, first, the preparation of ammunition for the
artillery practice, &c.
But as this would not suffice for the complete instruction of such a
large number of students, it must receive an extension calculated for
this purpose, and embrace not only the separate preparations, but also a
large quantity of ammunition, which, as not required for the school, is
therefore sent to the depót.
The following work is to be preferred:--
Pounding of saltpetre, grinding meal powder, pounding sulphur and
charcoal, boiling paste, making mastic, composition, quick-match, fuses,
tubes, port-fires, carcass composition, touchpaper, case and grape shot,
loading shells for bursting, discharging empty shells in which a fuse
only has been driven; carcasses, fire-balls, and light balls; infantry,
cavalry, buck-shot, and percussion cartridges; ball, canister, howitzer,
and paper cartridges. Fanal, signal rockets, pitch compounds, powder
bags, and stink-pots. The teacher is to make a careful distribution of
the students, (allowing for such as have missed any days by illness,) to
be satisfied that each artillerist has made every article in the
laboratory, if possible, or at least has carefully witnessed its
preparation.
IV. EXERCISES IN THE THIRD CŒTUS.
All the exercises of this cœtus take place during the period of the
theoretical course.
A. _Visit to the Workshops._
The student will have to learn the mode of proceeding, the construction,
and the use of the machines employed. Examination and storing of the
most important raw materials.
B. _Visit to the Iron Foundry._
All the students of the third cœtus are to be divided into two sections,
and each section to be conducted on an afternoon under the care of the
teacher of artillery concerned to the Royal Iron Foundry.
They will see there the molding, casting, and cleaning of case shot,
cannon balls, and shells.
They will also have explained to them the construction of reverberatory
and cupola furnaces, of steam engines, and of turning lathes, and
planing benches.
C. _Visit to the Foundry and Boring Machine._
The students of the third cœtus are to be present at the actual
manufacture of cannon, their molding, casting, and boring. But as the
circumscribed room and other considerations will not allow all the
students to be present at one time, different divisions are to be
formed, to visit the foundry and boring house on different days. The
teacher concerned, will, therefore, make the necessary inquiries as to
the time when the above works are going on, and arrange the visits by
communication with the director.
The casting and preparation of iron ordnance require particular
attention. On this, too, the teacher has to obtain information, and
proceed as above.
D. _Examination of Iron Ammunition._
The artillery officers of the third cœtus take these exercises in hand
on two afternoons, under care of the artillery teacher in the same
cœtus.
The purport of it is not so much a thorough instruction in this
manufacture, as a completion of the theoretical lectures on the mode of
conducting the processes by means of personal inspection and handling of
the instruments. The teacher will pay particular attention to the errors
that may occur in the measurements, &c.
E. _Examination of Cannon._
This exercise is to be undertaken by the artillery officers of the third
cœtus, under the inspection of their artillery teacher, in six
afternoons. The object of it is exactly the same as of the foregoing.
The exercise must commence with directions for proving the instruments,
when the teacher will show the mode of their manipulation.
As the use of such instruments only can be reckoned on as the school,
the depôt, and the artillery proof department possess, only three
sections of the students can work each day simultaneously; the section
consisting, at the utmost, of six persons, if individual handling of
them is presumed necessary.
The teacher must, therefore, divide the students into sub-sections, and
make such arrangement that each student, if possible, personally work
every part of the exercise, or at least have a perfect sight of it.
That portion of the students which can not be immediately occupied on
each exercise day, put their tables of dimensions in the order and forms
required by the regulations.
F. _Examination of the Gun-Carriages and Wagons._
The exercise is to be conducted by the artillery officers of the third
cœtus, exactly as the foregoing, in five afternoons.
G. _Practical Exposition of the Rules for the placing of Guns according
to given Tactical Relations._
These exercises are to be performed by the artillery students of the
third cœtus, under the direction of their teacher of artillery, on four
afternoons.
The teacher makes known the ground by means of a plan; he then directs
reconnaissances to be made, and receives the reports.
He selects a tactical problem, the nature of which offers opportunity to
remark both on the placing of guns of different calibres, and also the
reserve artillery at the decisive moment of a battle, as well as the
more minute details of placing single divisions and guns, and the
limbers, riding horses, and wagons.
Before he solves himself the problem completely, he gathers the opinions
of the students in respect to single portions, and if necessary sets
them right.
The principles to be followed refer so specially to the ground, that the
object of illustrating the instructions can be attained without guns.
The teacher may therefore content himself with marking by flags the
situation of single guns and batteries, by which the advantage is
obtained of an easier use of the ground.
H. _Exercises at Spandau in reference to a Siege._
These exercises are to be conducted by the teacher of artillery, in
unison with analogous regulations of the teacher of engineering, and are
more particularly mentioned in the practical exercises of fortification.
The limits of time and means render it impossible to gain for the
above-named exercises that extent by which the full acquirement of the
necessary mechanical readiness could be insured. It is sufficient if the
student has made a perfect personal examination and performed as much
manipulation as circumstances permit.
The separate practical exercises can only be made after the termination
of the theoretical treatment of the subject. This rule is necessary,
partly because this practice is only a continuance and completion of the
lecture, partly because the shortness of time restricts the exercises
considerably, and therefore the days devoted to them can not be applied
to theoretical explanations, which will be more profitably given in the
lectures.
Where the nature of the exercises permits, the officers and elder
_portépée ensigns_ will take the superintendence, that having formerly
learnt the execution, they may now make themselves acquainted with the
duties of ordering and inspection.
The number of students engaged at one time in an exercise ought not to
be so large that a portion of it remain unoccupied or not under the
complete inspection of the teacher. The disturbances that occur too
easily in such cases, being most injurious, must be most carefully
avoided. The teacher will make the division above stated, and take all
necessary measures for obtaining the requisite control.
If at any of the exercises, danger can arise to the students, the
teacher is previously to instruct them specially in what is to be
observed for the safety of the workmen; after that, the superintendence
of the students must be conducted with increased care, and any departure
from the given orders visited with redoubled severity.
The determination of the days for these exercises rests with the
director, after consulting the teachers. Should unexpected hindrances
prevent the carrying out an exercise, the teacher may determine
concerning it, but must consult with the Direction as to the fetching it
up on another disposable day.
The necessary workmen will be demanded by the Direction from the
respective services, of which the teacher will give to the Direction due
previous notice.
The guns necessary for practice are to be lent by the Artillery Regiment
of the Guard and the Artillery Depot; all the other instruments,
equipments, &c., are borrowed from the Depot. All materials are received
by order of the war department or by purchase. It is therefore the
business of the senior of the two Artillery teachers, in his yearly
demand for the practice, to state the full requirement of tools and
materials, that the Direction may take timely measures for their supply.
VIII. PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN FORTIFICATION.
Practical exercises in fortification stand in immediate relation to the
lectures on fortification, sieges, and field engineering. They complete,
as far as possible under given circumstances, the theoretical lectures
by personal view; they also offer the students opportunity for solving
fitly chosen problems, to apply what has been learnt, and to prepare by
reflection for practical service.
The exercises are to be conducted in each cœtus by the teachers who
lecture on Engineering. The presence of the Artillery teacher is
elsewhere separately noted.
A. THE EXERCISES COMPRISE--
a. _For the First Cœtus._
1. In unison with the teacher of Artillery and of General Engineering,
the examination of the fortress of Spandau, to make clear to the
students the combination of the details of a complete fortress from an
actual example.
2. Examination of the models of fortresses and their details in the
Arsenal, to make clear the principles of a siege.
3. Visiting the exercising-ground of the Engineer division of the guard
in all its details.
4. Marking out, tracing, profiling, calculation of the cubic
measurements, of the time for building, of the number of workmen, and of
the garrison for given fortifications on ground near Berlin.
5. Being present at the exercises of the Engineer division of the guard
in sapping, mining, building redoubts, laying bridges, and their
instructions.
b. _For the Second Cœtus._
1. Examining the models in the model-house, partly to illustrate the
systems taught, partly to show the influence of ground on the situation,
form, and contrivance of the works; and again to explain by the aid of
the necessary notices of the sieges of these fortresses the choice of
the fronts of attack, and other matters relating to sieges.
2. Problems on the ground for sieges, such as may happen, to a subaltern
officer, as simple as possible, but to be solved clearly and exactly.
These exercises refer principally to the marking out of parallels,
zig-zags, and saps, as well as marking out and tracing siege batteries.
They are to be undertaken under the united direction of the teachers of
Special Engineering and of Artillery on the exercise ground of the Guard
Engineer division.
3. Problems on field fortification, not too comprehensively drawn out,
but of which the solution should be the more complete. Here belong,
_e.g._, the fortifying of a house, a farmstead, a bridge, or other
defile, covering of an advanced post, &c., &c.
c. _For the Third Cœtus._
1. For the Artillerists:--Exercises in reconnaissances of fortresses.
Fixing the points for laying down batteries of attack. Statements of the
arming of detached works against _coups de main_ and formal attacks.
Sketches of instructions for subordinates in particular cases.
Construction of ammunition and other depôts in and before a fortress.
Under the guidance of the Artillery teacher of the third cœtus, with
regard to the analogous regulations of the teacher of Exclusive
Engineering.
2. For Engineers:--_a._ Reconnaissance of Spandau in reference to
projects in permanent and field fortification, as well as military
architecture and hydraulic works, under the guidance of the teacher of
Exclusive Engineering, with the assistance of the teacher of
Fortification-drawing.
_b._ In conjunction with the Artillerists, reconnaissance of Spandau for
fixing a front of attack, securing its investment by field fortification
adapted to the ground. Placing the depôts of material. Marking out the
first parallel, with its communications, as well as the subsequent works
of attack. Measures of the defenders, special discussion on arming the
works on the spot. Under the guidance of the teacher of Exclusive
Engineering, having regard to the analogous regulations of the Artillery
teacher in the third cœtus.
B. FIXING AND APPORTIONING THE TIME.
a. _For the First Cœtus:_--
1. The visits prescribed in 1 and 2 for this cœtus are to be
made in spring, whilst the theoretical course is going on,
and for them are fixed, 2 days.
2. The further exercises under 3, 4, and 5, are to be taken
in the summer months; to them are allotted, for the visit
at 3, 1 “
To the exercises at 4, 5 “
To “ at 5, 6 “
--
Total, 14 “
b. _For the Second Cœtus:_--
The exercises under 1, 2, 3 for this cœtus, are to be held in the
Summer, and are thus regulated:--
For the visit at 1, 2 days.
To the exercises at 2, 2 “
To at 3, 8 “
--
Total, 12 “
c. _For the Third Cœtus:_--
The exercises ordered for this class are to take place only in Spring,
whilst the theoretical instruction is going on, and for it are fixed:--
1. For exercises by the Engineers alone, 2 days.
2. For those jointly by Engineers and Artillerists, 3 “
--
Total, 5 “
The days of the calendar for these exercises are to be proposed by the
teachers when delivering in their annual sketch of exercises, and their
propositions will be laid by the Direction before the authorities for
their approval.
To engage the pupils to work they are to be divided for the visits and
exercises into suitable sections. Each section receives its problem from
the teacher, who also nominates the president of the section. This
president distributes the sub-sections among the other students, and
sees that the work to be written and drawn is finished in the required
time, signed by the author, and is delivered by him to the teacher.
Great care is to be taken that single students do not remain unoccupied;
the disturbances thence only too likely to arise are always injurious to
the instruction and the discipline. In giving out problems, their
principal conditions only are to be designated by the teacher, and the
development left entirely to the student, or with little aid from the
teacher, in order that the student may gain early that confidence and
independence necessary to the soldier in carrying out matters committed
to his charge.
In the exercises the workmen demanded for marking out, are to be limited
as much as possible, as the students must perform the greatest part of
the work themselves. The number indispensably necessary will be demanded
in time by the teacher from the Guard Engineer Division through the
Direction.
The necessary material, if the Guard Engineer Division can not furnish
it as a loan, may be purchased at the charge of the school.
THE WAR OR STAFF SCHOOL AT BERLIN.
BY GENERAL VON HOPENER.
I. OBJECT, PLAN AND STAFF OF THE INSTITUTION.
The War School (_Kriegs-Schule_) is intended to receive officers of all
arms, who during three years of active service have given proof of
ability and of particular capacity. They find there the means for
acquiring the knowledge requisite for the higher ranks of the service,
for the duties of officers of the staff, and for all other appointments
which demand military and scientific studies of a higher and more
general character than the common ones.
The course of study is for three years, and is divided amongst three
classes. The courses begin on the 1st of October, and continue to the
1st of July. The number of officers who can be received is 120, neither
room nor means of instruction sufficing for more. The three months of
vacation in the summer are employed by the pupils in learning the
service of those arms of the profession to which they do not belong.
The Special Direction of the War School consists,--
(_a_) Of the Military Direction.
(_b_) Of the Direction of Studies.
The Military Direction consists of a director, a field officer connected
with the direction as inspector, and an adjutant, who directs the
accounts of the Institution.
The military director is supreme, both over the military officers who
are members of direction, and of the military officers who are studying
in the school. The police, the discipline, and all the administration of
the Institution are under his control. All the subordinate officers in
the house are under his orders. The field officer attached to him is
charged to look carefully to the discipline and to the due attendance at
the lectures. The adjutant directs the correspondence and accounts of
the establishment. The whole of the staff and the military directors are
lodged in the school.
The Direction of Studies is in the hands of three field officers of
literary and scientific attainments, and of two other persons, civilians
of Berlin, of high literary reputation. Its president is the senior
officer, who is generally also the military director. It has also a
secretary attached to it.
The Direction or Board of Studies is exclusively intrusted with the care
of everything affecting the teaching of the Institution, and its members
are bound to be frequently present at the lectures. It has also under
its inspection all the means and objects required for teaching, such as
the library, the collection of maps and models, the collections for
physical science, and the laboratory.
The Director of Studies selects the professors of the Institution,
recommends them to the superior authorities, and in case of their
appointment gives them their instructions.
At the beginning of each course the direction fixes the plan of the
lectures, and if any alterations in them are required, proposes them to
the superior authorities for their sanction.
The Direction of Studies regulates the examinations which the officers
who are candidates for admission into the school are to undergo. With
this view it draws up a certain number of subjects and questions suited
for the purpose, which it sends, in the spring of each year, to the
chiefs of the staff of the different Corps d’Armée, in whose presence
the candidates do their work. Those of the candidates whose work is
satisfactory are entered at once in the school.
In order to take account of the progress of the students the board of
studies makes them pass an examination in writing at the end of every
three months; makes a revision of the judgment of the professors upon
the papers, and conjointly with the military board of direction, gives
certificates at the end of the triennial course to the officers who have
gone through it completely. In these studies it is the part of the board
of studies to give a judgment on the scientific merit, and that of the
military board to judge the moral conduct of the officers.
The two boards make a report yearly on the progress and the conduct of
the officers of the school. This report is submitted to the king by the
minister of war. Particular mention is made of those officers who by
extraordinary success have deserved his majesty’s favor.
II. SUBJECTS AND AIDS OF INSTRUCTION.
Attendance on the different courses is partly obligatory, partly
compulsory, with this restriction, however, that every student must
attend twenty lectures a week, given before 12 o’clock, including the
obligatory courses. These last are those of the purely military
sciences, and for the first class those of mathematics. As it is
impossible for most of the pupils to give sufficient attention to all
the courses to be examined in them at the end of each three months, they
are allowed to select those of the courses which they may choose to
follow. But this choice once made must be adhered to.
The instruction is divided into theoretical courses and practical
exercises.
The theoretical courses comprehend all the subjects which come within
the object of the Institution. They are the following:--
1. Mathematics, a course of three years, six lectures a week, half
employed in statement of the theory, half in the practical application.
2. The Higher Geodesy, in the third class, three lectures a week.
3. Physical Geography, in the first class, two lectures a week.
4. General Geography, in the first class, four lectures a week.
5. Special Geography, particularly that of the probable theaters of
War for Prussia, in the second class, four lectures a week.
6. Universal History, in the first and second class, four lectures a
week in each.
7. General History of Literature, in the third class, four lectures a
week.
8. Logic, in the second class, four lectures a week.
9. Physical Science, in the second class, four lectures a week.
10. Chemistry, in the third class, four lectures a week.
11. Physiology of the Horse, in the second class, two lectures a week.
12. Tactics, in the first and second classes, four lectures a week in
each.
13. Artillery, in the first class, three lectures a week.
14. Fortification, a course of three years in the three classes. In
the first class, Field Fortification; in the second, Permanent
Fortification; in the third, the Conduct of Sieges; two lectures a week
in each class.
15. Military Administration, in the first class, two lectures a week.
16. Military History, in the third class, seven lectures a week.
17. Duties of the Staff, in the third class, three lectures a week.
18. Military Law, in the third class, one lecture a week.
All these lectures are given in the morning, between eight and one
o’clock.
19. The French Language, a course of three years in different classes;
into each of which the pupils enter according to the knowledge they
possess of the language; six lectures a week for each class.
20. The Russian Language, four lectures a week.
The above two courses are in the afternoon.
The practical work is done after the end of the courses of the second
and third classes. They consist in making the officers draw plans for
military objects, make sketches of ground.
These exercises are completed by a journey of fifteen days under the
conduct of an officer of the staff, in order to teach the service of an
officer of the staff in the country.
The instruments of teaching consist of--
1. A library for the use of professors and students, and a collection of
maps and plans, all under the charge of a librarian living within the
school.
2. A collection of models for the courses of artillery and
fortification, under the care of a commissary of the school.
3. A cabinet of physical science, under the direction of a professor
lodged in the house.
4. A laboratory and chemical apparatus, under the direction of a
professor of chemistry.
There are no manuals specially used for the instruction.
For the courses of geography and of the history of war, the direction
furnishes the pupils with the plans and maps required, as far as the
means of the Institution allow it, or it procures them at moderate
prices, to be repaid by instalments.
PROFESSORS AND STUDENTS.
The officers acting as professors in the school are officers of mature
age, and high education, chosen from the garrison of Berlin. The teacher
of the duties of the staff, must always belong to this corps. They are
appointed to their work in the school for an indefinite time, without
prejudice to their other duties.
The civil professors are generally chosen from those of the Royal
University at Berlin.
With regard to discipline, all the professors are subject to the board
of military direction; with regard to teaching, to the board of
direction of studies.
Every professor is bound upon entering on his functions to lay before
the board of direction of studies a programme stating the bearing, the
successive subjects, and the arrangement of his course. This programme
must be approved by the direction.
The payment of professors is fixed according to the number of their
weekly lectures. It is less for the professors of Language, as they
require less time to prepare their lectures.
The students of the school are under the immediate authority of the
military direction; but they are ordered to look upon the professors,
whilst engaged in their duties, as their superiors, so that offences
against them are subject to military law.
Permission to follow the courses of the school involves for every
officer the obligation to serve two years in the army for every year
passed in the school.
Although the complete course is for three years, officers do not always
continue it for more than one year. At the end of the year those only
are allowed to return who have shown themselves deserving of this favor.
Students lose the right of continuing their studies who neglect their
lectures, or show indifference and a want of interest in their work, who
come often too late, avoid the duties imposed upon them, or endeavor to
escape their examinations.
PRUSSIAN STAFF IN 1869.[11]
[Footnote 11: By Col. Beauchamp Walker, C. B. 1869.]
The Prussian Staff (_Generalstab_) which has been completely reorganized
since the war of 1866, subserves the double purpose of providing staff
officers for the duties of the active army, and of collecting and
arranging the statistical, geographical, and historical information
necessary for the operations of war; further, it is the school in which
young officers temporarily detached from their regiments, after a course
of instruction at the Military Academy, have their qualifications tested
before admittance to this branch of the army, and the principal office
of the trigonometrical survey of the Eastern Provinces.
The head-quarters of this organization are at Berlin, where a large
building is appropriated to the various offices and departments, in
which the chief of the staff, General von Moltke, resides. It has two
establishments:--
1. The peace-establishment, divided into--
_A._ Chief _état_, subdivided into
(_a._) The staff of the commands.
(_b._) The general staff, or _grosser Generalstab_.
_B._ The accessory _état, neben Etat_.
2. The war establishment.
The staff of the commands is so complete during peace as to require a
very unimportant augmentation, and that chiefly in the lower grades, on
the outbreak of war; the framework not only exists, but the officers
comprising it are already acquainted with the generals under whom they
serve, and with the officers and troops with whom they have to
communicate.
At the head-quarters of each corps there are: a chief of the
staff--sometimes a Major-General, more frequently a Colonel,
exceptionally a Lieutenant-Colonel--a field officer, and a captain; at
that of each division a field officer; there is also a chief of the
staff with the General Inspection of the artillery. The subordinate
duties are performed by the aides-de-camp, of whom there are two at the
head-quarters of each corps, and one with each division and brigade; but
these officers are not included in the establishments of the general
staff, and wear the uniform of their respective regiments; are in no
sense of the word aides-de-camp as existing in the English army; they
bear the designation of _Adjutant_, and may more properly be compared to
our Deputy Assistants and Brigade Majors: indeed the solitary Adjutant
is the only assistant to the Major-General in the performance of the
brigade duties. In the time of war the staff is further supplemented by
_Ordonanz Offiziere_ attached as aids to the general officers in
command.
The _Grosser Generalstab_ includes the officers of the staff who are not
employed with the commands, and is stationed in Berlin under the
personal direction of the chief of the staff. The _Neben_ or _accessory
Etat_ includes the officers employed in the strictly scientific work
allotted to this department.
The combined staff at head-quarters is subdivided as follows:
_a._ The three Sections;
_b._ The section for military history;
_c._ Trigonometrical section;
_d._ Topographical section;
_e._ Geographical-statistical section;
_f._ The map-room.
The three sections have the object of collecting and arranging
information respecting the home and foreign armies. The home subjects to
be treated are the means and warlike institutions of the State, its
fortresses, magazines, ports, inland communications, the organization,
recruiting, mobilization, armament, equipment, and drill of the army.
The warlike systems of foreign nations, the strength and organization of
their armies, regulations, and drill, the distribution of the troops,
state of preparation for active service, and their systems of
reinforcement and reserves, are the further subjects of inquiry. For
these purposes the work is divided as follows, according to the division
into--
_1st Section._--Austria, Russia, Sweden and Norway, Denmark, Turkish
Empire, Greece, Asia.
_2d Section._--Prussia and North Germany, South Germany, Italy,
Switzerland.
_3d Section._--France, Great Britain, Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain,
Portugal, America.
The number of officers actually belonging to the two categories of
principal and accessory establishments of the staff is 115, of whom 94
belong to the first, and 21 to the second named branch. In the first
there are 17 chiefs of the staff--viz., 13 with the army corps, one with
the General Inspection of the artillery, and three at the head of the
three sections--47 field officers, and 29 captains. In the accessory
establishment there are four chiefs, five field officers, and 12
captains.
The office establishment, inclusive of the Engineer geographers--who are
non-commissioned officers of the Artillery or Engineers serving
permanently in the trigonometrical section in place of the officers who
were till recently employed temporarily in this office, and of whom
there are at present 10--consists of 18 permanent officials, not
including a head messenger, two chancery servants, two house servants,
and a porter.
The supernumeraries comprise 40 officers attached for a year, 20 for
duty with the staff generally, the remainder for surveying; 34 surveyors
who are only employed during about five months in each year, and 41
draughtsmen.
The pay of the permanent staff amounts to 206,150 thalers, or 30,922_l._
10_s._, the material expenses being 62,250 thalers, or 9,339_l._ 10_s._
Of this latter sum about two-thirds is required for office and surveying
expenses; 17,000 thalers, or 2,550_l._, are allowed for the annual
journeys of instruction undertaken by the staff, and 3,000 thalers, or
450_l._, for allowances to officers traveling for scientific or
professional purposes.
The actual sum disbursed for office and surveying purposes is 47,450
thalers, or 7,417_l._ 10_s._, of which 7,000 thalers, or 1,050_l._, are
recovered by the sale of maps and works published by the staff, 2,000
thalers, or 300_l._, being derived from the profits of the bi-weekly
military paper, “_Militair Wochen Blatt_.”
Besides the duties already mentioned, the staff at head-quarters
undertakes:
1. The training of officers for staff purposes. To this end young
officers who have passed the prescribed three years at the Military
Academy, “_Kriegs Akademie_,” are attached for a year to the different
sections, where they are required to draw up reports on strategical and
tactical questions, critical reports on the military events of past
eras, descriptions of the ground embraced in military operations, and of
the military organization of foreign countries. These essays, when of
special value, are laid before the chief of the staff.
2. The preparation of printed reports on foreign armies, which are
distributed to the staff officers employed elsewhere.
3. The contribution of papers on professional subjects to the
“_Militair Wochen Blatt_,” or military paper.
This publication, which appears twice a week, was formerly edited in the
office of the staff, but has lately been in the hands of a responsible
editor, a colonel on half-pay, who stands, however, in intimate
connection with the office. The contribution required from the staff is
twenty sheets of printed matter annually from the various departments, a
much larger amount being furnished, from which the chief selects what he
considers suitable for publication.
4. Military tours of instruction, for which a sum of 2,550_l._ is
annually granted.
All the officers who can be spared from the duties of the office take
part in these tours, as also a few staff officers called in from the
commands, and a selection from the commanders of regiments.
They are also made on a smaller scale by the staff of the Corps,
augmented by regimental officers attached for instruction, under the
superintendence of the respective chiefs of the staff.
For the tour superintended by General Von Moltke, the theatre of
operations and certain conditions likely to influence them are
indicated, a supposed strength is given to two opposing armies, their
depots and means of reinforcement are clearly laid down, and the
influence likely to be exerted by the movements of other armies or
bodies of troops on their flanks are taken into calculation. According
to these data the senior officers present make their plans of manœuvre,
employing their juniors in the preparation of all the subordinate
arrangements, the movements of the troops, the selection of positions
for attack or defense, the arrangements for supply, and for retaining a
communication with the base. All these measures are carried out on the
spot, and daily reports are made to the superintending officer, which,
when necessary, are accompanied by such rough sketches as are usual
during the progress of a campaign.
From these materials he is enabled to form an idea in what degree the
spirit of the operations has been grasped by the directing officers, and
in how far their juniors are instructed in the details of duties which
they may hereafter be called on to perform.
5. A large share in the military education of the army generally, by
taking part in the lectures given in the various educational
establishments, and by acting as members of the commissions of
examination and of studies.
6. Officers of the head-quarter staff are also detached to attend the
annual corps manœuvres, those taking place in foreign countries, or the
active campaigns of friendly allied nations.
Of the three sections into which the head-quarter staff is divided, the
railway department forms part of the second of these sections, the chief
of which selects an officer to preside over and superintend the working
of it, and gather materials on inland and foreign railway communication.
Certain officers are attached permanently, similarly, in fact, to those
belonging to the sections of the accessory establishment, who have not
only to make themselves theoretically masters of their subject, but by
traveling on the various lines acquire practical acquaintance with the
working of railway transport in all its phases. With a view to diffusing
this knowledge as largely as possible, all officers of the staff have
since 1867 been required to attend a six weeks’ course of study with
this branch.
The section of military history has charge of the war archives of the
Prussian army and of the library of the general staff, for additions to
which latter a sum of 1,100 thalers, or 165_l._, annually, is voted.
The staff of the section is occupied not only with subjects of recent
and immediate interest, but with the study and arrangement of materials
belonging and relating to the wars of earlier date, of which there is a
valuable collection, consisting of reports, day-books, plans, and other
documents, many of them legacies of the prominent actors in the scenes
to which they relate. The library is well supplied with the most
important works in all languages on military history, tactics,
geography, and military science.
The trigonometrical and topographical sections stand in intimate
connection with each other. Since 1865 the former is charged with the
survey of the Eastern Provinces, a work which it is hoped will be
concluded in ten years, under the direction of the chief of the staff.
Under the present organization there are always forty young officers
attached to the head-quarter staff, but only for one year, their absence
from regimental duty having proved detrimental, while the current work
is naturally better executed when carried out by permanent _employés_,
thus avoiding the interruption caused by constant reliefs.
The geographical-statistical is a new section, the necessity for which
arose from the overcrowding of other branches, particularly of the
map-room. So much material had accumulated in the other branches that it
was found necessary to establish a section in which the scattered
information could be condensed in the form of statistics. To this end
the former geographical subsection was altered into its present form
with an enlarged sphere of work, and the charge of the collection of
maps was transferred to it from the map-room, which had become so much
overcrowded with old materials as to have neither room nor time for the
ordinary business of taking charge of the current surveys and of the
maps and charts intended for distribution to the army.
With a view to facilitating the collection of the best geographical and
statistical materials all the sections are placed _en rapport_ with the
new section, to which they are required to forward all special material
coming under notice, and all books or pamphlets which contain
geographical or statistical information. This section stands also in
constant communication with the civil statistical bureau.
The duties of the “_Plankammer_” (map-room) are now restricted to the
care of the topographical instruments of the original surveys of the
topographical section, of new maps prepared for distribution, and of the
financial business of the general staff. All the scientific duties of
the map-room have passed over to the geographical statistical section.
There is no regulation on the admission of officers to the staff, nor is
there any direct preliminary examination. They are selected from:--
1. Those who have completed the prescribed course at the Military
Academy.
2. Those who notify their desire to enter the staff.
3. Those who are recommended by their superiors as officers likely to
become useful staff officers.
The year of probation at head-quarters, already mentioned, affords the
opportunity of forming an opinion as to the capabilities of these
officers, who at its conclusion return to their regiments, where they
are usually employed as adjutants, or, on the occurrence of vacancies,
with the brigades, divisions, or corps.
PRUSSIAN MILITARY EDUCATION IN 1869-70.
CHANGES SINCE 1856.
The following remarks are gathered from the “Report of the Military
Education Commission presented to both Houses of Parliament,” in 1870,
in continuation of the Report submitted in 1856, on the Systems of
Military Education in France, and Prussia.
1. The chief alterations that have taken place in the system of
military education in Prussia since 1856, are as follows:--
(_a._) All the educational establishments have been very much
enlarged, owing to the increase in the army which has taken place since
1866.
(_b._) The educational requirements for a commission remain in
principle the same as they were--the double examination for the rank of
officer, and the exaction from every candidate for a commission of proof
of both general and professional knowledge being still the peculiar
feature of Prussian military education. There has been, however, a
constant tendency to raise the standard of the preliminary examination
in subjects of general knowledge, and to insist more strongly upon a
sound liberal education as a condition of obtaining a commission. The
number of _Abiturienten_, or men who have passed through the complete
course at a public school, entering the army annually is now four times
as great as it was in 1856, and there is the strongest wish still
further to increase their number.
(_c._) The Cadet Schools in their general character are unaltered;
the introduction of the peculiar class of the Ober-prima in the Upper
Cadet School at Berlin is the most important modification made in their
organization. The proportion of officers supplied by the Cadet Schools
continues much the same as it was in 1856. The feeling in the army,
however, against preparatory military schools appears to be increasing;
a strong opinion is entertained as to the narrowing effects upon the
mind of exclusive class education; and a preference is very generally
exhibited for officers who have had the ordinary education of civil
schools. At the War Schools (_Diossi, on Schools in 1856_), the
Artillery and Engineer School, and the War Academy (_Staff School in
1856_), a decided opinion was expressed as to the intellectual
superiority of the _Abiturienten_ over those who have been educated in
the Cadet Corps.
(_d._) The arrangements for the professional instruction of officers
of corps have been very much altered. These officers now have their
education up to the time of obtaining their commissions in common with
candidates for the line; their _special_ instruction does not commence
at the Artillery and Engineer School until they have been in the service
three or four years. For the Artillery, the course at this school has
been reduced to one year, and made strictly practical in character.
(_e._) The course of instruction at the War Academy, or Senior
Department, has been considerably modified; though still comprising many
subjects of an entirely unprofessional character, their number has been
reduced; the attention of the students is more concentrated upon
military studies than formerly, and a larger amount of time is devoted
to practical work. In short, the object has been to render the
instruction less purely theoretical than it formerly was.
(_f._) The most important change, however, which has been made is in
regard to the War Schools--the Schools at which officers of all arms
receive their _professional_ instruction. Since 1856 they have been
entirely re-organized, and placed under the direct control of the
Central Educational Department; a much higher class of teachers are
employed; the character of the instruction has been greatly improved;
and attendance at one of these schools is, with rare exceptions, made
compulsory upon every one before obtaining a commission. These schools
hold a most important position in the Prussian system of military
education, and the greatest pains are bestowed on making them answer the
purpose for which they are intended--that of giving a thoroughly
practical instruction in military subjects to candidates for
commissions. The improvements made in the War Schools show the greatly
increased importance attached of late years in Prussia to the
professional instruction of officers.
2. However different the French and Prussian systems may be in some
respects, they both agree in this--that no attempt is made to give a
special military education at an early age, that a general education is
made the ground-work of the professional training, and that at least up
to the age of 17 or 18 the future officer receives the same kind of
education as the civilian, and in the great majority of cases receives
it at the ordinary schools of the country. In Austria, also, the same
principle seems now to have been adopted. The cadet schools in Prussia
are no exception to the rule, for the instruction at them, except in the
two upper classes at Berlin, is the same as at civil schools. The
principle of deferring military education to a comparatively late age
is, indeed, in Prussia carried even to a greater extent than in France,
for all professional instruction is postponed until after the service
has been entered, and regimental duty been performed for nearly a year.
The few who enter the army from the Ober-prima and Selecta of the Cadet
Corps (not amounting to 70 each year) are the only individuals who
receive any military instruction before joining the service, and in
their case this special instruction does not commence until the age of
17. So strongly is this principle insisted upon, that even for the
artillery and engineers there is no preparatory military education, and
the special instruction of the officers of these arms is not given until
after they have been some years in the service. The idea in Prussia is
that a young man can derive no advantage from studying the _theory_ of
the military profession until he has learnt the _practice_ of it. “What
use can it be,” it was said, “to talk to a lad of the principles of
tactics, when he does not even know the movements of a battalion, and
perhaps has never seen one on parade?”
3. After, however, entering the service _all_ the officers of the
Prussian army receive a careful professional instruction--that given at
the War Schools. The course is of an essentially practical character,
comprising only strictly military subjects, and excluding such studies
as mathematics and even languages.
4. The officers of the staff do not necessarily receive any special
training previous to their appointment; but in Prussia this is of less
importance, as from the professional education which every officer has
had, those appointed to the staff, even if they have not passed through
the Senior Department, must at least be acquainted with field sketching
and military regulations, and know something of fortifications and
artillery. Moreover, after appointment, means are taken in the “staff
expeditions” which occur annually, to instruct them in their practical
duties, and (as is the case also in France with the officers of the
Staff Corps) to insure their keeping up the knowledge of field sketching
and reconnaissance which they had previously acquired.
5. The connection which exists in Prussia between the military system
and the general education of the country is remarkable.
_Portefée-fahnrich_, examinations are not only based on the course of
instruction at civil schools, but have been also used as a means of
raising the character of the education given at these schools. On the
one hand, the advantages offered to _Abiturienten_ and to those who have
been at a university, indicate a wish to encourage men of liberal
education to enter the army as officers; on the other hand, by making
exemption from the ordinary period of compulsory service in the ranks
dependent (among other conditions) on educational attainments, the
military system has been employed as an engine for stimulating education
among the middle classes.
6. The general management of military education is vested in a single
officer, the Inspector-General. He is assisted by two Boards or
Councils, the Board of Studies in matters connected with the general
system of instruction, and the Supreme Examination Board in regard to
the examinations and qualifications for commissions. The system of
education has been still further centralized since 1856, especially in
the case of the War Schools; and much of the progress that has been made
is ascribed to the unity now given to the whole system of instruction.
At the same time each of the educational institutions has its own Board
of Studies, similar to the _conseils d’instruction_, at the French
schools, who are charged with the general control of the course of study
and with the duty of making suggestions for its improvement. Several of
the professors, both civil and military, are always members of this
Board; so that the benefit of their practical experience is secured, and
the control of the instruction is never left entirely in the hands of
one man, nor even exclusively of military men. The introduction of the
civilian element into these Boards is deserving of notice; not merely
the professors of the schools, but eminent men connected with the
University of Berlin are employed upon them, and have a voice in
determining the system of military education.
7. In discipline the heads of the various schools are almost entirely
supreme. At the War Schools the young men are subject to military law,
being already in the army; at the Cadet Schools this is not the case,
but the discipline is strictly military in character. At both
establishments the regulations are extremely stringent, and the
slightest irregularity entails punishment. But the importance attached
to the exercise of moral influence over the pupils, the personal
interest taken in them, and the kindly relations existing between them
and the officers, make the system of discipline much less rigidly
military than it is at the French schools. Both at the War Schools and
the Cadet House, specific punishments are attached to idleness.
8. In the appointment of the heads of the various schools and of the
subordinate officers employed at them, great attention seems to be paid
to selecting individuals fitted for the posts both by educational
experience and by personal qualities. There appears to be rather a
general opinion that the instructors at most of the schools are
underpaid, and that this, combined with the preference frequently given
to active military life, prevents the posts being much sought after by
the ablest officers. On the other hand, however, selection for such
appointments is always regarded as a distinction; and in the Prussian
army mere honorary distinctions, altogether irrespective of material
advantages, are held in much higher estimation than is probably the case
in any other service.
9. The most marked point of contrast between the French and Prussian
systems of military education consists in the thoroughly competitive
character of the former. In Prussia the principle of competition, though
to a certain extent recognized, is little applied in practice, and never
perhaps fully and strictly carried out. For promotion to the highest
class (the Selecta) of the Berlin Cadet house there is considerable
competition among the pupils, and admission to the War Academy is
obtained by competitive examination open to all the officers of the
army; but even in these two cases personal and other considerations come
more or less into play, and the rewards can not be said to be thrown
open to pure competition. All the other military examinations are simply
qualifying, and there is no attempt to afford the stimulus of publishing
a list of the candidates arranged in order of merit. In fact the term
“competitive examination” scarcely seems to be understood in Prussia.
The pecuniary assistance afforded by the State for the education of boys
in the Cadet Schools is dependent solely on the circumstances and
services of the father, not on the abilities of the candidate himself.
10. The objections expressed to the further introduction of a
competitive system appear to be universally entertained in the Prussian
army. The object in Prussia seems to be, not to attempt to establish an
accurate _comparison_ of the educational attainments of a number of
individuals, but to form a _general estimate_ of the abilities,
character, and military capacity of each. The army generally are not
considered to be losers by the rejection of the competitive principle;
the system of inspections and of reports from inspecting officers is so
elaborate, and so many checks are provided, that the character and
abilities of individual officers are well known; and appointments,
certainly as a general rule, are said to be made on the ground of real
merit.
11. There appears to be less strictness in enforcing the regulations
connected with military education in Prussia than in France. The
regulations themselves are very stringent, but exceptions are constantly
sanctioned--for instance, in the length of time which a pupil is
permitted to remain in the same class of the Cadet Schools, in the
number of failures allowed in the various examinations, &c.
12. The very great care bestowed upon the method of instruction at all
the Prussian military schools, is extremely remarkable. Individual
instructors are not left to follow out their own ideas of teaching, but
careful regulations are issued for their guidance by the
Inspector-General of Education, to which all are required strictly to
conform. The system of small classes in striking contrast to the French
plan of lectures to large numbers, is a remarkable instance of the
anxiety to devote attention to individual students, and to adapt the
instruction to varieties of ability. But the most remarkable feature of
the system of teaching is the care bestowed upon the higher objects of
education, upon forming and disciplining the mind and encouraging habits
of reflection. The regulations for the instructors at the various
schools over and over again assert that the great object to be kept in
view is, not merely to impart a certain amount of positive knowledge,
but to develope the intellectual faculties and to cultivate powers of
thought and reasoning. The teachers are warned to avoid minute details
and barren facts, which merely burden the memory and are soon forgotten,
and to direct attention to broad principles, which will lay the
foundation for further individual study in after life. With the same
object in view, the examination questions are calculated, not merely to
serve as an exercise of the memory, but to test an intelligent
acquaintance with a subject, and the power of turning knowledge to a
useful purpose.
[Errata for Part II (Prussia):
_The spelling “militair” (for expected “militär”) occurs frequently
in this section._
Out of its twenty first directors
twenty-first
“appeared to him in painful contrast
_“ missing_
instead of the examination for the Swordknot, being declared
Swordknot.
for the commission of second lieutenant.
lieutentant
[The annual cost to the state of the military schools in 1856]
| 5,872 | 250 | 5,922 | [first row]
| 146,132 | 108,777 | 254,909 | [totals]
_the sums will come out right if the first-row total is corrected
to 6122, _and_ 4 is added to some item in the middle column (and
hence the third-column total)_
or unsatisfactory (_ungenügend_.)
the principles of plan drawing (_Terrain-Darstellung_;)
_both closing ) missing_
3. Topographical survey of a locality (theoretically and practically,)
theorectically
the average number at a lesson would not be more than twenty-three.
more that
appointed by the _Curatorium_ as his assistant.
_Cutatorium_
twelve military and eleven civilian professors and teachers.
_partial word “teach-/” missing at page break_
Besides military subjects, it includes a very full
_partial word “sub-/” missing at line break_
At their meetings, all matters relating to instruction
_text has “in-/instruction” at line break_
pupils employed as superintendents receive small pecuniary allowances
recieve
The following plan of instruction was prepared by Dr. Harnisch
. invisible
with the mode of discovery and cure of the same
_text has “of / of” at line break_
PROGRAMMES OF THE PRINCIPAL SUBJECTS
PRINCIPLE
3. Problems on field fortification
8.]
* * * * *