still taught, and there is a special class of the most advanced students
in the Differential and Integral Calculus, the Higher Geometry, and in
Analytical Mechanics and Hydraulics; this, however, is purposely
restricted to about one-third of the class, by raising the requirements,
if necessary.
The course is divided in each year into the theoretical and the
practical part. The year commences in October with the former, and the
studies for the nine months succeeding are for the most part theoretical
only. In June the examinations take place. July, August, and a part of
September are given up to practical exercises. Something like the last
three weeks of September are allowed for a vacation.
The general control of the school is in the hands of the General
Inspectors of the two services, the artillery and the engineers. These
two are the _Curators_ of the school and form the _Curatorium_. They
make their reports to the General Inspector of Military Education, of
whom mention has already been made. The immediate management is
intrusted to a director, who is a field officer of artillery or
engineers, of the rank of commandant of a regiment, and he has a
captain, appointed by the _Curatorium_ as his assistant.
There is a Board of Studies, of which the Director is chairman,
consisting of the Senior Professor of Mathematics, of the Instructors of
Artillery and Engineering in the third Cœtus, and of an equal number of
officers of the two services named by the Curators.
Four officers, three from the artillery and one from the engineers,
acting under the captain, are charged with the care of discipline and
order; these are the _Direction_ Officers.
There are twelve military and eleven civilian professors and teachers.
Among the military professors and teachers may be included any of the
direction officers.
The examinations of the first year are conducted by the usual Board, the
Supreme Military Examinations Board; but for those of the second and of
the third year, there is a separate board, chosen from the two services
by the Curators, and otherwise unconnected with the School.
The numbers in the school vary from 216 to 240. In time of peace about
five are yearly admitted for each regiment of artillery, and two or
three for each division of engineers. The great majority have entered
the army from the usual places of civil education, a few from the Prima
of the Cadet House, on the same terms as the others, and a small number,
who are usually among the best pupils in the school, from the Selecta,
who come as officers, and after a short service with the troops, enter
the second year’s classes, provided there is room, preference being
always allowed to the students already belonging to the school, who have
succeeded in passing the examination of the first year.
The Artillery and Engineers’ School buildings stand in Berlin itself, in
the principal street, _Unter den Linden_, No. 74, near the Brandenburg
Gate. They bear the following inscription: _Artillerie und Ingenieur
Schule. Stiftung Friedrich Wilhelms_ III. M.DCCC.XXII.
On the occasion of our visit to the school, we were allowed by the
kindness of the authorities to be present at some of the lectures. The
students of the second year were attending the course on the History of
the Art of War, and the immediate subject was an account of and
criticism on the battle of Blenheim. The young men, about forty-five in
number, were ranged in desks facing the Professor, but not in the manner
of an amphitheater. The lecture was interesting, animated, and generally
instructive; it was perfectly professorial in character, and the young
men took notes. A class of the students of the first year, thirty-five
in number, were engaged in topographical drawing. The artillery division
of the third year students were in another room, listening to and busily
taking notes upon a lecture (also professorial) on the construction of
gun-carriages: the number was about forty-five.
Only the students of the first year are lodged in the building; and
owing to the unusually large number lately admitted, an adjoining house
has been taken to afford additional room. The accommodation in general
is rather limited. Two stories in the upper part of the building are
occupied by the somewhat scantily furnished chambers; there appeared in
some cases to be two young men in one room, in other cases four, or as
many as six or seven to a bedroom and sitting-room. The students who
lodge in the building dine together in a mess-room; and there is a
billiard-room, with coffee-rooms adjoining it, for the general use,
looking out from the ground floor front into the Unter den Linden. There
is a library, a small laboratory attached to the lecture-room employed
for the subjects of Chemistry and Natural Philosophy, and a small
collection of apparatus required for illustration on the latter subject.
On quitting the school, the engineer students, as soon as they obtain
their commissions, are employed for three years with a Division of
Engineers; then for three years in a fortress to superintend buildings;
and then again with a Division of Engineers. They are then eligible to
promotion as first-lieutenants.
The artillery students, in like manner, join and serve with their
regiments.
Promotion in the artillery is by regiments, in the engineers it is
general throughout the whole corps.
We should not omit to call attention to the fact, that the only instance
which has come to our knowledge of the promotion of _officers in their
own arm of the service_, being made contingent on their passing an
examination, is to be found in the Prussian Artillery and Engineers.
First-Lieutenants belonging to those corps must pass an examination
before they can be promoted to the rank of captain. This regulation does
not exist for any other part of the Prussian service, and it is
considered a great grievance by the officers of those corps, as it may
be exacted at the age of forty, from the most highly educated officers
of the Prussian army.
The pay of subaltern of engineers is somewhat higher than that of the
artillery, infantry, and cavalry. Above the rank of subaltern, the pay
of the artillery, cavalry, and engineers, is on an equality, but
superior to that of the infantry. The engineers have, moreover, a
prospect of employment of a civil nature when they return from active
service; to lucrative positions of this kind they are not unfrequently
appointed.
It should be mentioned before quitting the subject, that all the
officers of the artillery and engineers are bound, in consideration of
three years’ maintenance in the school, to serve a period of six years,
before they can exercise the usual privilege allowed to Prussian
officers of withdrawing from the service.
[_A particular account of the Course of Instruction in this School will
be given in a separate article under the title of the Institution._]
VI. SCHOOL FOR STAFF OFFICERS AT BERLIN.
The War School (_Kriegs-Schule_) in Berlin has undergone many changes
since its foundation in the time of Frederick the Great. It is now the
Staff School of Prussia, _i.e._, the only, or almost the only, means of
obtaining a staff appointment is by passing through it, and the
education given is particularly intended to form staff officers. Its
plan and methods of teaching differ, indeed, from the very commencement
from the French Staff School, and bear much more resemblance to the
senior department at Sandhurst, with the exception that the senior
department is not at present a necessary means towards a staff
appointment.
Thus the _Kriegs-Schule_ does not take young men of twenty-one or
twenty-two and educate them (like the French Staff School) for the staff
and the staff alone. Its pupils are men of twenty-five or twenty-six,
officers of three years’ standing, or five years’ service since their
first entering the army. At this comparatively ripe age they become
candidates for entrance to the Staff School, and, if admitted, they
spend there three years of laborious study, with no very brilliant
prospects to crown it, as only a very small number obtain what may be
called the lowest prize, admission to the Topographical Department; and
out of these only two or three yearly of the most distinguished pupils
gain the Staff. The rest return to their regiments, and are employed as
adjutants or as teachers in the Division Schools.
The process of entrance is as follows:--An officer of three years’
standing desires to go to the Staff School. Any one may send in his name
as a candidate for the entrance examination to the minister of war,
having obtained a certificate from his superior officer that he
understands his regular duty, has no debts, and is capable, both as
regards his abilities and bodily strength, of making a good staff
officer. Little difficulty is made about admission to become a
candidate, nor is there any regulation to limit the number from any one
corps or regiment, so that there may be often found in the Staff School
more in proportion from the infantry than the cavalry, and _vice versâ_.
Some regiments, we heard, hardly ever send officers to the school.
Practically, indeed, the regulation requiring three years of active
service bears hard upon the artillery and engineers in comparison with
the other services; for, as the officers of these two corps only enter
their own school after they have been near a year in the service, and
spend three years there, they must have been in the army nearly seven
years before they can enter the Staff School.
The candidate for the Staff School is examined in the capital of the
province in which his corps is stationed. The examination is early in
April, and it is held at the provincial town instead of Berlin, in order
to diminish expense. But the questions are sent from the board of
examiners in Berlin, and the same are given in the different provincial
towns at one and the same time. The examination is much on the same
subjects, and requires about the same actual knowledge as that which was
passed at least three years before for a lieutenancy, but owing to the
difference of age, the questions are put and are expected to be answered
in a much more scientific form than on the first occasion. Thus, we were
told, such an essay as “Give an account of the wars of Francis I. and
Charles V.,” would at the _Kriegs-Schule_ Examination rather be stated
thus: “What was the influence of these wars on the policy and religion
of Europe?”
The examination is entirely upon paper; it occupies from ten to twelve
days of about five hours daily, the superintending staff officer in the
province presiding over it. But his business is limited to reading out
the questions sent to him, and taking care that no books are brought in,
or any improper means used. The answers to the questions have to go
through a double ordeal, the military ones being first examined by some
of the staff of the general commanding in the province, and afterwards
by the commission of examiners at Berlin. The final decision rests with
the chief of the Prussian staff, who recommends the successful officers
to the minister of war.
There is an average of sixty or seventy candidates yearly. Only forty of
these can be taken. If some additional case seems meritorious, the
officer may obtain a promise of appointment, but his entrance is
deferred. It is not uncommon to try more than once.
The entrance examination passed, the school opens on the 1st of October,
to continue its lectures, with a fortnight’s break at Christmas and at
Easter, till the first of June. It has its 120 pupils, divided into
their three classes, one for each year, working (with only little of
practical work) under professors, military for the lectures of a
military, and civil for those of a non-military character. No
difficulty, we understood, is found here, as we had heard to be the case
at St. Cyr, in enforcing the fullest attention to the lectures of the
civilian professors; each is respected according to his knowledge of the
subject, and it would be thought as absurd for a military professor to
undertake a non-professional subject, as _vice versâ_.
The method of working is that so commonly followed in the Prussian
universities of listening to numerous lectures, and taking copious notes
upon them. Nearly five hours daily, from eight in the morning till one,
are often continuously occupied in this manner; for although only twenty
hours of attendance are absolutely exacted weekly (an amount which to
our own students would seem more than ample) ten more are said to be
necessary to enable an officer to do any justice to the various subjects
of which he is expected to show some knowledge at his examinations.
These lectures are usually read aloud; there is no questioning and
answering. The student, after five morning hours, must spend at least
five or six more in copying them out, or in writing an essay on the
subject of some of the lectures. Of these one is given about every three
weeks, but only on military subjects. They are carefully corrected and
sent back to the student with the notes of his teacher, and their merit
influences the final estimate of his whole work.
Besides this daily work, the examinations are at once a stimulus and a
means of testing proficiency. These occur every three months, but the
yearly ones are the most important. They are entirely upon paper. In the
quarterly ones the papers are only given for two hours at a time daily,
and take the place of two common lectures; in the other examinations
they are daily for four or five hours. They are entirely essays upon the
numerous subjects lectured on in the school, History of War, Philosophy,
Tactics, &c.
Perhaps there is no better way of giving an idea of the mode of studying
than by a statement of some of the subjects of these essays. They have
been supplied to us by the kindness of Lieutenant Berger, of the 28th
Infantry, from whom we have received much valuable information on the
subject.
_General Essays._
On Tactics:--I. A Prussian Division, added to which is,--
1 Regiment of Infantry,
1 twelve pounder Battery,
1 Cavalry Regiment,
is in retreat from Goldberg to Jauer (in Silesia.) The enemy is
following. A position is to be taken up to stop his advance, whatever
his numbers may be.
A map of the position being given:--
(_a._) Describe the position.
(_b._) Draw up the troops.
(_c._) Write an explanatory criticism.
(To be worked at home in two days.)
Three Corps d’Armée march against Berlin from different points. The
army in Berlin is ordered to meet them. (To be done in five hours.)
Permanent Fortification. For what purpose are the fortifications in
the main ditch intended, and how are they to be constructed? (Five
hours.)
Military Geography. The Saxon land between the Elbe and Saale, and its
influence upon the operations of war in North and South Germany. (Five
hours.)
Criticism on the organization of the French Battalion. (At home in one
day.)
_Examination Essays, Staff School.--Military History, Tactics and
Administration._
1. In what respects did the earlier form of military art,
strategetically and tactically, favor defensive wars _generally_, and in
particular assist Frederick II. in the Seven Years’ War? (Two hours.)
2. The duties of the Staff in time of peace. (Two hours.)
3. Position of Landwehr Officers on and off duty. (Two hours.)
4. What is the value of the Cavalry formation _en échelon_, with
particular reference to the Austrian mode? (Two hours.)
5. Is only one sort of Infantry necessary, or is Light Infantry
essential? (Two hours.)
6. How may the mobilizing of an Army be best expedited? (Five hours.)
7. Describe the different sorts of field works particularly used in
war. (Two hours.)
8. How is the Artillery of a Corps d’Armée to be used in the different
emergencies of battle? (Five hours.)
_Literary and Scientific._
1. The Geological characteristics of the country between the
Carpathian Mountains and the Vistula on one side, and the Yaldai
Mountains and the Dnieper on the other. (Two hours.)
2. By what political conjunctures was the power and influence of
England peculiarly advanced in the 18th century? (Five hours.)
3. On the magnetic effects of the electric stream. (Two hours.)
4. Characteristics of Greek literature, and its chief authors in the
time of the Peloponnesian War. (Two hours.)
The knowledge required is seen in the account of the Staff School,
(p. 395) and in the list of the Lectures given above. Besides military
subjects, it includes a very full course of Ancient and Modern History,
an addition to the History of War (which last alone occupies seven hours
weekly for the last year,) a good deal of Logic and Philosophy of Art
and Literature, and of Political Economy. Some of these lectures have
probably been introduced from the school, having a double object, that
of giving a diplomatic as well as a military education. This was the
original idea of Frederick the Great, who, in all his plans of military
teaching, laid a great stress on the general literature which he himself
valued so highly. This diffusive study is a strong contrast to the
principle of “little, but well,” and to the constant practical exercises
in the laboratories insisted on by the early teachers of the Polytechnic
School in France.
The following is the plan of the lectures for the three years. Twenty
lectures a week are the minimum:--
_Course of First Year._
Obligatory.
Tactics, 4 hours.
Artillery, 3 “
Field Fortification, 2 “
Military and Political
Administration and Economy, 2 “
Mathematics, Pure and Mixed, 6 “
--
17 hours.
For Choice.
Universal History, 4 hours.
Universal Geography, 3 “
Physical Geography, 4 “
--
10 hours.
Total, 27 hours.
[_Numbers printed as shown._]
_Course of Second Year_
Obligatory.
Tactics, 4 hours.
Permanent Fortification, 2 “
Special Geography and Geology, 4 “
--
10 hours.
For Choice.
Universal History, 4 hours.
Mathematics, 6 “
Logic, 4 “
Physics, 4 “
Lectures on Horses, 2 “
--
20 hours.
Total, 30 hours.
_Course of Third Year._
Obligatory.
History of War, 7 hours.
Staff Duty, 3 “
Art of Sieges, 2 “
Military Jurisprudence, 1 “
--
13 hours.
For Choice.
General History of Literature, 4 hours.
Mathematics, 6 “
Higher Geodesy, 3 “
Chemistry, 4 “
--
17 hours.
Total, 30 hours.[8]
[Footnote 8: Lectures each week in the War School, Prussia.
[KEY]
1Y First Year.
2Y Second Year.
3Y Third Year.
-------------------------------+----+----+----
WAR SCHOOL. | 1Y | 2Y | 3Y
-------------------------------+----+----+----
Mathematics, Pure, | 3 | 3 | 3
“ Mixed, | 3 | 3 | 3
H. Geodesy, | .. | .. | 3
Physical Geography, | 2 | .. | ..
General “ | 4 | .. | ..
Special “ | .. | 4 | ..
Universal History, | 4 | 4 | ..
General History of Literature, | .. | .. | 4
Logic, | .. | 4 | ..
Physics, | .. | 4 | ..
Chemistry, | .. | .. | 4
Veterinary Art, | .. | 2 | ..
Tactics, | 4 | 4 | ..
Artillery, | 3 | .. | ..
Fortification, Field, | 2 | .. | ..
“ Permanent, | .. | 2 | ..
“ Sieges, | .. | .. | 2
Military Administration, | 2 | .. | ..
History of War, | .. | .. | 7
Staff Duty, | .. | .. | 3
Military Law, | .. | .. | 1
French, | 6 | 6 | 6
Russian, | 4 | 4 | 4
+----+----+----
Total, | 37 | 40 | 40
-------------------------------+----+----+----
It would be impossible to enter on a detailed criticism either of
these lectures or of the essays mentioned in the note above which
evidently imply great study. We invite a comparison with the
French plan, which we have given elsewhere, but the difference of
age must be taken into account. The mathematical course at this
school is,--
1st year. Plane and Spherical Trigonometry, Quadratic Equations,
involving several unknown quantities, the Binomial Theorem, and
the Elements of Analytical and Solid Geometry.
2d year. Analytical Geometry and the Differential and Integral
Calculus.
3d year. Mechanics, Statics, Dynamics, Projectiles, and slight
Applications.
Only the first year is obligatory.]
It will be seen that the above course is entirely theoretical; no
practical work (as in France) relieves the sedentary labor of ten hours
daily for more than eight months of the year. But as soon as the first
year’s course is ended, all the officers who are supposed to know
drawing before coming to the school, are sent into the country for three
weeks to practice military drawing and surveying; and those of the third
year go through (also for the same period) a similar course of staff
duty. These last are sent under the direction of the officer who is
Professor of Staff Duty at the School; each student officer gets his
separate orders, and they meet and are told off every morning for their
day’s work, reconnoitering fortresses, surveying the frontiers between
Austria and Prussia, &c., &c. During the remaining three summer months
the students are sent in successive classes to those arms of the service
which are not their own, and after the usual military exercises are
completed they must bring back with them a certificate of proficiency
from the commanding officer. This amount of time was spoken of as being
too little.
If we are surprised at not finding a greater amount of practical work
included amongst the labors of the school, we must remember that it is
chiefly postponed to a later period of the officer’s career, when the
probability of his being required to use it on the staff is greater.
This is when he has gained his place in the Topographical Department,
and is working there upon trial to test his fitness for the actual
staff. He is then employed during winter in working on the Theory of
War, and during summer in military surveying and drawing.
Such is the method and extent of the officer’s work at the Staff School;
a few more words are needed on the character of his examinations, which
here as everywhere else must greatly influence the character of the
work.
There are no less than nine examinations during the three years, one for
every three months, but the final one at the end of each year is the
more important, as a sort of summing up of the year’s work. In marking
for this the merit of the essays done at home is taken into account. The
result in each branch of work and on every examination is entered by the
several professors in a book kept at the directory, and the pupils have
a right to inspect the report of their own work. The net result of his
own three years’ work is also sent to the officer after leaving the
school through the authorities of his regiment. The certificate of this
contains the criticism on each branch of his work in detail.
The subjects given for essays will show the nature of the chief
examinations (_i.e._ those at the end of each year;) four or five hours
is the time generally allowed to a difficult subject, the examination
stretching over a number of days, in proportion to the subjects taken
up. The pupil may bring in his notes of lectures, on which extraordinary
care is bestowed, and which must contain everything that can be said on
the subject. Much value is said to be attached to the rapidity with
which an essay is worked, as showing a quality valuable in an officer.
There is, as we have observed, no _vivâ voce_ of any kind in this
School. Some competition exists in the Staff School, (and it is almost
the only Prussian school where we find it,) for the knowledge that only
eight or ten out of the forty pupils can obtain the Topographical
Department, and only two out of these eight or ten, the staff, acts as a
competitive stimulus. We must add, however, that although a minute
account of the _positive_ merits of the pupils is drawn up and sent to
them at the end of their career, they have no means of ascertaining
their _relative_ positions; and this may always leave room for doubt,
whether the places in the Typographical Department and on the Staff are
strictly given by merit, or whether patronage does not here step in.
Another ambiguity may be remarked in the fact that the relative
importance of the subjects of study is not known. It may of course be
surmised, that a knowledge of the Peloponnesian War is not marked so
highly as that of the Seven Years’ War; but any indefiniteness as to
what is or what is not important, will generally lead to an attempt to
know something _of all_ the subjects mentioned, and it would undoubtedly
be better to affix its definite value to every subject. It would prevent
what seem to us valid objections to the present system of the Staff
School, the attempt to crowd in too many subjects, instead of mastering
thoroughly a few.
The final examination having been completed in June, the student goes
through the three weeks of staff duty we have described, and finishes
his last three summer months in that branch of the army in which he has
not yet served. He then returns to his regiment, where he receives the
certificate of his three years’ work. But no list is published of the
order of merit in which the officers stand. If the certificate is
satisfactory, he forwards it to the Chief of the Prussian Staff, with a
request to be employed in the Topographical Department of the Staff. If
this is granted, he receives an order to join it in about two years,
_i.e._ about nine or ten years after first entering the service.
About eight officers are yearly sent to the Topographical Department,
and serve there for two or three years, surveying and drawing in summer,
working at military science in the winter. The correction of the
Topographical Map of Prussia is in their hands. Finally, two out of
these are selected for the Staff; the remainder return to their
regiments, to become adjutants or to teach in the Division Schools.
The most immediate advantage of being in the staff corps is promotion to
a captaincy at any age, which, considering the extreme slowness of
promotion in Prussia, may be termed an early one. This is generally
gained within two or three years after joining the corps, _i.e._ at
thirty-three or thirty-four. In other corps hardly any one has a chance
of becoming captain till after forty.
We may add, that the number of officers in the Topographical Department
is about forty, on the staff itself sixty-four. No one belonging to the
staff is below the rank of captain, or above that of colonel. Every
general of division has one officer of the staff attached to him, and
two adjutants, the first nominated by the chief of the staff, the two
last by the king, and these two belong rather to the officer than to the
general. They are not removable with him. The adjutants are not officers
of the staff, though they are often chosen from amongst those who have
been at the Staff School. They are nominated by the king upon reports
sent into him by the generals of division, and the appointment is not
considered a great prize, as it implies neither extra pay, promotion,
nor permanency; the adjutants are promoted in the usual course, and
then, upon promotion, return to their regiments. The adjutants of
battalions and regiments are appointed, like our own, by the officers
commanding. The name of aide-de-camp does not exist in the Prussian
service, but that of adjutant is used in its place.
VII. ELEMENTARY MILITARY SCHOOLS FOR NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS.
1. MILITARY ORPHAN-HOUSES.
There are three Military Orphan-Houses in Prussia for the children of
soldiers, two for boys, one at Potsdam, and the other at Annaburg, and
one for girls at Pretzch. Although intended for orphans, they receive
children whose parents are too poor to provide for them. They receive a
good elementary education and are brought up for trades, and can make
their selection between a civil and a military career. The English
Commissioners report that they found 800 pupils in the Orphan-House at
Potsdam, of whom 200 were under the charge of female teachers; 520 were
in the senior department, including thirty-six in the music class, who
will go into the Regimental Bands, and about twenty who formed a
separate military class, who would probably enter the Artillery School.
The School at Annaburg, and the subsidiary Girls’ School at Pretzsch,
are both Protestant in character; no religious teaching is supplied for
Roman Catholics. Roman Catholic boys are all sent to Potsdam, and Roman
Catholic girls are provided for in ordinary schools, and in private
families, and payment made on their behalf out of the funds of the
institution.
Dr. Bache in his “_Report on Education in Europe_,” gives the following
account of these institutions.
_Military Orphan-House at Potsdam._
This institution was founded in 1724, by Frederick William the First
of Prussia. The reputation of Franke’s Foundations induced this monarch
to rival the benevolence of the clergyman, and to establish on a scale
proportioned to his greater means, a house for the education of the
orphans of his soldiers. While, however, the recipients of Franke’s
bounty are free to choose their career in after life, and only so far
bound to the institution, as a sense of gratitude may prompt, the youth
who passes through the Military Orphan-house of Potsdam, must enter the
military service for twelve years. Three of these, indeed, are the term
of service of every citizen, and I believe the three years in the
non-commissioned officers’ school are now counted as part of the twelve,
and thus the actual number of extra years of service is reduced to six.
The institution began with one hundred and seventy-nine children, both
girls and boys being received; this arrangement continued until a few
years since, when the girls’ school was removed from Potsdam, and the
establishment at present is for male pupils only. There are between
three and four hundred in the elementary or boys’ department. In the
early history of the orphan-house two attempts are recorded to introduce
manual labor, as a profitable speculation; neither of which appears,
however, to have succeeded. The first of these, the manufacture of
Brabant lace, was introduced in 1743, and after various modifications of
the mode of applying the labor of the children, it was finally abandoned
in 1795. In 1744, the culture of silk was introduced extensively
throughout the kingdom, and especially enjoined at the orphan-houses;
but this attempt was not more successful in the end than the other, and
the culture is not kept up in this institution.
The present spacious buildings were chiefly constructed under the
reign of the founder and of Frederick the Great. Additions have,
however, been made from time to time since, and the whole plan is hardly
yet completed. The institution may be considered as divided into three
departments or schools; an elementary school, (called the Boys’ House,
_das Knabenhaus_,) a trade school, and a music school. The buildings for
the elementary school are erected about a spacious court, which serves
as an exercising and play-ground. On the ground floor are the refectory,
in which all the youth from the different schools composing the
institution, meet three times a day, and the study and play-rooms,
lavatory, &c. The study-rooms form a long range, and when the doors of
communication are opened, one teacher can superintend the whole of the
classes. The school-rooms are on the first and second floors, and are
calculated for divisions of forty boys each. There are six dormitories,
furnished with wooden or iron bedsteads, the latter having been more
recently introduced and found to answer well. The bedding consists of a
straw bed beneath, and a mattress of hair above. Each dormitory is
superintended by a teacher, who sleeps at one end of it. There are also
dwelling-rooms for the teachers, officers, &c., and in the court a very
large wash-house, with a drying-room above it.
The buildings occupied by the trade and music schools are separated by
a street from the others, and with the dwellings of the officers, a room
for gymnastic exercises, and musical practice, and the workshops, form a
second immense series of structures. The infirmary is near to them, and
is under a separate direction; subordinate, however, to the general
executive body. It is divided into rooms assigned to patients suffering
from different complaints. A schoolmaster gives instruction to the
convalescent. The arrangements in the dormitories of the trades’ school,
are similar to those used in the army, and the Superintendence and
discipline are strictly military.
The part of the building occupied by the music school, contains
separate rooms for practicing by individuals, class-rooms, and
dormitories. There are rooms in the main pile for the meetings of
teachers, for a small library, &c.
The executive board of this school depends partly on the ministry of
war, and partly on that of public instruction; the former, however, is
the controlling authority. Under this board is the military
superintendent, or director, to whom the chaplain, the secretaries, the
economist, the military superintendent of the day, the teachers,
commandants of companies, the inspectors of the trades’ and music
school, and other officers, are directly responsible. The clergyman is
the superintendent of the elementary school, and has a general charge of
all the intellectual and religious instruction.
The orphan children of soldiers are received for maintenance, at any
age, by the authorities of the establishment, but if under six years,
are boarded with their friends or others until six, and then admitted
into the house at Potsdam; they remain there until fourteen or fifteen
years of age, and, if of sound constitution, are transferred to the
trade, or to the music school, where they remain four years, and whence
they pass, if their conduct has been good, to the school for
non-commissioned officers. I have never seen a body of young men all so
well physically developed as the pupils of the trade school, a result
produced by constant attention to their education on this point.
Children who are not healthy, or who have failed in the elementary
school, are apprenticed at fourteen, and the institution ceases to have
the charge of them.
In the _Elementary School_, the usual branches taught in the common
schools of Prussia are pursued, including reading, writing, arithmetic,
the German language, geography, drawing, religious instruction, and a
little natural history. The boys are divided into four classes,
according to their proficiency, and all the classes below the first are
subdivided into two sections, each being under the charge of a teacher,
and having a separate recitation room. These sections contain about
forty pupils each. A monitor of order from among the pupils, has charge
of a section on entering and leaving the school-room, and render such
service as the master requires during the lesson; he is assisted by one
of the class in the distribution of the books, slates, and other
implements of instruction. The teachers keep each a roll, upon which the
character of the recitation and conduct of the pupils is entered, and
which is examined weekly by the chaplain, and submitted to the board of
teachers at their meetings. No youth, who is below a certain grade upon
this roll, is permitted to enter the trades’ school. There are about
five hours of instruction on four days of the week, and about
twenty-three in the whole week. The holidays are, a week at Easter, four
days at Michaelmas, a fortnight in the latter half of July, and from the
twenty-third of December, to the second of January. For those who have
no friends to go to, the Christmas festivities are kept up in the
school, as in the private families of the country.
The board of teachers meet once every fortnight, and the director, or
his substitute, or the chaplain, presides. At their meetings, all
matters relating to instruction and discipline are discussed.
The form of the discipline of the school is military, but a spirit of
mildness tempers it, suiting it to the age of the pupils. The boys, in
general, are divided into four companies, each of which has a
commandant, (a non-commissioned officer of the highest grade,) who has
charge of the instruction in military exercises, and ranks with the
teachers of the school. These companies form a battalion, and are
drilled without arms, and inspected by the director, or an officer
appointed by him. In turn the commandants of companies, acting as
officers of the day, have general charge of the military and police
duties. Two of the teachers, also, in turn, act as inspectors of the
day, and have the general superintendence of the pupils in study and
recreation hours, in the duties of personal police, at meals, and in the
dormitories, relieving each other at different parts of the day. They
are co-ordinate in authority with the officer of the day, and he is
expected to relieve and aid them in the maintenance of order. These
officers report immediately to the director.
The four companies are subdivided into sections of eleven, over each
of which one of the boys is placed, with the title of overseer, or
corporal, and he is responsible for the good order of his section, and
may be assisted in his duties by one chosen from it. From among these
corporals one is selected for the general control and superintendence of
the others, and marches the company to the lavatory, to meals, to the
dormitory, &c., being responsible for them whenever they are collected
as a company. The boys composing a section are placed at meals upon the
same side of the table with the corporal who has charge of them. The
younger pupils do not join these companies at once, but are kept
together in a division which is under female superintendence, has a
separate overseer, and is under different regulations as to rising,
going to bed, and other particulars of discipline and police from the
elder pupils.
All the duties of domestic and personal police, and some of those of
domestic economy, are performed by the boys enrolled in the four
companies. They clean their own shoes, brush their own clothes, attend
to the police of the different parts of the building, serve the meals,
and make their beds. That the various duties may be attended to in an
orderly way, there are, besides those already spoken of, special
overseers appointed among the pupils, who have general charge of them
while engaged in certain duties, and of particular localities. Thus
there is an overseer of the room where the clothes and shoes are kept,
who has charge of the exchange of the Sunday for week day dress, and
vice versa; an overseer of the room where the shoes are brushed and
blacked; an overseer of the lavatory; four superintendents of
cleanliness, who direct the pupils while washing and combing their hair;
one of hair cutting; two of serving the table, who have charge of a
detail of thirty pupils, who serve and clear the tables and clean the
knives and forks; one, of the manual labor classes; one, of the sick in
the hospital; one, of those who are unwell, and must report to the
physician; one, of the lights; one, to prevent the passing of bounds;
one the pupils who sing the liturgy in the church; one to conduct the
pupils, whose shoes require repairs, to the shoemaker; besides, those
for the classes and the younger boys, already mentioned, and a few
others. I make this enumeration in order to show the minuteness of the
arrangements for police and discipline, and the extent to which they are
conducted by the pupils themselves. The selections for appointments are
made by the teachers and officers, and submitted to the chaplain and
director for their approbation. A part of the pupils employed as
superintendents receive small pecuniary allowances, and all enjoy many
privileges.
Some of the pupils, who are found to have a taste for music, receive
special lessons, and are employed, when sufficiently proficient, to give
the signals for the different duties of the day. Eight pupils are thus
selected to be taught the bugle and fife, and twelve the drum.
In regard to conduct, the pupils are divided into four grades,
according to the reports of the teachers and officers, a revision of the
classification taking place every quarter, and the director having, in
the meantime, the power to displace a pupil in a case of emergency. The
first class grade is composed of pupils distinguished for unvarying good
conduct, and on holidays its members are allowed to leave the
orphan-house alone to make small purchases at discretion, and are
neither subject to corporal punishment nor to the stoppage of their
meals. The second class is composed also of meritorious pupils, but of a
lower grade of conduct than the first; they are permitted to leave the
school sometimes, but not so often as the others, and are generally
under supervision. From these two grades only, the superintendents or
overseers are taken. Pupils of the third grade stand between those who
are decidedly good or bad, and are treated accordingly. They are the
last who are permitted to pass from the elementary to the trades’
school, on completing their course in the former. Those of the fourth,
or lowest grade, are kept constantly under supervision, have no
allowances, no leaves of absence, are separated, when possible, from the
rest of the pupils, and are even punished by an inferior diet.
The health of the pupils is promoted by frequent bodily exercise, and,
when the weather permits, in the open air. Thus they have regular
gymnastic exercises four times a week, are drilled by companies four
times, and by battalion twice a week, take frequent walks, and in
summer, bathe every day. The regular manual labor in this department of
the school is confined to knitting and tailoring. The gymnastic
exercises are conducted by two teachers, each taking charge of one of
the companies, of which two attend the lesson at the same time, and
assisted by pupils selected from among the most proficient in the
exercises. There are two swimming lessons given to each company, in
summer, every week. In the ordinary division of the day, in summer,
between two and three hours are allowed for manual labor, the same for
recreation, two hours for exercise, and nearly eight for sleep.
Their clothing is a neat uniform jacket of blue cloth, of a military
fashion, gray or white pantaloons for the winter, and a brown linen
jacket and white linen pantaloons for the summer, and their officers are
distinguished by badges similar to those worn in service. The diet is
generous, and, besides the three meals, bread is served as a luncheon in
the morning and afternoon intervals.
An opportunity is given to those who are to pass into the trades’
school, to ascertain the trade which they may wish to follow, by a trial
during the last year of the elementary course.
The order of the day, with merely slight variations during four days
of the week, in summer, is as follows:--The pupils rise at a quarter
before five o’clock, and proceed by companies to the lavatory, two
companies occupying it at once and alternating, the other two being,
meanwhile, engaged in cleaning their shoes. Wash and comb their hair. At
half past five the boys detailed to serve the meals proceed to the
refectory under their two superintendents. At a quarter before six the
bugle sounds, and the companies assemble, by sections, in the
court-yard. Morning prayers and breakfast. Those who are slightly sick
report to the physician. At a quarter before seven, the boys assemble
according to classes, and at seven are marched to the school-rooms. At a
quarter before nine a luncheon of bread is served out to them. School
closes at eleven, and the pupils are free for three-quarters of an hour.
Dinner at about a quarter before twelve. The pupils brush their clothes,
and are inspected by the officer of the day. From a quarter past one to
half-past two, review the morning lessons in school. From a quarter to
three until five, are occupied with manual labor in the work-rooms. Part
of the pupils receive instruction in music, and the first and second
classes in drawing; a stated number take a swimming lesson; the
drummers, fifers, and buglers also have a lesson. A luncheon of bread is
distributed. One of the companies is at drill, one at gymnastics, and
the other pupils bathing or walking until seven. Evening prayers in the
refectory, and supper. Wash, and have recreation until nine, when they
retire. The younger pupils retire at half-past eight.
In winter, the different occupations of the day are each one hour
later than in summer, until half-past two, when the hour of review of
the lessons is omitted, and the exercises, as far as appropriate to the
season, follow in the same order as in summer, until half-past five, at
which hour the pupils go to the school-room, and remain until a quarter
before seven.
On Wednesday and Saturday, an hour is devoted to religious
instruction, the other lessons being omitted, except the physical
exercises on Wednesday. Stated days and periods of the day are assigned
for the exchange of the weekday clothes for those of Sunday, for taking
clothes or shoes requiring repairs to the tailor or shoemaker of the
establishment, for hair-cutting and combing, for washing the neck and
shoulders, the feet, and for other minute matters.
The object of the _Trade School_, is, in part, to economize the funds
of the institution, by making within its walls articles of clothing
required for the pupils, but more to secure the acquisition, not only of
general mechanical dexterity, but of a trade, which may serve to
increase their emoluments when they enter the military service. There
are, at present, one hundred and four pupils.
In order to pass into the trades’ school from the elementary division,
the pupil must have reached at least the second class, have been above
the fourth grade in conduct, be between fourteen and fifteen years of
age, and of a bodily constitution fitting him for the military service.
The course lasts three years. The school has a special inspector, or
superintendent, who is responsible to the director of the whole
institution, or, in fact, to his substitute.
The different trades now taught here are those of blacksmiths,
saddlers, tailors, shoemakers, and lithographers. The last named has but
seven pupils admissible to its school, and the next to the last
forty-four. These numbers depend upon the demand for the occupation
subsequent to leaving the establishment, the space required for the
operations of the trade, the difficulty of teaching, &c. As each pupil
is in general permitted, on advising with the inspector, to choose his
employment, it sometimes happens that boys are sent into the town to
learn a trade not taught in the school. Changes of occupation are very
rare, but are sometimes permitted. The blacksmiths are principally
engaged in the repairs of arms, the saddlers make the caps and
accoutrements, &c., used in the house, the tailors all the uniforms, the
shoemakers supply not only this orphan-house, but that of the girls with
shoes, and the lithographers are occupied in copying forms for the
school or war department, manuals, &c. They work about seven hours a
day, under a master-workman from the town.
An hour of each day is spent in gymnastic or military exercises in the
open air in summer, and in winter in the large room before spoken of.
The military exercises, besides the ordinary ones, comprise some which
are peculiar to the Prussian service. The usual exercises of gymnastics
are introduced, omitting any which seem to have a tendency towards the
tricks of the mountebank. For instruction in these exercises, the whole
school is divided into two parts, and each again into squads, so that
the teacher need have but twelve to fourteen under his charge.
Non-commissioned officers are the under teachers, and in turn are
superintended by higher teachers, and by an inspector.
There can be no doubt that to these well regulated and perseveringly
continued exercises it is, in great part, due that the physical
development of these youths is, on the average, so perfect. Judicious
recreation, a proper diet and clothing, great cleanliness, a proper
number of hours of work, of instruction and sleep, no doubt, are
necessary, each and all in their degree, but great influence must be
besides allowed to the gymnastic exercises.
The pupils have two hours of instruction during the day, intended to
keep up their knowledge of the branches taught in the elementary school,
rather than to teach new ones. Military drawing is, however, added.
When not in the shops, nor in school, nor at exercise, they are
superintended by non-commissioned officers. The discipline in this
school is military in spirit, as well as in details.
Those pupils who have manifested a decided musical talent in the lower
school, are here instructed thoroughly in the theory and practice of
music. The object is to supply musicians to the regimental bands. These
pupils have a separate superintendence from those of the other schools,
and different hours of exercise and duty. They keep up the knowledge
acquired in the elementary school, as is done in the trades’ school.
_Military Orphan-House at Annaburg._
The following plan of instruction was prepared by Dr. Harnisch, one of
the most distinguished teachers of Prussia, formerly Principal of the
Teachers Seminary at Weissenfels.
In order to rise to the place of a non-commissioned officer, the pupil
must have gone through the lowest classes of the Upper School, where
there are the following studies:--
Religious instruction, arithmetic, singing, the German language,
calligraphy, geography and history, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and
drawing.
The courses in the different branches are arranged as follows:--
FIRST. _Religious Instruction._
LOWER SCHOOL.
Class VII. Bible stories, psalms and hymns, appropriate to the season.
Four hours per week.
Class VI. Histories from the Old and New Testament, portions of the
history of the Christian church, catechism. Four hours per week.
Class V. Reading and explanation of the Bible, and of its arrangement.
The gospel and historical works are selected, and the history is
connected with the geography of the Holy Land. Catechism. Five hours.
Class IV. Doctrines of the Lutheran church, taught by Luther’s
catechism. Five hours.
UPPER SCHOOL.
Class III. Moral instruction, duties to God and man. Three hours.
Class II. Reading the Bible with comments, the pupils making
abstracts. Three hours.
Class I. (Two years.) The first year a repetition of Luther’s
catechism. The second, a history of the Christian dispensation. Three
hours.
Every class commits verses from the Bible to memory.
SECOND. _Arithmetic._ Mental and written arithmetic are taught
together, that the readiness afforded by the one, and the accuracy of
the other, may both be cultivated.
LOWER SCHOOL.
Class VII. The four ground rules, with three places of figures
mentally. Application to questions in weights and measures. Three hours.
Class VI. The same rules extended. Three hours.
Class V. Fractions, with applications to weights and measures. Three
hours.
Class IV. Proportions. Three hours.
UPPER SCHOOL.
Class III. The applications of proportions to questions of weight,
strength, value, time, and general quantity. Two hours.
Class II. Exercises in practical algebra. Two hours.
Class I. Review of the course. First year, practical operations.
Second, theory of arithmetrical processes. Two hours.
THIRD. _Vocal Music._
LOWER SCHOOL.
Classes VII & VI. Practice of songs, adapted to youth of a cheerful,
serious, military, or religious cast, with one part. Two hours.
Classes V & IV. Choral and other songs, with the different parts.
Elements of music. Two hours.
UPPER SCHOOL.
Classes III, II, & I. More difficult choral pieces. Theoretical
instruction continued. One hour. There is, besides, instruction given to
a select choir, intended to conduct the vocal exercises of the church.
FOURTH. _Reading._ In the lower classes, a readiness in reading, and
in the higher, the style of reading, is attended to especially. Pieces
learned previously, by heart, are recited.
LOWER SCHOOL.
Class VII. A good pronunciation, and some facility in reading. Six
hours.
Class VI. Readiness in reading, and repeating the substance of what
has been read. Familiar illustrations. Five hours.
Class V. Reading some work in reference to knowledge useful in common
life. Four hours.
Class IV. Reading, with attention to emphasis. Four hours.
UPPER SCHOOL.
Class III. Reading the Bible and sacred melodies, with the view to
correct reading in this kind of composition. Two hours.
Class II. Reading various selected works, in and out of the class.
Class I. Reading continued, and recitations from works previously
read.
FIFTH. _Orthography and Writing._ These may be taught together in the
same way as mental and written arithmetic; the teacher is, however, at
liberty to follow his own method.
LOWER SCHOOL.
Class VII. Copying on slates from the blackboard. Four hours.
Class VI. Copying on paper, from the board, and from books. Four
hours.
Class V. Writing from copy-slips, from books, or from dictation.
(Practice in spelling and writing.) Four hours.
Class IV. Similar exercises continued. Four hours.
UPPER SCHOOL.
Class III. Copying useful papers, such as registers, accounts,
contracts, &c. Two hours.
Class II. Calligraphy, with Roman as well as German letters; practice
in orthography; reading of letters and documents in various
handwritings. Two hours.
Class I. Copying papers relating to the management of the institution,
as a practical introduction to business. One hour.
SIXTH. _Useful knowledge taught by induction._
LOWER SCHOOL.
Class VII. The pupils give their ideas, verbally, of surrounding
objects of the most simple kind, of the commonest productions of nature
and art. Conversations relating to them. Drawing the most simple
mathematical figures on the slate. Three hours.
Class VI. Descriptions of animals and plants, the former in the
winter, the latter in the summer term. Written remarks on these, serving
to afford exercise in the formation of phrases and in orthography. Four
hours.
Class V. The most essential parts of physics and natural history, the
pupils taking notes of the lessons. Four hours.
Class IV. Compositions on various subjects. Letters relating to civil
and military affairs. Four hours.
UPPER SCHOOL.
Class III. History of Prussia, and drawing of maps. Four hours.
Class II General geography, particularly that of Europe. Passing from
physical to political geography. Civil geography in connection with the
former. Five hours.
Class I. Universal history. One year is devoted to ancient and one to
modern history. Selections are made of the more important parts of
history. Five hours.
The remaining studies only belong to the higher school.
SEVENTH. _German grammar and style._
UPPER SCHOOL.
Class III. Logical and grammatical instruction of the German language
taught.
Class II. Idiom of the language. Compositions on military subjects,
with especial reference to correctness of grammar.
Class I. Acquaintance with the best writers. Exercises of composition
on subjects taken from history.
EIGHTH. _Geometry._
UPPER SCHOOL.
Class III. Teaching the names and properties of mathematical figures
by induction, in connection with drawing.
Class II. Equations, with application to problems of common life.
Class I. Elements of trigonometry.
NINTH. _Drawing._
UPPER SCHOOL.
Class III. Drawings from common objects, varying the positions, &c.
Class II. Copying flowers, or drawings of implements.
Class I. Architectural drawing with instruments, drawings of
furniture, &c.
Dr. Bache makes the following remarks on the above plan:
I have allowed myself to present this extended programme, because it
conveys, in as brief a compass as possible, excellent ideas of the
succession of courses in an elementary school, and in a technical or
trade school, for such the higher school must be considered. It should
be remembered that the main purpose is the preparation of youth for the
military service, and hence that the wants of the service are especially
consulted. Another fact must be remembered, namely, that this is a
Lutheran school, and therefore the religious instruction is adapted to
the particular views of that church. The course of morals of the third
class, I must say, however, seems to me out of its place, for although
our duties to God and our neighbor are of course best learned from his
Word, yet their inculcation by precept and example can not commence too
early.
In the arithmetical course, the union of mental and written arithmetic
is absolutely essential. The gradation appears to me good, and the
application to questions of common life gives a zest to such studies,
attainable in no other way. The theory of arithmetical processes,
however, should accompany or follow more nearly their practical
acquisition. Indeed, if they are taught as they ought to be, by
induction, the theory goes with the practice.
If the youth at Annaburg take the same pleasure in the exercises of
song, from the elements to the completion of the musical course, as
those of the school[9] actually superintended by the author of this
project, the success will be complete.
[Footnote 9: Seminary for Teachers at Weissenfels.]
The connection of orthography and writing, especially if combined with
early reading, is natural.
The exercises of induction, which in the lower classes are well drawn
out, deviate from the appropriate track in the fourth class, and in the
geographical and historical courses do not return to it. The system in
both these branches is rather synthetical than inductive. There is a
great temptation to break away from this method, into that of giving
positive instruction, from the apparently greater rapidity of progress
of the pupil; some teachers have abandoned it altogether, as too slow,
though ultimately to their cost, as appeared to me in cases where I had
an opportunity of comparing the results.
The writing is preceded by an introductory course of drawing, which
might with excellent effect be so extended as to branch out into
complete courses of drawing and writing.
As this plan results from an extended experience, the number of hours
of instruction, per week, necessary to secure the results, is an
important datum, and as such I have retained it, whenever it was
inserted in the original programme.
II. THE SCHOOL DIVISION OR NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS’ SCHOOL.
A military school of a somewhat peculiar character for training up young
men for the duties of non-commissioned or _under_ officers exist at
Potsdam, and is known as the School Division.
The rules of the Prussian Military system, which require only three
years absolute service in the standing army in time of peace, evidently
entail a great practical difficulty in this respect. The soldiers, as a
rule, prefer to quit the service at the end of their three years’ time,
and require great inducements to persuade them to remain. As one
inducement, the state has declared that twelve years’ service gives a
non-commissioned officer a formal claim to civil employment; as, for
example, on the railways or in the custom-houses. Their pay also as
non-commissioned officers goes on increasing according to the length of
their service; and it was stated to be the usual practice not to advance
soldiers to be non-commissioned officers until they had signed an
undertaking to serve for a longer period than could be exacted of them
otherwise.
A further means of supplying the want has been sought, and appears to
have been found in the School Division. The circumstances of its origin
have placed this establishment in immediate connection with the Corps of
Guards, to which, in a military sense, they belong, at whose
head-quarters, the town of Potsdam, their buildings are situated, and
whose garrison duty in the town they occasionally undertake.
At its first commencement the pupils chiefly came in drafts from the
Military Orphan-Houses. But the applications from the country in general
have been so numerous that this practice has been, it is said,
abandoned, and a higher class of admissions has been attempted. The
Commander of the Battalion of _Landwehr_ for the Circle (_Kreis_)
receives all applications in that Circle; he sees that the candidate is
examined on the spot, in reading, writing, and cyphering; and forwards
the name, height, age, and other particulars (the _Nationale_) to the
authorities. The decision is said to be mostly made by the candidate’s
height, and his medical certificate, and to be rather a difficult
matter. Only one-third of the applications are successful. A new boy had
just presented himself with his father at the time of our visit; both
son and father were well dressed, and apparently belonged to the middle
rather than the lower classes. There seems every reason to be satisfied
with the amount of acceptance with the country which the school had
begun to receive.
The age of admission is from seventeen to twenty, and the youth on
entering the school takes a military engagement to give two years of
service in the standing army for each year of his maintenance at the
school, in addition of course to those three years of military service
to which every Prussian is bound, but with the privilege of counting as
military service the period spent at the school.
The usual school course is one of three years, and his engagement is
thus for a term of nine years; that is, deducting three spent at the
school, six years’ time with the troops.
The School Division is 496 strong; there are four companies of 124 men.
The whole body is commanded by a captain, or major, who has an adjutant.
To each company are attached four officers and fourteen non-commissioned
officers; the latter teach in the two first years, the former in the
third. The school course begins on the 1st of October; the afternoons of
three days in each week are employed in ordinary school instruction, but
the remainder of their time in winter and their whole time in summer is
devoted to military training. The school instruction is not carried
beyond reading, writing, and arithmetic up to the rule of three;
geography, drawing skeleton maps, and copying, and learning the
significance of military representations of ground. Some very
respectable specimens of their skill in copying maps were produced; it
appeared to be a favorite exercise.
About 150 are admitted yearly, an extra number being taken to supply
possible vacancies; about 130 yearly are drafted into the army, six
usually as _under_ officers at once, forty at least with certificates of
being qualified to receive the grade in a short time; and the whole
number who go out have generally obtained their appointment before
twelve months are completed. The highest number that may go out at once
as under (or non-commissioned) officers is twelve; three for each
company. Many, however, have latterly, it is said, become so within six
weeks after their leaving.
Where the young men are strong and full-grown, they are allowed to join
the army at the end of two years; their whole service (two years for
each at the school) being therefore reduced to six years.
Young men, on the other hand, who show no disposition or likelihood to
turn out good _under_ officers, are sent off to complete the usual time
as privates.
The proportion of non-commissioned officers in the standing army who are
taken from the School Division was not easy to ascertain. It differs
extremely in different regiments. In one, it was stated that out of the
ordinary complement of 180, fifty came from hence. On the other hand, it
was asserted that the general proportion was not more than one in forty.
A certain number have obtained commissions; but no prospect of such
promotion appears to be held out, and any tendency to carry forward the
studies with a view to it is discouraged and checked.
The buildings, in the outskirts of Potsdam, are large, new, and
handsome, forming three sides of a spacious court or imperfect
quadrangle. The dining-rooms are used also as exercise-rooms, and it was
made a point to let us see a portion of the pupils go through their
gymnastics and exercises; and more particularly their sword and bayonet
exercise. Twenty or thirty young men, very healthy and strong-looking,
went through the latter exercise in two lines; after which came a single
combat with the bayonet, all under the direction of an officer.
The sleeping-rooms are fairly large, and well ventilated, on the same
floor. Twelve slept in each. During the day the wooden bedsteads are
placed one above another. It was said that iron bedsteads are being
generally introduced. Each young soldier is provided with a small
cupboard above his bed. The non-commissioned officers had horsehair, the
young men themselves straw paillasses. There was a stove in the room,
but it was said not to be used.
The school-rooms are on the upper floor. The skeleton maps already
referred to were here produced; one, of the two hemispheres, others
illustrating Prussian history, showing the original size of the Prussian
territory, its extent and condition under Frederick the Great, the whole
course of its gradual extention, &c., very fairly drawn, and creditable
to the young men.
The time devoted to the training which is given in the School Division
appears long. What is now done in three years might as well be done in
half that time. The object, however, is secured of retaining the service
of the men during a lengthened period in the standing army.
III. REGIMENTAL SCHOOLS.
The Regimental Schools are chiefly intended to train up non-commissioned
officers. This is more particularly the case in the artillery, which
does not obtain its _under_ officers from the School Division at
Potsdam.
IV. THE NOBLE-SCHOOL AT LIEGNITZ.
The Noble-School at Liegnitz is merely an endowed school, founded by the
Emperor Joseph I. while Silesia was yet an Austrian dependency, and
specially intended for young men of good birth in that country. There
are some military foundations in the school for the sons of officers of
good birth; and the two military men who take part in the instruction
are paid by the state, on the same footing as officers employed in the
State Military Schools.
* * *
[Of one of the Institutions above described (The Artillery and
Engineers’ School at Berlin) we shall give a fuller account, and in the
meantime we close this comprehensive survey of military instruction in
Prussia with the following reflections of the English Commissioners.]
VIII. GENERAL REMARKS ON THE SYSTEM OF MILITARY EDUCATION IN PRUSSIA.
1. Attention has often been drawn to the peculiar feature of Prussian
Military Education, the double examination for the rank of officer. The
principle adopted seems to be the exaction of a proof from _all_
officers that they have received a good, general, and professional
education, rather than the selection of a smaller number for higher
training in a military school. The decree of 1808 first laid down the
rule for the whole army, “that the only title to an officer’s commission
shall be, in a time of peace, education and professional knowledge,--in
time of war, distinguished valor and ability.”
2. The spirit of emulation is not so much called out in Prussia as it is
in France. Early distinctions are acknowledged and appealed to, but
somewhat sparingly. The following words express the view taken on this
point:--
“A testimonial of fitness for the University,” says Colonel von
Holleben, (_i.e._, to have passed the Abiturient examination) “dispenses
with the examination for the ensigncy. In consequence of this rule fifty
_Abiturients_ on an average annually enter the army. These, as well as
the _Selectaner_ of the Cadet Corps, must be considered in point of
scientific education, an excellent supply of officers.”
3. It will be seen that in the above words there is no reference to
those rewards and advantages which are the stimulus of competition.
There appears some want in this respect both in the earlier and later
training of officers. Thus, in the instance of the Cadet House, there
are numerous _free places_, but these are assigned to young men, not
from any proof of merit or exertion, but entirely because they are the
sons of officers or state servants. The most distinguished pupils, the
_Selectaner_ gain nothing more than to be permitted to pass these two
examinations before, instead of after, entering the army. Honorable
mention, is, however, made of the candidates for commission who
distinguish themselves in the Division Schools. But in the Staff
School--the natural resource of energetic young officers--the
competition (which the school asserts as its principle by its entrance
examination) loses some of its force, by the order of the pupils on
leaving the school not being distinctly marked. It should be mentioned
as an explanation of these facts, that in the general civil education of
Prussia, competition is little encouraged, less than in our own, and far
less than in the French, or even in the Austrian education.
4. The military system of Prussia, and in some degree its military
education also, appear to have various objects in view. Thus the Cadet
Houses, where the free places are chiefly given to the sons of military
men, seem intended to keep up a military _esprit de corps_, and it is
impossible not to be struck by the strong class spirit prevailing in the
Prussian army. At the same time means are taken, as above stated, to
obtain a good supply of highly educated officers.
5. Prussian military education seems to have been constantly correcting
and extending itself. Of this the Division Schools are a striking
example; and they deserve attention, both because their plan is peculiar
to Prussia, and for the improvements they have received. The Prussians
at first established numerous Division Schools, but they afterwards
greatly diminished their number; and the general inspector of military
education now contemplates, both for the sake of the instructors and
their pupils, a further reduction to three or four. A large military
school in three or four towns in Prussia, intended to teach professional
knowledge to young officers after some short practical experience in the
army, is thought a better mode of giving such knowledge than to place
isolated, or few teachers, in regiments or army divisions.
6. One chief means of improvement has been the bringing the whole
education under a single head. At first there were distinct boards for
the examinations in Prussia, and for the schools, with a view to
maintain the independence of each. It was found, however, that this led
to a want of harmony between the schools and the examinations; and
accordingly, whilst the board of examiners and the school professors are
kept perfectly distinct, they are both subjected to the general
inspector, who controls all the departments of military education. The
effect of this has been to give more unity to all the teaching; an
essential point where that teaching is entirely on the same subjects. By
constant inspection of the schools, and the receipt of periodical
reports from them, the general inspector of military education is able
to compare the results of each, and to keep the whole system going at an
even rate of progress.
7. Attention should be drawn to the somewhat complicated system for
working the Military Schools in Prussia. There are two distinct boards,
as we have noticed above, the supreme board of studies and the
examinations board, one of which reports to the inspector-general on all
examinations, whilst the other acts as his assessors and advisers with
regard to the schools and on all other subjects of military education.
Besides these bodies, each school has its own board of studies, which is
generally formed by some one person belonging to the school, combined
with distinguished officers or professors. Suggestions with regard to
each school appear to originate chiefly from these latter bodies.
8. The department of military examinations and education is under the
control of the general inspector, who “lays his proposals on matters of
administration before the minister of war, but reports directly to the
king in all matters relating to instruction and examinations.”
THE ARTILLERY AND ENGINEERS’ SCHOOL AT BERLIN.[10]
[Footnote 10: Translated from Helldorf’s “_Dienst-Vorschriften der
Könighlich-Preussischen Armée_.”]
OBJECT AND COURSE OF STUDY.
The object of the ARTILLERY AND ENGINEER SCHOOL is to give to such young
men of the Artillery and Engineers as have been found fitted for
promotion, the education necessary for the proper performance of the
duties of a Subaltern Officer, and to enable them to draw profit
afterwards from their private studies and the practice of the service.
The complete course of study lasts two years and three quarters. The
instruction is divided into three courses, bearing the name of _cœtus_;
on joining the institution, the young men enter the first cœtus. Before
the commencement of the studies, that is, about the 1st of October, the
General Inspectors of the two corps direct the young men who are to
enter the school to come up from their regiments and divisions. They
receive their pay and clothing from their regiments until they are
promoted to the rank of Officer.
The first nine months of each year of study are principally devoted to
theoretical instruction, the three last exclusively to practice. In the
third cœtus, the course finishes with the theoretical instruction on the
1st of July.
The instruction of the first cœtus is directed to prepare the students
for the ordinary Officers’ Examination, and at the same time to enable
them to follow with advantage the further studies of the school. The
instruction, during the first year, is common to all the students. Those
who pass the Officers’ Examination enter at the commencement of the
second year into the second cœtus.
In the second cœtus the greater portion of the instruction, but not the
whole, is common to the two arms. In the third cœtus an almost entire
separation of studies takes place.
In all the studies which are common to the two arms, if the number of
students is too great for a single class, parallel classes are
established.
THE STAFF AND AUTHORITIES.
_A.--The Superior Authorities._
The _Curatorium_ of the School is composed of the General Inspectors of
the two corps. To it belongs the authority of issuing orders and
regulations; no important change in these can be made without its
sanction.
The General Inspector of Military Instruction receives yearly at fixed
periods, reports upon the state and progress of the school.
The accounts are under the control of the War Department, with which the
Director of the School is in immediate communication. Questions of
principle and unforeseen cases of importance are decided by the
_Curatorium_.
The Inspector of the School, who is an Engineer Officer when the
Director is an Artillery Officer, and _vice versâ_, has the immediate
oversight of it. It is his duty to see that the orders and regulations
are strictly followed.
_B.--The Executive Authorities._
The Director is appointed by the King. He is a Field Officer of either
Artillery or Engineers, and has the rank of Commandant of a regiment. He
has as assistant, a Captain appointed by the _Curatorium_. The Director
is immediately responsible for the discipline and the finance of the
establishment, and conducts its ordinary details, assisted by the
Captain. He is also President of the Board of Studies; as such he
exercises a general control over the instruction, and regulates the
ordinary examinations.
Under the Director and the Board of Studies are four officers, three
taken from the Artillery and one from the Engineers. They have the
immediate charge of the students, and are themselves under the direct
orders of the Captain.
The duties of Paymaster, Librarian, &c., are divided among them. They
must also give at least two hours of instruction weekly to the pupils.
The Board of Studies consists of the Director of the Institution as
President, and usually of the Senior Master of Mathematics, and the
Instructors of Artillery and Engineering in the third cœtus. In equal
numbers are likewise added Superior Officers of the Artillery and
Engineers appointed by the _Curatorium_. The duty of the Board is to
control the whole of the instruction, and to give an opinion when
required, upon the performance and capacities of the teachers and
students.
_C.--The Teachers._
The teachers are to be selected as much as possible from among the
Officers of Artillery and Engineers. Where this can not be effected,
civilians of proved ability and experience are to be appointed.
The number of teachers is to be arranged with reference to the amount
and extent of the studies, in such a manner that in the event of illness
among them, no interruption in the instruction may arise. In addition to
the teachers, there is a certain number of assistant-teachers, partly
civilians, partly taken from among the fireworkers of the Artillery. The
latter are employed under the Librarian, and in the practical
instruction; they may also, in case of necessity, assist as clerks.
THE STUDENTS.
The maximum number of students who enter each year is 80; 60 from the
Artillery, and 20 from the Engineers. In addition, a few young men may
be received from the smaller German States. In the event of the number
from one corps being short, an increased number may be admitted from the
other.
The number in the second cœtus is variable. It consists, first, of the
students previously in the first cœtus who have passed the Officers’
Examination; and, secondly, of such young officers as are appointed to
the Institution by the General Inspectors.
The students of the first cœtus lodge, as far as room will admit, in the
school buildings; the remainder, as well as the ensigns of the second
cœtus, not yet promoted to officers, are quartered in a neighboring
building. At least two of the direction officers lodge in the school
buildings; a third lodges in the other.
The Director may grant permission to a student, as a matter of favor, to
lodge with his parents.
The students quartered in the school and the neighboring building dine
together in the mess-room of the school.
The officers (students) of the second and third cœtus live in lodgings
in the town, and mess where they choose.
ENTRY INTO THE SCHOOL, AND PASSAGE THROUGH IT.
The entry into the first cœtus of the institution is conditional on the
applicant having passed, in the manner officially prescribed, the
examination for ensign. The necessary certificates are forwarded to the
Director of the School.
The instruction in the first cœtus embraces in general the subjects
required for the ordinary Officers’ Examination, that is to say, the
elements of Military Science, so far as every Subaltern Officer is
obliged to know them. To this is to be added instruction in mathematics,
in French, and in free sketching.
At the commencement of the instruction the teachers inspect the whole of
the Ensign-Examination papers of the newly-arrived students, which are
laid before them by the Director, in order the better to judge of their
acquirements. During the first quarter they take pains to ascertain the
ability as well as the amount of acquirements of each student, so as to
be able to give a confident opinion upon him at the end of the quarter.
After the close of the first quarter a conference of the teachers, under
the presidence of the Director, takes place, to form a report upon the
students, and to furnish data for recommendations to the rank of ensign
of such students as have given satisfaction by their conduct and
progress. The students about whom the teachers have not yet been able to
speak confidently, who, in certain studies, as in mathematics and the
special branches of their arm, are behind-hand, as well as those whose
conduct has not been without blame, are proposed to the higher
authorities for permission to continue to remain at the school. On the
other hand, the Board of Studies proposes for dismissal from the
institution, students whose conduct has been unsatisfactory, and
principally who give too little hope of a favorable career. The Board is
to express an opinion whether any prospect may be held out of a future
recall to the institution, according as its unfavorable report has been
founded on the want of ability or on the want of industry of the
student.
The students favorably reported on are immediately, by the General
Inspectors, appointed ensigns, subject to vacancies. The _Curatorium_
decides regarding the further stay at the institution, or the dismissal
of the others.
After the end of the second quarter, those pupils who can not yet be
recommended for promotion to ensign are only in special cases allowed to
remain till the end of the theoretical instruction of this year; if they
can not then be recommended, they are sent back to their regiments.
Fourteen days before the close of the theoretical instruction for the
year, that is to say, about the middle of June, the teachers give an
opinion regarding each student of the first cœtus, as to whether or not
they consider him capable of undergoing the Officers’ Examination, and
to pass into the second cœtus. These reports, joined to that of the
Director, as regards the conduct of the students, enable the Board of
Studies to propose to the higher authorities either that permission may
be granted to undergo the Officers’ Examination, (and, if successful, to
enter the second cœtus,) or that the student be sent back to his corps.
Students who have been refused permission on grounds not altogether
unpardonable, from presenting themselves for the Officers’ Examination,
or who in the course of instruction have been sent for any reason to
their corps, with the prospect of being afterwards called back to the
school, may, on the proposition of the Board of Studies, through the
_Curatorium_, be granted a second and final entrance into the first
cœtus.
The _Curatorium_ decides in every case whether a student who has not
qualified himself for entry into the second cœtus, may return to the
first cœtus after having left the institution, or in case he shall have
in the meantime passed the Officers’ Examination, whether he may, as an
exceptional case, enter the second cœtus. In a case of the latter kind,
the applicant can not present himself for the Officers’ Examination
without having previously passed a preliminary examination at the
school, to do which, the permission of the General Inspector of his
corps is necessary.
The theoretical course closes at the end of June. During the month of
July the students of the first cœtus are employed in surveying
operations. It is during this month that the examination for the rank of
officer before the General Examining Board takes place. The students who
pass this examination enter afterwards into the second cœtus; those who
fail are, at the expiration of the practical course of their year, sent
back to their corps.
The students who pass the Officers’ Examination, and are found qualified
to enter the second cœtus, are then proposed for election to the
officers of their corps. If the decision be favorable, their names are
submitted by the General Inspectors to the King, to be appointed, on
vacancies occurring, to the rank of Supernumerary (_Ausseretatsmässigen_)
Second Lieutenant.
To assist the Officers of the Corps in making their election, an extract
of the reports above alluded to is sent to them, so far as it concerns
the students who have successfully passed their Officers’ Examination.
It is an indispensable condition for entering the second cœtus, that, if
a student of the first cœtus, he should have passed the Officers’
Examination, or if he should now enter the school for the first time,
that he should have the rank of Officer. The sum of acquirements
necessary for the Officers’ Examination forms the basis of the
instruction given in the second cœtus. In it the instruction ceases to
be entirely common to the two arms.
At the end of the theoretical course of the second cœtus, a report of
progress and conduct is drawn up, as in the first cœtus, by the Board of
Studies, on the data furnished by the teachers as regards the studies,
and by the Director as concerns the conduct of the students. In
forwarding this report to the _Curatorium_, it is stated for each
student whether or not he is considered qualified to pass the _former
part_ of the Special Corps Examination. Those who are unfavorably spoken
of in this respect return to their corps, if there are no mitigating
circumstances which permit a further stay in the second cœtus, following
the decision of the _Curatorium_. They may either endeavor to obtain a
transfer into another branch of the army, or by study and good conduct
prepare themselves for admission into the third cœtus at a future
period. But in this case they must not only be recommended by their
corps, but they must also pass the _former part_ of the Special Corps
Examination.
The students recommended to present themselves for the _former part_ of
the Special Corps Examination undergo it before a Board appointed by the
chiefs of the two corps in the beginning of July. It extends over the
subjects of professional science which have been taught in the second
cœtus. A particular regulation defines the mode of this examination,
which is entirely written; it decides whether the student shall enter or
not into the third cœtus.
The successful students pass, by direction of the _Curatorium_, into the
third cœtus, while the unsuccessful ones, as well as those who have been
reported unfit to undergo the examination, return to their corps. By
good conduct and study they may obtain permission to come up again at
the next examination for the _former part_ of the Special Examination.
Their definite return to the school depends upon their passing this
examination, and upon the express order of the _Curatorium_.
The instruction in the third cœtus is chiefly directed to supply the
special scientific knowledge required by each of the two arms. The
students of the two corps, therefore, receive separate instruction. A
further object of the instruction is to enable the students to make use
of the knowledge which they have acquired, on which account instruction
and practical application go hand in hand. Practice and theory go thus
together in this the highest portion of the instruction, so that they
both terminate at the same time, namely, at the end of the month of
June.
Previous to leaving the School, the _latter part_ of the Special Corps
Examination is undergone before the same Board as for the _former part_.
This examination tests their qualifications in their special arm, and
proves their fitness for Artillery or Engineer Officers. The results of
this part of the examination and of the former part of it passed at the
close of the second cœtus, are combined by the Board, and forwarded to
the _Curatorium_. Along with these reports is submitted a proposition
for those who have passed the examinations to be admitted into their
corps. In the preparation of patents (for commissions) they are
antedated to the time of passing the Officers’ Examinations, proper
regard being had to the results of the Special Corps Examination for
arranging the officers among each other.
Any officer who does not pass the Special Corps Examination, remains
with the pay of an infantry officer in his corps until he either enters
into another arm, or having obtained permission to re-enter the third
cœtus, he qualifies himself for the final examination. A successful
passing of the Special Corps Examination at this second trial can give,
under the most favorable circumstances, no higher seniority than that of
immediately after the officers who have passed their examination the
previous year.
A.--_The Instruction in General._
The general instruction may be divided into--
1. The theoretical part, designed with the view to the practical
professional requirements of the students, and their further
self-improvement.
The instruction ranges over--
(_a._) Artillery.
(_b._) Military Engineering.
(_c._) Hydraulic Construction.
(_d._) Elements of Tactics.
(_e._) History of the Art of War.
(_f._) Mathematics.
(_g._) Theory of Surveying.
(_h._) Physics.
(_i._) Chemistry.
(_k._) French Language.
(_l._) Rules and Regulations of the Service.
(_m._) The Horse.
(_n._) Plan Drawing.
(_o._) Free Sketching.
(_p._) Descriptive Geometry.
(_q._) Artillery Drawing.
(_r._) Artillery Constructions Drawing.
(_s._) Fortification Drawing.
(_t._) Architectural Drawing.
2. The practical part of the instruction, designed by a series of
practical exercises to exhibit the application of the theory taught and
to extend the knowledge previously acquired.
The practical part includes--
(_a._) Visits to the Military Establishments and Institutions in
Berlin and Spandau, examination of the objects, collections, models,
&c., which they contain.
(_b._) Chemical manipulation.
(_c._) Examination of raw materials, of cannon, limbers, and
ammunition wagons, of shot and shells, and of small-arms.
(_d._) Management of machines.
(_e._) Practical exemplification of the rules for placing guns with
reference to the ground, and to tactical considerations.
(_f._) Marking out and tracing batteries and field-works.
(_g._) Drawings from Artillery objects, and from buildings, &c.
(_h._) Being present at the practical operations of the Engineer
Division of the Guards.
(_i._) Solution of problems in the attack and defense of fortresses.
(_k._) Practice in elementary tactics.
(_l._) Practical surveying.
(_m._) Artillery practice.
3. A course of Military and Gymnastic Exercises, requisite to prepare
Officers for active military service.
They are divided into--
(_a._) Exercises on foot.
(_b._) Exercises with the different kinds of guns in position.
(_c._) Fencing and gymnastics.
B.--_Instruction in Detail--The theoretical Part._
The theoretical studies commence each year on the 1st of October, and
end on the 30th of June. They may be reckoned, after deducting the
vacation and holidays, to include a period of thirty-five weeks.
As a general rule, the studies take place only in the forenoon, namely,
during the five hours between eight and one o’clock. Occasionally only
are there hours of study for a small part of the students in the
afternoon. A portion of the afternoons, during the theoretical course,
are employed for drills and practice, but in no case more than twice a
week, in order that the students may have the necessary time for
recreation. The students are required (those who are officers excepted)
to remain in their quarters in the evening, to prepare the work which
has been allotted to them by the teachers.
The parallel classes of each cœtus, with the exception of the drawing
classes, are, as a general rule, to be under the same teacher.
The theoretical instruction is distributed as follows:
AMOUNT OF STUDIES, WEEKLY.
Art. Artillery.
Eng. Engineers.
---------------------------+-------------+------------+------------
| 1st Cœtus. | 2d Cœtus. | 3d Cœtus.
NATURE OF STUDY. | Art. & Eng. | |
| | Art. Eng. | Art. Eng.
---------------------------+-------------+------------+------------
Artillery, | 4 | 3 | 8 0
Military Engineering, | 4 | 3 | 0 10
Hydraulic Construction, | 0 | 0 0 | 0 2
Elements of Tactics, | 4 | 0 0 | 0 0
History of the Art of War, | 0 | 3 | 0 0
Mathematics, | 6 | 6 | 4*
Theory of Surveying, | 2 | 0 0 | 0 0
Physics, | 0 | 4 | 0 0
Chemistry, | | |
{ Lectures, | 0 | 0 0 | 4
{ Manipulations, | 0 | 0 0 | 4
French Language, | 2 | 2 | 2
Rules and Regulations of | | |
the Service, | 2 | 0 0 | 0 0
The Horse, | 0 | 0 0 | 2 0
Plan Drawing, | 4 | 2 4 | 2 3
Free Sketching, | 2 | 0 2 | 0 0
Descriptive Geometry, | 0 | 1 | 0 0
Artillery Drawing, | 0 | 2 0 | 3 0
Artillery Construction | | |
Drawing, | 0 | 2 0 | 2 0
Fortification Drawing, | 0 | 4 | 0 4
Architectural Drawing, | 0 | 0 2 | 0 3
---------------------------+-------------+------------+------------
| 30 | 32 34 | 31 36
---------------------------+-------------+------------+------------
[* In two divisions.]
REMARKS.
In the first cœtus.--All the instruction in this class is common to the
two arms, and is equally divided among the six forenoons of the week.
In the first and second cœtus.--With reference to the mathematical
instruction, it is particularly ordained, that each of the two
mathematical teachers shall give instruction to the same students in the
first and second cœtus, so that the one who teaches in the first cœtus
one year, teaches in the second cœtus the year following.
In the second cœtus:--
1. The larger portion of the instruction, as the table shows, is
common; in Plan Drawing the only difference is that the Engineers
receive two hours’ additional instruction.
2. The instruction in French, for a select number of the most advanced
students only, takes place on two afternoons.
3. The instruction in Free Sketching for the Engineers takes place
also on two afternoons.
In the third cœtus:--
1. About one-half only of the instruction in this class is common; in
Plan Drawing the Engineers have one hour more instruction a week.
2. The Chemical Manipulations (in which a very small number only of
the students share) take place on two afternoons.
3. The instruction in French, in which only those already selected in
the second cœtus take part, also is given on two afternoons.
4. For mathematical instruction the class is formed into two
divisions. The first consists of those pupils who, in the opinion of the
teachers, are able to follow profitably the instruction in the higher
mathematics. The remainder form the second division, and go over a
second time what they have already learned, to which is added a variety
of questions in applied mathematics, important to the Artillery and the
Engineers.
TENOR OF THE STUDIES IN GENERAL.
_First Cœtus._
_Artillery._--Elementary Description of all the _matériel_ of the
Prussian Artillery, and of the basis of its arrangement. Effect of the
different natures of guns, and the simplest rules for their employment.
_General Military Engineering._--The elements of field and permanent
fortification. The principles of the attack and defense of fortresses.
General notions on the construction of military bridges.
_Tactics._--General organization of an army. Formation of the
different kinds of troops. Fundamental rules for the placing, moving,
and fighting of the separate arms, as well as their combination.
Occupation of ground. Attack and defense of positions. Field-service.
_Mathematics._--Algebra and Arithmetic. Simple and higher equations.
Progression series. The binomial theory for integral exponents. Series
of powers and logarithms. Analytical trigonometry. Plane and analytical
geometry. Plane trigonometry.
_French Language._--Translation from French into German, with parsing.
_Rules and Regulations._--Official correspondence, with examples.
Discipline. Military code. Courts-martial. Courts of honor. Service in
and out of garrison.
_Plan Drawing._--Theory of representing ground. Principles of
topography. Surveying. Drawing from copies and simple models. Knowledge
and description of the different conventional marks.
_Free Sketching._--Drawing of straight lines, broken lines, and
angles. First principles of figure drawing. Hatching with black chalk.
More difficult studies in figure drawing.
* * *
_Second Cœtus._
_Artillery._--Description of the organization of the Prussian
Artillery. Rules for the employment of artillery in the field and in
sieges.
_Special Military Engineering._--Extension of the course of field and
permanent fortification, given in the first cœtus. Extension of the
instruction on sieges. Formation of camps. Specialities of military
engineering, in so far as it is of interest to artillerists.
_History of the Art of War._--History in early times, in a very
general manner; that in the middle ages, as they approach modern times,
in greater detail; in modern times, very fully. Organization of the
armies and mode of conducting war at each remarkable period, illustrated
by the description of some campaigns and great battles.
_Mathematics._--Solid geometry. Spherical trigonometry. The theory of
projections. Theory of co-ordinates and conic sections. Statics,
geostatics, and hydrostatics.
_Physics._--General properties of bodies. Laws of the equilibrium of
solid, fluid, and aëriform bodies. Heat. Application of steam and gases.
Measurement of heights. Hygrometry. Acoustics. Optics. Magnetism,
Electricity. Electro-magnetism. Magneto-electricity.
_French Language._--Exercises in translating German into French, for a
select number of pupils, about one-third of the whole.
_Artillery Drawing._--Use of drawing instruments and scales. Drawing
of the _matériel_ of the artillery, and principally of the separate
parts of an object in different views and sections, to a certain scale,
without the original.
_Artillery Constructions Drawing._--Construction of the different
limbers, gun-carriages, &c., and the principles of their arrangement,
forms, proportions, and admeasurements; in greater part, however,
intended only as illustrations of the rules of perspective.
_Fortification Drawing._--Instruction in the composition of drawings;
the practice includes representations of projects of fortresses and
their details in plan and section, and in cavalier’s perspective
(bird’s-eye view); both etched and shaded with Indian ink, and colored.
The chief object is to qualify the pupils to understand, and to prepare
correctly, drawings and plans of objects in field and permanent
fortification.
_Plan Drawing._--Further practice in drawing of ground, with objects,
buildings, &c., marked in black and colors. Further progress in geodesy.
Sketches and reconnaissances.
_Architectural Drawing._--Perspective. Drawings of architectural
decoration in outline, with the lines of shadow, but without further
detail.
_Free Sketching._--Further figure-drawing. Landscapes and the drawing
of ornaments, for the more skillful students.
_Descriptive Geometry._--The theory of descriptive geometry.
Projections of various bodies in space, upon planes. Drawing according
to proportional scales. Theory of light and shade of drawings.
_Third Cœtus._
_Artillery._--History and Literature of artillery. Review of the
general relations of the artillery system in the principal states of
Europe. Scientific basis of artillery objects, and their technical
description. Theory of the parabola and of projectiles. Organization and
employment of artillery, considered in its highest point of view.
_Exclusive Military Engineering._--Special application of the rules
for sieges under given circumstances more or less connected. Complete
instruction in building, and its application shown by projects for given
sites.
_Hydraulic Constructions._--General principles of the science.
Knowledge of the construction of such works, of which the principles
should be known to engineer officers. In this is chiefly to be
considered fascine work for the protection of the banks of rivers and
canals, the construction of bridges and sluices, and the laying the
foundation of heavy masonry in water.
_Mathematics._--(For the first division, about a quarter of the
class.)--Differential and integral calculus. The higher geometry.
Analytical mechanics and hydraulics.
(For the second division, about three-quarters of the
class.)--Repetition of the most important part of the studies already
gone through in the first and second cœtus, with practical useful
problems. Mechanics and hydraulics, as well as some instruction
necessary for artillerists, but so as not to require the higher
analysis, and more of a practical than of a theoretical nature.
_Chemistry_ (Instruction.)--The necessary preliminary knowledge of
theoretical principles. Treatise of separate substances (of the
metalloids and their indifferent combinations, of the acids, of the
metals,) all illustrated by experiments. To conclude with a survey of
the composition and alteration of the surface of the globe from a
chemical point of view.
(Manipulation.)--Instruction in the principles of qualitative chemical
analysis, illustrated by experiments. Manipulation by the students under
the superintendence of the instructor. Instruction in the principles of
quantitative analysis. Analysis by the students, of substances employed
by the artillery. (Only four or five of the best qualified take part in
these experiments.)
_French Language._--Select conversation (only for the already selected
students in the second cœtus.)
_The Horse._--Natural history and anatomy of the horse. Good and bad
points. Food. Internal and external sickness, with the mode of discovery
and cure of the same, as far as practicable, by the means to be had on
actual service. Shoeing.
_Artillery Drawing._--Continuation of the instruction. _Matériel_ of
the artillery, represented as combined artillery objects, partly on a
given scale, partly drawn from a real object, by the more skillful
students.
_Artillery Construction Drawing._--Construction of each description of
cannon. Principles of their forms, proportions, and sizes. Problems on
the construction of existing and not existing guns, carriages, &c.
Construction of the artillery _matériel_ of foreign powers.
_Fortification Drawing._--Projects of field fortification, to be
constructed of earth, or of earth and gabions, with application to the
nature of the ground. Drawings with the use of Von Prittwitz’ copies of
the fortification of places, as a continuation of the fortification
drawings begun in the second cœtus. For all these exercises in projects
and drawings, the concert of the teacher of exclusive engineering is
required.
_Plan Drawing._--Practice in copying and reducing large plans. Drawing
of plans of battles with the position of the troops, and of plans of
sieges, with the trenches and batteries.
_Architectural Drawing._--Architecture in its application to military
buildings, done in India ink. Finally, practical exercises in copying
buildings.
PRACTICAL EXERCISES.
These are carried on, as has been already remarked, in part during the
nine months of theoretical instruction, on some of the afternoons, but
they principally take place during the three summer months of July,
August, and September, in the forenoon. They commence early in the
morning, and often last till the afternoon, on which account there are
no evening hours of study during this period. As the students of the
third cœtus return to their corps at the beginning of July, those of the
first and second cœtus only take part in this practice. The visits to
the Fortress and Military Establishments of Spandau, and the preparation
of projects of military constructions, and of reconnaissances, must be
made during the period of theoretical instruction. It is therefore
suspended for one day for the students of the first cœtus, and for three
days for the Artillery, and five days for the Engineer students of the
third cœtus.
The distribution of time for each cœtus is as follows:
DURING THE NINE MONTHS OF THEORETICAL INSTRUCTION.
[KEY]
1C 1st Cœtus. Artillery and Engineers.
Art. Artillery
Eng. Engineers
----------------------------------------+----------------------------
| Number of Days employed.
+------+----------+----------
| 1C |2d Cœtus. |3d Cœtus.
| |Art. Eng.|Art. Eng.
----------------------------------------+------+----------+----------
Visits to the Artillery Workshops, | 2 | 0 0 | 4 0
To the Collection of Arms | | |
in the Arsenal | 1 | 0 0 | 0 0
To the Models of Fortresses in do. | 1 | 0 0 | 0 0
To the Ordnance, Gun-carriages, | | |
Ammunition-wagons, &c., in do. | 4 | 0 0 | 0 0
To the Foundry and Boring Machinery | 2 | 0 0 | 2 0
To the Iron-foundry, and to | | |
one of the large Manufactories | | |
of Machinery in Berlin, | 0 | 0 0 | 2 0
To the Fortress of Spandau, the | | |
Powder-mill, and Small-arm Factory, | 1 | 0 0 | 0 0
Working in the Laboratory | 12 | 12 12 | 0 0
Examination of Ordnance, | 0 | 0 0 | 6 0
“ of Gun-carriages, and | | |
Ammunition-wagons, | 0 | 0 0 | 6 0
“ of Shot and shell | 0 | 0 0 | 2 0
“ of Small-arms, | 2 | 0 0 | 0 0
Practical representation of the | | |
Rules for placing Guns: | | |
With reference to the ground, | 0 | 2 2 | 0 0
On given tactical conditions, | 0 | 0 0 | 4 0
Solution of problems in the art of | | |
Sieges, with reference to an actual | | |
fortress and the country surrounding | | |
it (Spandau,) | 0 | 0 0 | 3 5
Practice in Elementary Tactics, | 4 | 0 0 | 0 0
Drawings of Ordnance, Carriages, &c. | 0 | 12 0 | 0 0
“ of Buildings, &c. | 0 | 0 0 | 0 14
Practice in Geodesy, | 12 | 0 0 | 0 0
----------------------------------------+------+----------+----------
DURING THE REMAINING THREE MONTHS.
----------------------------------------+------+----------+----------
Practice in Geodesy, | 16 | 28 32 | Nil.
Practice in Fortification of the | | |
1st cœtus, with the Engineers | | |
of the Guard | 12 | 0 0 | “
Practice in Fortification of the | | |
2d cœtus, | 0 | 10 10 | “
Visits to the Models of Fortresses | | |
in the Model-house, | 0 | 2 2 | “
Gun Practice, proof of gunpowder, | | |
the management of machines, &c. | 14 | 14 14 | “
----------------------------------------+------+----------+----------
_Remarks._--The employment of time in the last three months above given,
requires the whole of the months of July and August, and about the first
third of the month of September, after deducting fourteen days for the
Officers’ Examination for the first cœtus, and occasional days lost
through bad weather. The remaining two-thirds of September are given for
vacation, as well to afford recreation to the teachers and students as
to allow of the repairing and cleansing of the school-buildings.
MILITARY AND GYMNASTIC EXERCISES.
The month of October is appointed by the Director to the fitting and
making uniform the regimental clothing brought with the students from
their corps. Military exercises then take place once a week for two
hours in the afternoon, till the 1st of April, or for about five months.
The military exercises are carried on under officers of the garrison,
namely, a Captain and two Lieutenants of the Artillery of the Guard.
They put themselves in communication with the Director to arrange the
time, nature, and extent of the exercises.
The exercises consist of--
1. _Exercises on Foot._--The whole of the first cœtus here take part,
but only so many of the second Cœtus as are required as non-commissioned
officers. Considering the composition of the squad, (Artillery and
Engineers,) and the object of the exercise, the perfection of the
students in company-drill is less to be attempted than the endeavor to
give to each a good position and carriage in the front as well as in the
ranks, and more particularly to accustom them to military order and
precision.
2. _Exercises with different descriptions of Guns in Position._--In
preference, the light field-pieces of the year 1842 are to be used for
drill, and correct, united and prompt execution required. With the
siege-guns, every student is instructed and practiced with at least one
calibre of each nature.
In addition to their military exercises, there are also--
3. _Fencing and Gymnastics._--In these exercises the students of the
first cœtus only take part, and for two hours of the afternoon each
week, during the first six months. There is neither time nor appliances
to admit of the students arriving at a high state of excellence. The
practice in fencing is only intended to give confidence in the use of
arms, that in gymnastics to produce activity, and to afford bodily
exercise to young men much occupied in study.
EXAMINATIONS AND CENSURES.
In addition to the several examinations already enumerated, by which the
fitness of the students for a certain rank or for promotion into a
higher cœtus is shown, some other examinations take place.
1. For the purpose of enabling the Director and the Board of Studies to
learn the progress of each separate student, and to confirm by their own
knowledge the opinion given by the teachers, there is twice in each
quarter an oral repetition of some portion of such instruction in the
first and second cœtus. The period of the examination is previously
named by the Director.
2. To give a general view of the progress of the entire year, and to
incite the students to study, a public oral examination of those in the
first cœtus takes place at the close of the theoretical instruction, in
presence of the higher authorities of the school, superior officers of
the two arms, and other persons interested.
As a further incitement to the students, and as a warning to those whose
diligence or conduct has not been satisfactory, the quarterly “censures”
are read out to the assembled cœtus. In general the names of the
students are not mentioned, a number known to the individual only being
used instead. The best pupils are, however, openly commended by name.
In the first cœtus, on the other hand, those pupils who have obtained
very bad “censure” are mentioned by name.
FINANCIAL RELATIONS.
The annual expense of the School is fixed at 16,049 dollars. The sum is
distributed as follows:--
_Personal._
Salaries and allowances of Teachers 10,731
Pay and allowances of the Staff, 3,478
------ 14,209
Practical exercises, 520
School necessaries, 720
Keeping up materials for instruction, 110
Cleansing the rooms 130
Lighting, 100
Bureau expenses, 210
Covering unforeseen expenses, 50
------ 1,800
In the event of war, and if the instruction is suspended for an
indeterminate period, the salaries of the civil teachers cease.
Application is not to be made to the King for the grant of a provisional
indemnity, except under very peculiar circumstances.
The payment of the salaries and allowances is made monthly and in
advance.
The administration of the funds is directly under the supervision of the
Director. The Treasurer carries out the details. The superior orders for
the administration of royal grants are most strictly to be followed.
The annual accounts are forwarded by the Director to the War Department.
The property of the School consists of--
The Library, the Collection of Instruments and Models for Artillery and
Engineers, the Collection of Physical Instruments, the Collection of
Chemical Apparatus, and the School Utensils.
The principal object of the Library is to serve as materials of
instruction for the teachers and students, and the Officers of Artillery
and Engineers present at the Institution. After that, as a center, for
the collection of all the best works, old and new, on Artillery and
Military Engineering.
The Director and Board of Studies take care that the instruments and
apparatus for the studies are always kept complete and in good order. As
the means of the school do not thoroughly admit of the collections
keeping pace with the progress of science, special care is taken that at
least the most necessary articles are not absent.
The utensils of the school are kept always complete, under the
supervision of the Director.
The property of the school is examined yearly by the Director and Board
of Studies, and a report to that effect sent in with the annual
accounts.
PROGRAMMES OF THE PRINCIPAL SUBJECTS TAUGHT IN THE ARTILLERY AND
ENGINEER SCHOOL AT BERLIN.
I. ARTILLERY.
The instruction must commence with the first elements of the science,
since the new arriving students have little preparatory knowledge. It
must be carried on to such an extent that the pupil may be able, after
going through the first cœtus, to pass his _officer’s examination_, and
after the completion of the entire course, not only to show at his
_special_ examination that he possesses the positive knowledge required
for the ordinary duties of the service, but also to prove that he is
qualified for continuing his studies by himself.
The Engineer pupils who close their instruction in artillery at the end
of the second cœtus, are to be instructed in the composition of
artillery, in the effect and the use of cannon, but more especially in
its employment in sieges.
From this general notice of the limits of the course it is evident that
neither a perfect exposition of the theory nor complete practical
exercises are expected. Still to train the students properly in the
different directions which an artillery education requires, the
instruction must not consist only in a theoretical lecture, but be aided
by judicious directions for drawing, and be perfected by practical
exercises. For the attainment of the two latter objects special
prescriptions are given, to which we refer.
Instruction in artillery is closely connected with the lectures on
mathematics, physics, chemistry, tactics, fortification, and veterinary
science.
_a._ As special points may be mentioned, _in mathematics_, calculation
of contents, and fixing the centers of gravity, of cannon and its parts;
calculation of piles of shot; strength, direction, and distribution of
recoil on the separate portions of a piece of ordnance; theory of
machines, of carriages, of parabolic and projectile curves, and
calculation of the flight of rockets. In all these cases the
mathematical lecturer develops the necessary formulas for the artillery
student, but their application belongs to the course of artillery.
_b._ _In physics._--Explanation, notice, and determination of the
specific gravities of the materials used in artillery. The law of
gravity. The absolute and relative strength of woods and metals.
Friction. Resistance of the air. Expansive power of gases, especially of
those generated by gunpowder.
_c._ _In chemistry._--The general laws of chemical action of bodies on
one another. The simple elements of the materials used in artillery. The
chemical properties of their combinations. The acids exhibited in the
combustion of gunpowder and their action on metals; the processes used
in the reduction and manufacture of metals up to the point where they
are fit for use in artillery; chemical analysis of gunpowder and of the
most common metal-alloys. The action of the atmosphere on substances
exposed to it, which are used in artillery.
_d._ _In tactics._--The organization and tactics of artillery, so far as
they stand in direct relation to other arms. A complete account of the
conduct of artillery when coöperating with other troops.
_e._ _In fortification._--Everything referring to the tracing, the
relief, and the construction of fortifications; attack and defense of
field-works by infantry and cavalry; complete exposition of the art of
besieging, with a discussion of all the duties of an engineer, a sapper
or miner, both in the attack and the defense of a fortress, also the use
of infantry and cavalry in sieges, with the omission of the points
specially belonging to artillery.
_f._ _In the veterinary art._--The anatomy and physiology of the horse;
general rules for feeding, treatment of diseases, and disinfection of
the stables and utensils.
The instruction in the first cœtus must, as already mentioned, be so
calculated, that the students at the end of the course of lessons may be
able to satisfy perfectly the requirements of the _Officer’s
examination_.
As a further prosecution of the same subjects of instruction in the
second, and again in the third cœtus, would lead to a great loss of time
and to tiresome repetitions, the lectures are to be so planned that the
separate subjects to be treated in the first and second cœtus, taken
together, are of sufficient extent for the Engineer pupils in general;
the further developments necessary for the Artillery pupils are reserved
in preference for the third cœtus.
A. IN THE FIRST CŒTUS.
The separate subjects of the lecture are--
1. Definition and distribution of arms.
2. Theory of gunpowder: component parts--manufacture--ignition--force.
Proving. Storing. Transporting. Necessary precautions in manufacturing.
Marks of damaged powder, and the possibility of restoration. Mention of
the substances which may be used in place of gunpowder for various
military purposes.
3. Cannon. Materials. Dispositions. Manufacture. Proving. Storing, and
duration.
4. Gun-carriages. Limbers and other artillery carriages. General
explanations on the construction of carriages, with particular reference
to those used for artillery. Materials. Distribution and composition of
gun-carriages. Limbers and wagons. Their examination and storing.
5. Military combustibles. Elementary notions. General account of
laboratory work and regulations; also with reference to later
proceedings in a laboratory, and, omitting all figures not absolutely
necessary, a description of the preparation of fire-works, matches,
ammunition both for artillery and for small-arms, signal lights, and
particular kinds of combustibles. Their packing and storing.
6. The service, working, and moving of cannon, and of artillery
carriages, with account and description of the machines in use by the
Prussian artillery; but without special explanation of the official
regulations.
7. Firing. Theory of the movement of projectiles, of the effect caused
by their movement, and the mode of turning this action to the best
account for military purposes. Elements of the theory of firing.
Practice. Various descriptions of fire; their effect, and their
employment for various sorts of guns.
8. Small and side-arms. Purpose and description of the composition and
arrangement of small-arms. Their manufacture, storing, and the practical
rules for their use. Purpose and description of side-arms. Fabrication,
proving, effect, and use of them.
B. IN THE SECOND CŒTUS.
The instruction in the second cœtus is a continuation of the lectures of
the first cœtus, and embraces the use of artillery in the field and in
sieges. Its object is to bring the Artillery students to that point,
that they are able, at its close, to discharge satisfactorily the
ordinary practical duties of the service, and be prepared to follow the
course of the third cœtus, and to give to the Engineer students, who, in
the third cœtus no longer receive instruction in artillery, all the
knowledge of the subject required for their future profession. The
instruction must therefore be complete enough for the Engineers, and
give the Artilterist a solid and thorough preparation for the third
cœtus.
Instruction in the second cœtus should comprise, in particular--
1. The organization of the artillery: purpose and considerations in the
putting together of all parts of artillery material, both in tactical
and administrative respects, with historical mention of the diversities
of practice of other Powers.
2. The use of artillery in the field. Marching and tactical movements.
Taking up position. The engagement itself, and conduct in some
particular cases; for example, in defile fighting, in entrenchments,
passage of rivers, &c.
3. Use of artillery in sieges:--
a. _For Attack._