THE NEGRO PROBLEM
It is probably clear from our study in the preceding pages that the
history of the Negro people in the United States falls into well defined
periods or epochs. First of all there was the colonial era, extending
from the time of the first coming of Negroes to the English colonies to
that of the Revolutionary War. This divides into two parts, with a line
coming at the year 1705. Before this date the exact status of the Negro
was more or less undefined; the system of servitude was only gradually
passing into the sterner one of slavery; and especially in the middle
colonies there was considerable intermixture of the races. By the year
1705, however, it had become generally established that the Negro was to
be regarded not as a person but as a thing; and the next seventy years
were a time of increasing numbers, but of no racial coherence or
spiritual outlook, only a spasmodic insurrection here and there
indicating the yearning for a better day. With the Revolution there came
a change, and the second period extends from this war to the Civil War.
This also divides into two parts, with a line at the year 1830. In the
years immediately succeeding the Revolution there was put forth
the first effective effort toward racial organization, this being
represented by the work of such men as Richard Allen and Prince Hall;
but, in spite of a new racial consciousness, the great mass of the Negro
people remained in much the same situation as before, the increase in
numbers incident to the invention of the cotton-gin only intensifying
the ultimate problem. About the year 1830, however, the very hatred and
ignominy that began to be visited upon the Negro indicated that at least
he was no longer a thing but a person. Lynching began to grow apace,
burlesque on the stage tended to depreciate and humiliate the race,
and the South became definitely united in its defense of the system of
slavery. On the other hand, the Abolitionists challenged the attitude
that was becoming popular; the Negroes themselves began to be prosperous
and to hold conventions; and Nat Turner's insurrection thrust baldly
before the American people the great moral and economic problem with
which they had to deal. With such divergent opinions, in spite of feeble
attempts at compromise, there could be no peace until the issue of
slavery at least was definitely settled. The third great period extends
from the Civil War to the opening of the Great War in Europe. Like the
others it also falls into two parts, the division coming at the year
1895. The thirty years from 1865 to 1895 may be regarded as an era
in which the race, now emancipated, was mainly under the guidance of
political ideals. Several men went to Congress and popular education
began to be emphasized; but the difficulties of Reconstruction and the
outrages of the KuKlux Klan were succeeded by an enveloping system of
peonage, and by 1890-1895 the pendulum had swung fully backward and in
the South disfranchisement had been arrived at as the concrete solution
of the political phase of the problem. The twenty years from 1895 to
1915 formed a period of unrest and violence, but also of solid economic
and social progress, the dominant influence being the work of Booker T.
Washington. With the world war the Negro people came face to face with
new and vast problems of economic adjustment and passed into an entirely
different period of their racial history in America.
This is not all, however. The race is not to be regarded simply as
existent unto itself. The most casual glance at any such account as we
have given emphasizes the importance of the Negro in the general history
of the United States. Other races have come, sometimes with great gifts
or in great numbers, but it is upon this one that the country's history
has turned as on a pivot. It is true that it has been despised and
rejected, but more and more it seems destined to give new proof that the
stone which the builders refused is become the head stone of the corner.
In the colonial era it was the economic advantage of slavery over
servitude that caused it to displace this institution as a system of
labor. In the preliminary draft of the Declaration of Independence a
noteworthy passage arraigned the king of England for his insistence upon
the slave-trade, but this was later suppressed for reasons of policy.
The war itself revealed clearly the fallacy of the position of the
patriots, who fought for their rights as Englishmen but not for the
fundamental rights of man; and their attitude received formal expression
in the compromises that entered into the Constitution. The expansion of
the Southwest depended on the labor of the Negro, whose history became
inextricably bound up with that of the cotton-gin; and the question or
the excuse of fugitives was the real key to the Seminole Wars. The long
struggle culminating in the Civil War was simply to settle the status of
the Negro in the Republic; and the legislation after the war determined
for a generation the history not only of the South but very largely of
the nation as well. The later disfranchising acts have had overwhelming
importance, the unfair system of national representation controlling the
election of 1916 and thus the attitude of America in the world war.
This is an astonishing phenomenon--this vast influence of a people
oppressed, proscribed, and scorned. The Negro is so dominant in American
history not only because he tests the real meaning of democracy, not
only because he challenges the conscience of the nation, but also
because he calls in question one's final attitude toward human nature
itself. As we have seen, it is not necessarily the worker, not even
the criminal, who makes the ultimate problem, but the simple Negro of
whatever quality. If this man did not have to work at all, and if his
race did not include a single criminal, in American opinion he would
still raise a question. It is accordingly from the social standpoint
that we must finally consider the problem. Before we can do this we need
to study the race as an actual living factor in American life; and even
before we do that it might be in order to observe the general importance
of the Negro to-day in any discussion of the racial problems of the
world.
1. _World Aspect_
Any consideration of the Negro Problem in its world aspect at the
present time must necessarily be very largely concerned with Africa as
the center of the Negro population. This in turn directs attention to
the great colonizing powers of Europe, and especially to Great Britain
as the chief of these; and the questions that result are of far-reaching
importance for the whole fabric of modern civilization. No one can
gainsay the tremendous contribution that England has made to the world;
every one must respect a nation that produced Wycliffe and Shakespeare
and Darwin, and that, standing for democratic principles, has so often
stayed the tide of absolutism and anarchy; and it is not without desert
that for three hundred years this country has held the moral leadership
of mankind. It may now not unreasonably be asked, however, if it has not
lost some of its old ideals, and if further insistence upon some of its
policies would not constitute a menace to all that the heart of humanity
holds dear.
As a preliminary to our discussion let us remark two men by way of
contrast. A little more than seventy years ago a great traveler set
out upon the first of three long journeys through central and southern
Africa. He was a renowned explorer, and yet to him "the end of the
geographical feat was only the beginning of the enterprise." Said Henry
Drummond of him: "Wherever David Livingstone's footsteps are crossed in
Africa the fragrance of his memory seems to remain." On one occasion
a hunter was impaled on the horn of a rhinoceros, and a messenger ran
eight miles for the physician. Although he himself had been wounded for
life by a lion and his friends said that he should not ride at night
through a wood infested with beasts, Livingstone insisted on his
Christian duty to go, only to find that the man had died and to be
obliged to retrace his footsteps. Again and again his party would
have been destroyed if it had not been for his own unbounded tact and
courage, and after his death at Chitambo's village Susi and Chuma
journeyed for nine months and over eight hundred miles to take his body
to the coast. "We work for a glorious future," said he, "which we are
not destined to see--the golden age which has not been, but will yet be.
We are only morning-stars shining in the dark, but the glorious morn
will break, the good time coming yet. For this time we work; may God
accept our imperfect service."
About the time that Livingstone was passing off the scene another strong
man, one of England's "empire builders," began his famous career. Going
first to South Africa as a young man in quest of health, Cecil Rhodes
soon made a huge fortune out of Kimberley diamonds and Transvaal gold,
and by 1890 had become the Prime Minister of Cape Colony. In the pursuit
of his aims he was absolutely unscrupulous. He refused to recognize any
rights of the Portuguese in Matabeleland and Mashonaland; he drove hard
bargains with the Germans and the French; he defied the Boers; and to
him the native Africans were simply so many tools for the heaping up of
gold. Nobody ever said of him that he left a "fragrant memory" behind
him; but thousands of bruised bodies and broken hearts bore witness to
his policy. According to the ideals of modern England, however, he was
a great man. What the Negro in the last analysis wonders is: Who was
right, Livingstone or Rhodes? And which is the world to choose, Christ
or Mammon?
There are two fundamental assumptions upon which all so-called Western
civilization is based--that of racial and that of religious superiority.
Sight has been lost of the fact that there is really no such thing as a
superior race, that only individuals are superior one to another, and a
popular English poet has sung of "the white man's burden" and of "lesser
breeds without the law." These two assumptions have accounted for all of
the misunderstanding that has arisen between the West and the East, for
China and Japan, India and Egypt can not see by what divine right men
from the West suppose that they have the only correct ancestry or by
what conceit they presume to have the only true faith. Let them but be
accepted, however, let a nation be led by them as guiding-stars, and
England becomes justified in forcing her system upon India, she finds it
necessary to send missionaries to Japan, and the lion's paw pounces upon
the very islands of the sea.
The whole world, however, is now rising as never before against any
semblance of selfishness on the part of great powers, and it is more
than ever clear that before there can be any genuine progress toward the
brotherhood of man, or toward comity among nations, one man will have
to give some consideration to the other man's point of view. One people
will have to respect another people's tradition. The Russo-Japanese War
gave men a new vision. The whole world gazed upon a new power in the
East--one that could be dealt with only upon equal terms. Meanwhile
there was unrest in India, and in Africa there were insurrections
of increasing bitterness and fierceness. Africa especially had been
misrepresented. The people were all said to be savages and cannibals,
almost hopelessly degraded. The traders and the politicians knew better.
They knew that there were tribes and tribes in Africa, that many of the
chiefs were upright and wise and proud of their tradition, and that the
land could not be seized any too quickly. Hence they made haste to get
into the game.
It is increasingly evident also that the real leadership of the world is
a matter not of race, not even of professed religion, but of principle.
Within the last hundred years, as science has flourished and
colonization grown, we have been led astray by materialism. The worship
of the dollar has become a fetish, and the man or the nation that had
the money felt that it was ordained of God to rule the universe. Germany
was led astray by this belief, but it is England, not Germany, that has
most thoroughly mastered the _Art of Colonization_. Crown colonies are
to be operated in the interest of the owners. Jingoism is king. It
matters not that the people in India and Africa, in Hayti and the
Philippines, object to our benevolence; _we_ know what is good for them
and therefore they should be satisfied.
In Jamaica to-day the poorer people can not get employment; and yet,
rather than accept the supply at hand, the powers of privilege import
"coolie" labor, a still cheaper supply. In Sierra Leone, where certainly
there has been time to see the working of the principle, native young
men crowd about the wharves and seize any chance to earn a penny, simply
because there is no work at hand to do--nothing that would genuinely
nourish independence and self-respect.
It is not strange that the worship of industrialism, with its attendant
competition, finally brought about the most disastrous war in history
and such a breakdown of all principles of morality as made the whole
world stand aghast. Womanhood was no longer sacred; old ideas of ethics
vanished; Christ himself was crucified again--everything holy and lovely
was given to the grasping demon of Wealth.
Suddenly men realized that England had lost the moral leadership of the
world. Lured by the ideals of Rhodes, the country that gave to mankind
_Magna Charta_ seemed now bent only on its own aggrandizement and
preservation. Germany's colonies were seized, and anything that
threatened the permanence of the dominant system, especially unrest on
the part of the native African, was throttled. Briton and Boer began
to feel an identity of interest, and especially was it made known that
American Negroes were not wanted.
Just what the situation is to-day may be illustrated by the simple
matter of foreign missions, the policy of missionary organizations in
both England and America being dictated by the political policy of the
empire. The appointing of Negroes by the great American denominations
for service in Africa has practically ceased, for American Negroes are
not to be admitted to any portion of the continent except Liberia,
which, after all, is a very small part of the whole. For the time being
the little republic seems to receive countenance from the great powers
as a sort of safety-valve through which the aspiration of the Negro
people might spend itself; but it is evident that the present
understanding is purely artificial and can not last. Even the Roman
Empire declined, and Germany lost her hold in Africa overnight. Of
course it may be contended that the British Empire to-day is not
decadent but stronger than ever. At the same time there can be no doubt
that Englishman and Boer alike regard these teeming millions of prolific
black people always with concern and sometimes with dismay. Natives of
the Congo still bear the marks of mutilation, and men in South Africa
chafe under unjust land acts and constant indignities in their daily
life.
Here rises the question for our own country. To the United States at
last has come that moral leadership--that obligation to do the right
thing--that opportunity to exhibit the highest honor in all affairs
foreign or domestic--that is the ultimate test of greatness. Is America
to view this great problem in Africa sympathetically and find some place
for the groping for freedom of millions of human beings, or is she to be
simply a pawn in the game of English colonization? Is she to abide by
the principles that guided her in 1776, or simply seize her share of
the booty? The Negro either at home or abroad is only one of many
moral problems with which she has to deal. At the close of the war
extravagance reigned, crime was rampant, and against any one of three or
four races there was insidious propaganda. To add to the difficulties,
the government was still so dominated by politics and officialdom that
it was almost always impossible to get things done at the time they
needed to be done. At the same time every patriot knows that America is
truly the hope of the world. Into her civilization and her glory have
entered not one but many races. All go forth against a common enemy; all
should share the duties and the privileges of citizenship. In such
a country the law can know no difference of race or class or creed,
provided all are devoted to the general welfare. Such is the obligation
resting upon the United States--such the challenge of social, economic,
and moral questions such as never before faced the children of men. That
she be worthy of her opportunity all would pray; to the fulfilment of
her destiny all should help. The eyes of the world are upon her; the
scepter of the ages is in her hand.
2. _The Negro in American Life_
If now we come to the Negro in the United States, it is hardly an
exaggeration to say that no other race in the American body politic, not
even the Anglo-Saxon, has been studied more critically than this one,
and treatment has varied all the way from the celebration of virtues
to the bitterest hostility and malignity. It is clearly fundamentally
necessary to pay some attention to racial characteristics and gifts.
In recent years there has been much discussion from the standpoint
of biology, and special emphasis has been placed on the emotional
temperament of the race. The Negro, however, submits that in the United
States he has not been chiefly responsible for such miscegenation as has
taken place; but he is not content to rest simply upon a _tu quoque_.
He calls attention to the fact that whereas it has been charged that
lynchings find their excuse in rape, it has been shown again and again
that this crime is the excuse for only one-fourth or one-fifth of
the cases of violence. If for the moment we suppose that there is
no question about guilt in a fourth or a fifth of the cases, the
overwhelming fraction that remains indicates that there are other
factors of the highest importance that have to be considered in any
ultimate adjustment of the situation. In every case accordingly the
Negro asks only for a fair trial in court--not too hurried; and he knows
that in many instances a calm study of the facts will reveal nothing
more than fright or hysteria on the part of a woman or even other
circumstances not more incriminating.
Unfortunately the whole question of the Negro has been beclouded by
misrepresentation as has no other social question before the American
people, and the race asks simply first of all that the tissue of
depreciation raised by prejudice be done away with in order that it may
be judged and estimated for its quality. America can make no charges
against any element of her population while she denies the fundamental
right of citizenships--the protection of the individual person. Too
often mistakes are made, and no man is so humble or so low that he
should be deprived of his life without due process of law. The Negro
undoubtedly has faults. At the same time, in order that his gifts may
receive just consideration, the tradition of burlesque must for the time
being be forgotten. All stories about razors, chickens, and watermelons
must be relegated to the rear; and even the revered and beloved "black
mammy" must receive an affectionate but a long farewell.
The fact is that the Negro has such a contagious brand of humor that
many people never realize that this plays only on the surface. The real
background of the race is one of tragedy. It is not in current jest but
in the wail of the old melodies that the soul of this people is found.
There is something elemental about the heart of the race, something that
finds its origin in the forest and in the falling of the stars. There is
something grim about it too, something that speaks of the lash, of the
child torn from its mother's bosom, of the dead body swinging at night
by the roadside. The race has suffered, and in its suffering lies its
destiny and its contribution to America; and hereby hangs a tale.
If we study the real quality of the Negro we shall find that two things
are observable. One is that any distinction so far won by a member of
the race in America has been almost always in some one of the arts; and
the other is that any influence so far exerted by the Negro on American
civilization has been primarily in the field of æsthetics. The reason
is not far to seek, and is to be found in the artistic striving even of
untutored Negroes. The instinct for beauty insists upon an outlet, and
if one can find no better picture he will paste a circus poster or a
flaring advertisement on the wall. Very few homes have not at least a
geranium on the windowsill or a rosebush in the garden. If we look at
the matter conversely we shall find that those things which are most
picturesque make to the Negro the readiest appeal. Red is his favorite
color simply because it is the most pronounced of all colors. The
principle holds in the sphere of religion. In some of our communities
Negroes are known to "get happy" in church. It is, however, seldom a
sermon on the rule of faith or the plan of salvation that awakens such
ecstasy, but rather a vivid portrayal of the beauties of heaven, with
the walls of jasper, the feast of milk and honey, and the angels with
palms in their hands. The appeal is primarily sensuous, and it is hardly
too much to say that the Negro is thrilled not so much by the moral as
by the artistic and pictorial elements in religion. Every member of the
race is an incipient poet, and all are enthralled by music and oratory.
Illustrations are abundant. We might refer to the oratory of Douglass,
to the poetry of Dunbar, to the picturesque style of DuBois, to the
mysticism of the paintings of Tanner, to the tragic sculpture of Meta
Warrick Fuller, and to a long line of singers and musicians. Even
Booker Washington, most practical of Americans, proves the point, the
distinguishing qualities of his speeches being anecdote and vivid
illustration. It is best, however, to consider members of the race who
were entirely untaught in the schools. On one occasion Harriet Tubman,
famous for her work in the Underground Railroad, was addressing an
audience and describing a great battle in the Civil War. "And then,"
said she, "we saw the lightning, and that was the guns; and then we
heard the thunder, and that was the big guns; and then we heard the rain
falling, and that was drops of blood falling; and when we came to git in
the craps, it was dead men that we reaped." Two decades after the war
John Jasper, of Richmond, Virginia, astonished the most intelligent
hearers by the power of his imagery. He preached not only that the "sun
do move," but also of "dry bones in the valley," the glories of the New
Jerusalem, and on many similar subjects that have been used by other
preachers, sometimes with hardly less effect, throughout the South. In
his own way Jasper was an artist. He was eminently imaginative; and it
is with this imaginative--this artistic--quality that America has yet to
reckon.
The importance of the influence has begun to be recognized, and on the
principle that to him that hath shall be given, in increasing measure
the Negro is being blamed for the ills of American life, a ready excuse
being found in the perversion and debasement of Negro music. We have
seen discussions whose reasoning, condensed, was somewhat as follows:
The Negro element is daily becoming more potent in American society;
American society is daily becoming more immoral; therefore at the door
of the Negro may be laid the increase in divorce and all the other
evils of society. The most serious charge brought against the Negro
intellectually is that he has not yet developed the great creative or
organizing mind that points the way of civilization. He most certainly
has not, and in this he is not very unlike all the other people in
America. The whole country is still in only the earlier years of its
striving. While the United States has made great advance in applied
science, she has as yet produced no Shakespeare or Beethoven. If America
has not yet reached her height after three hundred years of striving,
she ought not to be impatient with the Negro after only sixty years
of opportunity. But all signs go to prove the assumption of limited
intellectual ability fundamentally false. Already some of the younger
men of the race have given the highest possible promise.
If all of this, however, is granted, and if the Negro's exemplification
of the principle of self-help is also recognized, the question still
remains: Just what is the race worth as a constructive factor in
American civilization? Is it finally to be an agency for the upbuilding
of the nation, or simply one of the forces that retard? What is its real
promise in American life?
In reply to this it might be worth while to consider first of all
the country's industrial life. The South, and very largely the whole
country, depends upon Negro men and women as the stable labor supply in
such occupations as farming, saw-milling, mining, cooking, and washing.
All of this is hard work, and necessary work. In 1910, of 3,178,554
Negro men at work, 981,922 were listed as farm laborers and 798,509 as
farmers. That is to say, 56 per cent of the whole number were engaged in
raising farm products either on their own account or by way of assisting
somebody else, and the great staples of course were the cotton and corn
of the Southern states. If along with the farmers we take those engaged
in the occupations employing the next greatest numbers of men--those of
the building and hand trades, saw and planing mills, as well as those
of railway firemen and porters, draymen, teamsters, and coal mine
operatives--we shall find a total of 71.2 per cent engaged in such work
as represents the very foundation of American industry. Of the women at
work, 1,047,146, or 52 per cent, were either farm laborers or farmers,
and 28 per cent more were either cooks or washerwomen. In other words, a
total of exactly 80 per cent were engaged in some of the hardest and at
the same time some of the most vital labor in our home and industrial
life. The new emphasis on the Negro as an industrial factor in the
course of the recent war is well known. When immigration ceased, upon
his shoulders very largely fell the task of keeping the country and the
army alive. Since the war closed he has been on the defensive in the
North; but a country that wishes to consider all of the factors that
enter into its gravest social problem could never forget his valiant
service in 1918. Let any one ask, moreover, even the most prejudiced
observer, if he would like to see every Negro in the country out of it,
and he will then decide whether economically the Negro is a liability or
an asset.
Again, consider the Negro soldier. In all our history there are no pages
more heroic, more pathetic, than those detailing the exploits of black
men. We remember the Negro, three thousand strong, fighting for the
liberties of America when his own race was still held in bondage. We
remember the deeds at Port Hudson, Fort Pillow, and Fort Wagner. We
remember Santiago and San Juan Hill, not only how Negro men went
gallantly to the charge, but how a black regiment faced pestilence that
the ranks of their white comrades might not be decimated. And then
Carrizal. Once more, at an unexpected moment, the heart of the nation
was thrilled by the troopers of the Tenth Cavalry. Once more, despite
Brownsville, the tradition of Fort Wagner was preserved and passed on.
And then came the greatest of all wars. Again was the Negro summoned to
the colors--summoned out of all proportion to his numbers. Others might
desert, but not he; others might be spies or strikers, but not he--not
he in the time of peril. In peace or war, in victory or danger, he has
always been loyal to the Stars and Stripes.
Not only, however, does the Negro give promise by reason of his economic
worth; not only does he deserve the fullest rights of citizenship on
the basis of his work as a soldier; he brings nothing less than a great
spiritual contribution to civilization in America. His is a race of
enthusiasm, imagination, and spiritual fervor; and after all the doubt
and fear through which it has passed there still rests with it an
abiding faith in God. Around us everywhere are commercialism, politics,
graft--sordidness, selfishness, cynicism. We need hope and love, a new
birth of idealism, a new faith in the unseen. Already the work of some
members of the race has pointed the way to great things in the realm of
conscious art; but above even art soars the great world of the spirit.
This it is that America most sadly needs; this it is that her most
fiercely persecuted children bring to her.
Obviously now if the Negro, if any race, is to make to America the
contribution of which it is capable, it must be free; and this raises
the whole question of relation to the rest of the body politic. One of
the interesting phenomena of society in America is that the more foreign
elements enter into the "melting pot" and advance in culture, the more
do they cling to their racial identity. Incorporation into American
life, instead of making the Greek or the Pole or the Irishman forget his
native country, makes him all the more jealous of its traditions. The
more a center of any one of these nationalities develops, the more
wealthy and cultured its members become, the more do we find them proud
of the source from which they sprang. The Irishman is now so much an
American that he controls whole wards in our large cities, and sometimes
the cities themselves. All the same he clings more tenaciously than ever
to the celebration of March 17. When an isolated Greek came years ago,
poor and friendless, nobody thought very much about him, and he
effaced himself as much as possible, taking advantage, however, of any
opportunity that offered for self-improvement or economic advance. When
thousands came and the newcomers could take inspiration from those of
their brothers who had preceded them and achieved success, nationality
asserted itself. Larger groups now talked about Venizelos and a greater
Greece; their chests expanded at the thought of Marathon and Plato; and
companies paraded amid applause as they went to fight in the Balkans. In
every case, with increasing intelligence and wealth, race pride asserted
itself. At the same time no one would think of denying to the Greek or
the Irishman or the Italian his full rights as an American citizen.
It is a paradox indeed, this thing of a race's holding its identity
at the same time that it is supposed to lose this in the larger
civilization. Apply the principle to the Negro. Very soon after the
Civil War, when conditions were chaotic and ignorance was rampant, the
ideals constantly held before the race were those of white people. Some
leaders indeed measured success primarily by the extent to which they
became merged in the white man's life. At the time this was very
natural. A struggling people wished to show that it could be judged by
the standards of the highest civilization within sight, and it did so.
To-day the tide has changed. The race now numbers a few millionaires. In
almost every city there are beautiful homes owned by Negroes. Some men
have reached high attainment in scholarship, and the promise grows
greater and greater in art and science. Accordingly the Negro now loves
his own, cherishes his own, teaches his boys about black heroes, and
honors and glorifies his own black women. Schools and churches and all
sorts of coöperative enterprises testify to the new racial self-respect,
while a genuine Negro drama has begun to flourish. A whole people has
been reborn; a whole race has found its soul.
3. _Face to Face_
Even when all that has been said is granted, it is still sometimes
maintained that the Negro is the one race that can not and will not
be permitted to enter into the full promise of American life. Other
elements, it is said, even if difficult to assimilate, may gradually be
brought into the body politic, but the Negro is the one element that
may be tolerated but not assimilated, utilized but not welcomed to the
fullness of the country's glory.
However, the Negro has no reason to be discouraged. If one will but
remember that after all slavery was but an incident and recall the
status of the Negro even in the free states ten years before the Civil
War, he will be able to see a steady line of progress forward. After the
great moral and economic awakening that gave the race its freedom, the
pendulum swung backward, and finally it reached its farthest point of
proscription, of lawlessness, and inhumanity. No obscuring of the vision
for the time being should blind us to the reading of the great movement
of history.
To-day in the whole question of the Negro problem there are some matters
of pressing and general importance. One that is constantly thrust
forward is that of the Negro criminal. On this the answer is clear. If a
man--Negro or otherwise--is a criminal, he is an enemy of society, and
society demands that he be placed where he will do the least harm. If
execution is necessary, this should take place in private; and in no
case should the criminal be so handled as to corrupt the morals or
arouse the morbid sensibilities of the populace. At the same time simple
patriotism would demand that by uplifting home surroundings, good
schools, and wholesome recreation everything possible be done for Negro
children as for other children of the Republic, so that just as few of
them as possible may graduate into the criminal class.
Another matter, closely akin to this, is that of the astonishing lust
for torture that more and more is actuating the American people. When in
1835 McIntosh was burned in St. Louis for the murder of an officer, the
American people stood aghast, and Abraham Lincoln, just coming into
local prominence, spoke as if the very foundations of the young republic
had been shaken. After the Civil War, however, horrible lynchings became
frequent; and within the last decade we have seen a Negro boy stabbed in
numberless places while on his way to the stake, we have seen the eyes
of a Negro man burned out with hot irons and pieces of his flesh cut
off, and a Negro woman--whose only offense was a word of protest against
the lynching of her husband--while in the state of advanced pregnancy
hanged head downwards, her clothing burned from her body, and herself so
disemboweled that her unborn babe fell to the ground. We submit that
any citizens who commit such deeds as these are deserving of the most
serious concern of their country; and when they bring their little
children to behold their acts--when baby fingers handle mutilated flesh
and baby eyes behold such pictures as we have suggested--a crime has
been committed against the very name of childhood. Most frequently it
will be found that the men who do these things have had only the most
meager educational advantages, and that generally--but not always--they
live in remote communities, away from centers of enlightenment, so that
their whole course of life is such as to cultivate provincialism. With
not the slightest touch of irony whatever we suggest that these men need
a crusade of education in books and in the fundamental obligations of
citizenship. At present their ignorance, their prejudice, and their lack
of moral sense constitute a national menace.
It is full time to pause. We have already gone too far. The Negro
problem is only an index to the ills of society in America. In our haste
to get rich or to meet new conditions we are in danger of losing all of
our old standards of conduct, of training, and of morality. Our courts
need to summon a new respect for themselves. The average citizen knows
only this about them, that he wants to keep away from them. So far we
have not been assured of justice. The poor man has not stood an equal
chance with the rich, nor the black with the white. Money has been
freely used, even for the changing of laws if need be; and the
sentencing of a man of means generally means only that he will have a
new trial. The murders in any American city average each year fifteen or
twenty times as many as in an English or French city of the same size.
Our churches need a new baptism; they have lost the faith. The same
principle applies in our home-life, in education, in literature. The
family altar is almost extinct; learning is more easy than sound; and
in literature as in other forms of art any passing fad is able to gain
followers and pose as worthy achievement. All along the line we need
more uprightness--more strength. Even when a man has committed a crime,
he must receive justice in court. Within recent years we have heard too
much about "speedy trials," which are often nothing more than legalized
lynchings. If it has been decreed that a man is to wait for a trial one
week or one year, the mob has nothing to do with the matter, and, if
need be, all the soldiery of the United States must be called forth to
prevent the storming of a jail. Fortunately the last few years have
shown us several sheriffs who had this conception of their duty.
In the last analysis this may mean that more responsibility and more
force will have to be lodged in the Federal Government. Within recent
years the dignity of the United States has been seriously impaired.
The time seems now to have come when the Government must make a new
assertion of its integrity and its authority. No power in the country
can be stronger than that of the United States of America.
For the time being, then, this is what we need--a stern adherence to
law. If men will not be good, they must at least be made to behave. No
one will pretend, however, that an adjustment on such a basis is finally
satisfactory. Above the law of the state--above all law of man--is the
law of God. It was given at Sinai thousands of years ago. It received
new meaning at Calvary. To it we must all yet come. The way may be hard,
and in the strife of the present the time may seem far distant; but some
day the Messiah will reign and man to man the world over shall brothers
be "for a' that."
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
Unless an adequate volume is to be devoted to the work, any bibliography
of the history of the Negro Problem in the United States must be
selective. No comprehensive work is in existence. Importance attaches to
_Select List of References on the Negro Question_, compiled under the
direction of A.P.C. Griffin, Library of Congress, Washington, 1903; _A
Select Bibliography of the Negro American_, edited by W.E.B. DuBois,
Atlanta, 1905, and _The Negro Problem: a Bibliography_, edited by Vera
Sieg, Free Library Commission, Madison, Wis., 1908; but all such lists
have to be supplemented for more recent years. Compilations on the
Abolition Movement, the early education of the Negro, and the literary
and artistic production of the race are to be found respectively in
Hart's _Slavery and Abolition_, Woodson's _The Education of the Negro
prior to 1861_, and Brawley's _The Negro in Literature and Art_, and the
_Journal of Negro History_ is constantly suggestive of good material.
The bibliography that follows is confined to the main question. First of
all are given general references, and then follows a list of individual
authors and books. Finally, there are special lists on topics on which
the study in the present work is most intensive. In a few instances
books that are superficial in method or prejudiced in tone have been
mentioned as it has seemed necessary to try to consider all shades of
opinion even if the expression was not always adequate. On the other
hand, not every source mentioned in the footnotes is included, for
sometimes these references are merely incidental; and especially does
this apply in the case of lectures or magazine articles, some of which
were later included in books. Nor is there any reference to works of
fiction. These are frequently important, and books of unusual interest
are sometimes considered in the body of the work; but in such a study as
the present imaginative literature can be hardly more than a secondary
and a debatable source of information.
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. General References
(Mainly in Collections, Sets, or Series)
Statutes at Large, being a Collection of all the Laws of Virginia from
the first session of the Legislature, in the year 1619, by William
Waller Hening. Richmond, 1819-20.
Laws of the State of North Carolina, compiled by Henry Potter, J.L.
Taylor, and Bart. Yancey. Raleigh, 1821.
The Statutes at Large of South Carolina, edited by Thomas Cooper.
Columbia, 1837.
The Pro-Slavery Argument (as maintained by the most distinguished
writers of the Southern states). Charleston, 1852.
Files of such publications as Niles's _Weekly Register_, the _Genius
of Universal Emancipation_, the _Liberator_, and DeBow's _Commercial
Review_, in the period before the Civil War; and of the _Crisis_,
the _Journal of Negro History_, the _Negro Year-Book_, the _Virginia
Magazine of History_, the _Review of Reviews_, the _Literary Digest_,
the _Independent_, the _Outlook_, as well as representative newspapers
North and South and weekly Negro newspapers in later years.
Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science
(some numbers important for the present work noted below).
Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law edited by the Faculty of
Political Science of Columbia University (some numbers important for the
present work noted below).
Atlanta University Studies of Negro Problems (for unusually important
numbers note DuBois, editor, below, also Bigham).
Occasional Papers of the American Negro Academy (especially note
Cromwell in special list No. 1 below and Grimké in No. 3).
Census Reports of the United States; also Publications of the Bureau of
Education.
Annual Reports of the General Education Board, the John F. Slater Fund,
the Jeanes Fund; reports and pamphlets issued by American Missionary
Association, American Baptist Home Mission Society, Freedmen's Aid
Society, etc.; catalogues of representative educational institutions;
and a volume "From Servitude to Service" (the Old South lectures on
representative educational institutions for the Negro), Boston, 1905.
Pamphlets and reports of National Association for the Advancement of
Colored People, the National Urban League, the Southern Sociological
Congress, the University Commission on Southern Race Questions, Hampton
Conference reports, 1897-1907, and Proceedings of the National Negro
Business League, annual since 1900.
The American Nation: A History from Original Sources by Associated
Scholars, edited by Albert Bushnell Hart. 27 vols. Harper & Bros., New
York, 1907. (Volumes important for the present work specially noted
below.)
The Chronicles of America. A Series of Historical Narratives edited
by Allen Johnson. 50 vols. Yale University Press, New Haven, 1918--.
(Volumes important for the present work specially noted below.)
The South in the Building of the Nation. 12 vols. The Southern
Publication Society. Richmond, Va., 1909.
Studies in Southern History and Politics. Columbia University Press, New
York, 1914.
New International and Americana Encyclopedias (especially on such topics
as Africa, the Negro, and Negro Education).
II. INDIVIDUAL WORKS
(Note pamphlets at end of list; also special lists under III below.)
Adams, Alice Dana: The Neglected Period of Anti-Slavery in
America (1808-1831), Radcliffe College Monograph No. 14.
Boston, 1908 (now handled by Harvard University Press).
Adams, Henry: History of the United States from 1801 to 1817. 9
vols. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1889-90.
Alexander, William T.: History of the Colored Race in America.
Palmetto Publishing Co., New Orleans, 1887.
Armistead, Wilson: A Tribute for the Negro, being a Vindication
of the Moral, Intellectual, and Religious Capabilities of the Colored
Portion of Mankind, with particular reference to the African
race, illustrated by numerous biographical sketches, facts,
anecdotes, etc., and many superior portraits and engravings.
Manchester, 1848.
Baker, Ray Stannard: Following the Color Line. Doubleday, Page
& Co., New York, 1908.
Ballagh, James Curtis: A History of Slavery in Virginia. Johns
Hopkins Studies, extra volume 24. Baltimore, 1902.
White Servitude in the Colony of Virginia. Johns Hopkins Studies,
Thirteenth Series, Nos. 6 and 7. Baltimore, 1895.
Bassett, John Spencer: Anti-Slavery Leaders of North Carolina.
Sixth Series, No. 6. Baltimore, 1898.
Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North Carolina. Johns Hopkins
Studies, Fourteenth Series, Nos. 4 and 5. Baltimore, 1896.
Slavery in the State of North Carolina. Johns Hopkins Studies, XIV:
179; XVII: 323.
Bigham, John Alvin (editor): Select Discussions of Race Problems,
No. 20, of Atlanta University Publications. Atlanta, 1916.
Birney, William: James G. Birney and His Times. D. Appleton &
Co., New York, 1890.
Blake, W.O.: The History of Slavery and the Slave-Trade. Columbus,
O., 1861.
Blyden, Edward W.: Christianity, Islam, and the Negro Race. London,
1887.
Bogart, Ernest Ludlow: The Economic History of the United States.
Longmans, Green & Co., New York, 1918 edition.
Bourne, Edward Gaylord: Spain in America, 1450-1580. Vol. 3 of
American Nation Series.
Brackett, Jeffrey Richardson: The Negro in Maryland: A Study of
the Institution of Slavery. Johns Hopkins Studies, extra volume
6. Baltimore, 1889.
Bradford, Sarah H.: Harriet, the Moses of Her People. New York,
1886.
Brawley, Benjamin: A Short History of the American Negro. The
Macmillan Co., New York, 1913, revised 1919.
History of Morehouse College. Atlanta, 1917.
The Negro in Literature and Art. Duffield & Co., New York, 1918.
Your Negro Neighbor (in Our National Problems series). The
Macmillan Co., New York, 1918.
Africa and the War. Duffield & Co., New York, 1918.
Women of Achievement (written for the Fireside Schools under
the auspices of the Woman's American Baptist Home Mission
Society). Chicago and New York, 1919.
Brawley, Edward M.: The Negro Baptist Pulpit. American Baptist
Publication Society, Philadelphia, 1890.
Bruce, Philip Alexander: Economic History of Virginia in the
Seventeenth Century. 2 vols. The Macmillan Co., New York,
1896.
Cable, George Washington: The Negro Question. Charles Scribner's
Sons, New York, 1890.
Calhoun, William Patrick: The Caucasian and the Negro in the
United States. R.L. Bryan Co., Columbia, S. C, 1902.
Chamberlain, D.H.: Present Phases of Our So-Called Negro Problem
(open letter to the Rt. Hon. James Bryce of England), reprinted
from _News and Courier_, Charleston, of August 1, 1904.
Cheyney, Edward Potts: European Background of American History.
Vol. I of American Nation Series.
Child, Lydia Maria: An Appeal in Favor of That Class of Americans
Called Africans. Boston, 1833.
The Oasis (edited). Boston, 1834.
Clayton, V.V.: White and Black under the Old Regimé. Milwaukee,
1899.
Clowes, W. Laird: Black America: A Study of the Ex-Slave and
His Late Master. Cassell & Co., London, 1891.
Coffin, Joshua: An Account of Some of the Principal Slave Insurrections,
and others, which have occurred, or been attempted, in the
United States and elsewhere, during the last two centuries,
with various remarks. American Anti-Slavery Society, New
York, 1860.
Collins, Winfield H.: The Domestic Slave Trade of the Southern
States. Broadway Publishing Co., New York, 1904.
Coman, Katherine: The Industrial History of the United States.
The Macmillan Co., New York, 1918 edition.
The Negro as a Peasant Farmer. American Statistical Association
Publications, 1904:39.
Commons, John R.: Races and Immigrants in America. The Macmillan
Co., 1907.
Coolidge, Archibald Cary: The United States as a World Power.
The Macmillan Co., New York, 1918.
Cooper, Anna Julia: A Voice from the South, by a black woman
of the South. Xenia, O., 1892.
Corey, Charles H.: A History of the Richmond Theological Seminary.
Richmond, 1895.
Cornish, Samuel E., and Wright, T.S.: The Colonization Scheme
Considered in Its Rejection by the Colored People. Newark,
1840.
Cromwell, John W.: The Negro in American History. The American
Negro Academy, Washington, 1914.
Culp, Daniel W. (editor): Twentieth Century Negro Literature.
Nichols & Co., Toronto, 1902.
Cutler, James E.: Lynch Law, an Investigation into the History of
Lynching in the United States. Longmans, Green & Co., New
York, 1905.
Daniels, John: In Freedom's Birthplace: A Study of the Boston
Negroes. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston and New York, 1914.
Dewey, Davis Rich: National Problems, 1885-1897. Vol. 24 in
American Nation Series.
Dill, Augustus Granville. See DuBois, editor Atlanta University
Publications.
Dodd, William E.: The Cotton Kingdom. Vol. 27 of Chronicles of
America.
Expansion and Conflict. Vol. 3 of Riverside History of the United
States. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1915.
Dow, Lorenzo ("Cosmopolite, a Listener"): A Cry from the Wilderness!
A Voice from the East, A Reply from the West--Trouble in the
North, Exemplifying in the South. Intended as a timely and
solemn warning to the People of the United States. Printed
for the Purchaser and the Public. United States, 1830.
DuBois, W.E. Burghardt: Suppression of the African Slave-Trade.
Longmans, Green & Co., New York, 1896 (now handled by Harvard
University Press).
DuBois, W.E. Burghardt: The Philadelphia Negro. University of
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1899.
The Souls of Black Folk. A.C. McClurg & Co., Chicago, 1903.
The Negro in the South (Booker T. Washington, co-author).
George W. Jacobs & Co., Philadelphia, 1907.
John Brown (in American Crisis Biographies). George W. Jacobs
& Co., Philadelphia, 1909.
The Negro (in Home University Library Series). Henry Holt &
Co., New York, 1915.
Darkwater: Voices from within the Veil. Harcourt, Brace &
Co., New York, 1920.
(Editor Atlanta University Publications).
The Negro Church, No. 8.
The Health and Physique of the Negro American, No. II.
Economic Co-operation among Negro Americans, No. 12.
The Negro American Family, No. 13.
Efforts for Social Betterment among Negro Americans, No. 14.
The College-Bred Negro American, No. 15. (A.G. Dill, co-editor.)
The Negro American Artisan, No. 17. (A.G. Dill, co-editor.)
Morals and Manners among Negro Americans, No. 18. (A.G.
Dill, co-editor.)
Dunbar, Alice Ruth Moore: Masterpieces of Negro Eloquence. The
Bookery Publishing Co., New York, 1914.
Dunbar, Paul Laurence: Complete Poems. Dodd, Mead & Co., New
York, 1913.
Dunning, William Archibald: Reconstruction, Political and Economic.
Vol. 22 of American Nation Series.
Earnest, Joseph B., Jr.: The Religious Development of the Negro
in Virginia (Ph.D. thesis, Virginia). Charlottesville, 1914.
Eckenrode, Hamilton James: The Political History of Virginia
during the Reconstruction. Johns Hopkins Studies. Twenty-second
Series, Nos. 6, 7, and 8. Baltimore, 1904.
Ellis, George W.: Negro Culture in West Africa. The Neale Publishing
Co., New York, 1914.
Ellwood, Charles A.: Sociology and Modern Social Problems. American
Book Co., New York, 1910.
Elwang, William W.: The Negroes of Columbia, Mo. (A.M. thesis,
Missouri), 1904.
Epstein, Abraham: The Negro Migrant in Pittsburgh (in publications
of School of Economics of the University of Pittsburgh).
1918.
Evans, Maurice S.: Black and White in the Southern States: A
Study of the Race Problem in the United States from a South
African Point of View. Longmans, Green & Co., London, 1915.
Ferris, William Henry: The African Abroad. 2 vols. New Haven,
1913.
Fleming, Walter L.: Documentary History of Reconstruction. 2
vols. Arthur H. Clark Co., Cleveland, O., 1906.
The Sequel of Appomattox. Vol. 32 of Chronicles of America.
Fletcher, Frank H.: Negro Exodus. Report of agent appointed by
the St. Louis Commission to visit Kansas for the purpose of
obtaining information in regard to colored emigration. No
imprint.
Furman, Richard: Exposition of the Views of the Baptists Relative
to the Colored Population in the United States, in a communication
to the Governor of South Carolina. Second edition, Charleston,
1833. (Letter bears original date December 24, 1822; Furman
was president of State Baptist Convention.)
Garrison, Wendell Phillips, and Garrison, Francis Jackson: William
Lloyd Garrison; Story of His Life Told by His Children. 4
vols. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1894.
Garrison, William Lloyd: Thoughts on African Colonization: or
An Impartial Exhibition of the Doctrines, Principles, and Purposes
of the American Colonization Society, together with the
Resolutions, Addresses, and Remonstrances of the Free People
of Color. Boston, 1832.
Gayarré, Charles E.A.: History of Louisiana. 4 vols. New Orleans,
1885 edition.
Grady, Henry W.: The New South and Other Addresses, with
biography, etc., by Edna H.L. Turpin. Maynard, Merrill & Co.,
New York, 1904.
Graham, Stephen: The Soul of John Brown. The Macmillan Co.,
New York, 1920.
Hallowell, Richard P.: Why the Negro was Enfranchised--Negro
Suffrage Justified. Boston, 1903. (Reprint of two letters in the
_Boston Herald_, March 11 and 26, 1903.)
Hammond, Lily Hardy: In Black and White: An Interpretation of
Southern Life. Fleming H. Revell Co., New York, 1914.
Harris, Norman Dwight: Intervention and Colonization in Africa.
Houghton, Mifflin Co., Boston, 1914.
Hart, Albert Bushnell: National Ideals Historically Traced. Vol.
26 in American Nation Series.
Slavery and Abolition. Vol. 16 in American Nation Series.
The Southern South. D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1910.
Hartshorn, W.N., and Penniman, George W.: An Era of Progress
and Promise, 1863-1910. The Priscilla Publishing Co., Boston,
1910.
Haworth, Paul Leland: America in Ferment. Bobbs-Merrill Co.,
Indianapolis, 1915.
Haynes, George E.: The Negro at Work in New York City Vol
49, No. 3, of Columbia Studies, 1912.
Helper, Hinton Rowan: The Impending Crisis of the South: How
to Meet It. New York, 1857.
Hickok, Charles T.: The Negro in Ohio, 1802-1870. (Western
Reserve thesis.) Cleveland, 1896.
Higginson, Thomas Wentworth: Army Life in a Black Regiment
Boston, 1870. (Latest edition, Houghton, Mifflin Co., 1900.)
Hoffman, Frederick L.: Race Traits and Tendencies of the American
Negro. American Economics Association Publications, XI,
Nos. 1-3, 1896.
Hodge, Frederick W. (editor): Spanish Explorers in the Southern
United States, 1528-1543 (in Original Narratives of Early American
History), esp. The Narrative of Alvar Nuñez Cabeça de Vaca.
Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1907.
Holland, Edwin C.: A Refutation of the Calumnies circulated
against the Southern and Western States, respecting the institution
and existence of slavery among them; to which is added a minute
and particular account of the actual condition and state of
their Negro Population, together with Historical Notices of
all the Insurrections that have taken place since the settlement
of the country. By a South Carolinian. Charleston, 1822.
Horsemanden, Daniel (Judge): A Journal of the Proceedings in
the Detection of the Conspiracy Formed by Some White People,
in conjunction with Negro and Other Slaves, for Burning the
City of New York in America, and Murdering the Inhabitants.
New York, 1744.
Hosmer, James K.: The History of the Louisiana Purchase. D.
Appleton & Co., New York, 1902.
Hurd, John C.: The Law of Freedom and Bondage. 2 vols. Boston,
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Jay, William: Inquiry into the Character and Tendency of the American
Colonization and Anti-Slavery Societies. New York, 1835.
Jefferson, Thomas: Writings, issued under the auspices of the
Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association. 20 vols. Washington,
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Jervey, Theodore D.: Robert Y. Hayne and His Times. The Macmillan
Co., New York, 1909.
Johnson, Allen: Union and Democracy. Vol. 2 of Riverside History
of the United States. Houghton, Mifflin Co., Boston, 1915.
Johnson, James W.: Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man (published
anonymously). Sherman, French & Co., Boston, 1912.
Fifty Years and Other Poems. The Cornhill Co., Boston, 1917.
Hayti. Four articles reprinted from the _Nation_, New York, 1920.
Johnston, Sir Harry Hamilton: The Negro in the New World. The
Macmillan Co., New York, 1910.
Kelsey, Carl: The Negro Farmer (Ph.D. thesis, Pennsylvania).
Jennings & Pye, Chicago, 1903.
Kemble, Frances A.: Journal of Residence on a Georgia Plantation,
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Kerlin, Robert T. (editor): The Voice of the Negro, 1919. E.P.
Dutton & Co., New York, 1920.
Kimball, John C.: Connecticut's Canterbury Tale; Its Heroine Prudence
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Krehbiel, Henry E.: Afro-American Folk-Songs. G. Schirmer, New
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Lauber, Almon Wheeler: Indian Slavery in Colonial Times within
the Present Limits of the United States. Vol. 54, No. 3, of
Columbia University Studies, 1913.
Livermore, George: An Historical Research Respecting the Opinions
of the Founders of the Republic on Negroes as Slaves, as
Citizens, and as Soldiers. Boston, 1863.
Locke, Mary Stoughton: Anti-Slavery in America from the Introduction
of African Slaves to the Prohibition of the Slave-Trade,
1619-1808. Radcliffe College Monograph No. 11. Boston, 1901
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Lonn, Ella: Reconstruction in Louisiana. G.P. Putnam's Sons,
New York, 1919.
Lugard, Lady (Flora L. Shaw): A Tropical Dependency. James
Nisbet & Co., Ltd., London, 1906.
Lynch, John R.: The Facts of Reconstruction: The Neale Publishing
Co., New York, 1913.
McConnell, John Preston: Negroes and Their Treatment in Virginia
from 1865 to 1867 (Ph.D. thesis, Virginia, 1905). Printed by
B.D. Smith & Bros., Pulaski, Va., 1910.
MacCorkle, William A.: Some Southern Questions. G.P. Putnam's
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McCormac, E.I.: White Servitude in Maryland. Johns Hopkins
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McDougall, Marion Gleason: Fugitive Slaves, 1619-1865. Fay
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McLaughlin, Andrew Cunningham: The Confederation and the
Constitution, 1783-1789. Vol. 10 in American Nation Series.
McMaster, John Bach: A History of the People of the United States,
from the Revolution to the Civil War. 8 vols. D. Appleton &
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Macy, Jesse: The Anti-Slavery Crusade. Vol. 28 in Chronicles of
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Marsh, J.B.T.: The Story of the Jubilee Singers, with their songs.
Boston, 1880.
Miller, Kelly: Race Adjustment. The Neale Publishing Co., New
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Out of the House of Bondage. The Neale Publishing Co., New
York, 1914.
Appeal to Conscience (in Our National Problems Series). The
Macmillan Co., New York, 1913.
Moore, G.H.: Historical Notes on the Employment of Negroes in
the American Army of the Revolution. New York, 1862.
Morgan, Thomas J.: Reminiscences of Service with Colored Troops
in the Army of the Cumberland, 1863-65. Providence, 1885.
Moton, Robert Russa: Finding a Way Out: An Autobiography.
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Murphy, Edgar Gardner: The Basis of Ascendency. Longmans,
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Murray, Freeman H.M.: Emancipation and the Freed in American
Sculpture. Published by the author, 1733 Seventh St., N.W.,
Washington, 1916.
Odum, Howard W.: Social and Mental Traits of the Negro. Columbia
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Olmsted, Frederick Law: The Cotton Kingdom. 2 vols. New York,
1861.
A Journey in the Seaboard Slave States. New York, 1856.
Page, Thomas Nelson: The Old South. Charles Scribner's Sons,
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Palmer, B.M. (with W.T. Leacock): The Rights of the South
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Penniman, George W. See Hartshorn, W.N.
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Plantation and Frontier. Vols. I and II of Documentary History
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Pike, G.D.: The Jubilee Singers and Their Campaign for $20,000.
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Pike, J.S.: The Prostrate State: South Carolina under Negro Government.
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Pipkin, James Jefferson: The Negro in Revelation, in History, and
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Platt, O.H.: Negro Governors. Papers of the New Haven Colony
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Reese, David M.: A Brief Review of the First Annual Report of
the American Anti-Slavery Society. New York, 1834.
Rhodes, James Ford: History of the United States from the Compromise
of 1850 (1850-1877 and 1877-1896). 8 vols. The Macmillan
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Roman, Charles Victor: American Civilization and the Negro. F.A.
Davis Co., Philadelphia, 1916.
Russell, John H.: The Free Negro in Virginia, 1619-1865. Johns
Hopkins Studies, Series XXXI, No. 3. Baltimore, 1913.
Sandburg, Carl: The Chicago Race Riots, July, 1919. Harcourt,
Brace & Howe, New York, 1919.
Schurz, Carl: Speeches, Correspondence, and Political Papers, selected
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Scott, Emmett J.: Negro Migration during the War (in Preliminary
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Shaler, Nathaniel Southgate: The Neighbor: the Natural History
of Human Contacts. Houghton, Mifflin Co., Boston, 1904.
Siebert, Wilbur H.: The Underground Railroad from Slavery to
Freedom. The Macmillan Co., New York, 1898.
Sinclair, William A.: The Aftermath of Slavery. Small, Maynard
& Co., Boston, 1905.
Smith, Justin H.: The War with Mexico. 2 vols. The Macmillan
Co., New York, 1919.
Smith, Theodore Clarke: Parties and Slavery. Vol. 18 of American
Nation Series.
Smith, T.W.: The Slave in Canada. Vol. 10 in Collections of the
Nova Scotia Historical Society. Halifax, N.S., 1889.
Stephenson, Gilbert Thomas: Race Distinctions in American Law.
D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1910.
Steward, T.G.: The Haitian Revolution, 1791-1804. Thomas Y.
Crowell Co., New York, 1914.
Stoddard, Lothrop: The Rising Tide of Color against White World-Supremacy,
with an Introduction by Madison Grant. Charles Scribner's Sons.
New York, 1920.
Stone, Alfred H.: Studies in the American Race Problem. Doubleday,
Page & Co., New York, 1908.
Storey, Moorfield: The Negro Question. An Address delivered
before the Wisconsin Bar Association. Boston, 1918. Problems
of To-Day. Houghton, Mifflin Co., Boston, 1920.
Thompson, Holland: The New South. Vol. 42 in Chronicles of
America.
Tillinghast, Joseph Alexander: The Negro in Africa and America.
Publications of American Economics Association, Series 3 Vol 3,
No. 2. New York, 1902.
Toombs, Robert: Speech on The Crisis, delivered before the Georgia
Legislature, Dec. 7, 1860. Washington, 1860.
Tucker, St. George: A Dissertation on Slavery, with a Proposal for
the Gradual Abolition of it in the State of Virginia. Philadelphia,
1796.
Turner, Frederick Jackson: The Rise of the New West. Vol. 14
in American Nation Series.
Turner, Edward Raymond: The Negro in Pennsylvania, 1639-1861
(Justin Winsor Prize of American Historical Association, 1910).
Washington, 1911.
Washington, Booker T.: The Future of the American Negro. Small,
Maynard & Co., Boston, 1899.
The Story of My Life and Work. Nichols & Co., Naperville, Ill.,
1900.
Up from Slavery: An Autobiography. Doubleday, Page & Co.,
New York, 1901.
Character Building. Doubleday, Page & Co., New York, 1902.
Working with the Hands. Doubleday, Page & Co., New York,
1904.
Putting the Most into Life. Crowell & Co., New York, 1906.
Frederick Douglass (in American Crisis Biographies). George W.
Jacobs & Co., Philadelphia, 1906.
The Negro in the South (with W.E.B. DuBois). George W.
Jacobs & Co., Philadelphia, 1907.
The Negro in Business. Hertel, Jenkins & Co., Chicago, 1907.
The Story of the Negro. 2 vols. Doubleday, Page & Co., New
York, 1909.
My Larger Education. Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City, N.Y.,
1911.
The Man Farthest Down (with Robert Emory Park). Doubleday,
Page & Co., Garden City, N.Y., 1912.
Weale, B.L. Putnam: The Conflict of Color. The Macmillan Co.,
New York, 1910.
Weatherford, W.D.: Present Forces in Negro Progress. Association
Press, New York, 1912.
Weld, Theodore Dwight: American Slavery as It Is: Testimony
of a Thousand Witnesses. Published by the American Anti-Slavery
Society, New York, 1839.
Wiener, Leo: Africa and the Discovery of America, Vol. I. Innes
& Sons, Philadelphia, 1920.
Williams, George Washington: History of the Negro Race in America
from 1619 to 1880. 2 vols. G.P. Putnam's Sons, New York,
1883.
Wise, John S.: The End of an Era. Houghton, Mifflin Co., 1899.
Woodson, Carter G.: The Education of the Negro Prior to 1861.
G.P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1915.
A Century of Negro Migration. Association for the Study of
Negro Life and History, Washington, 1918.
Woolf, Leonard: Empire and Commerce in Africa: A Study in
Economic Imperialism. London, 1920. The Macmillan Co., New
York.
Wright, Richard R.: Negro Companions of the Spanish Explorers.
(Reprinted from the _American Anthropologist_, Vol. 4, April-June,
1902.)
Wright, Richard R., Jr.: The Negro in Pennsylvania: A Study in
Economic History. (Ph.D. thesis, Pennsylvania.) A.M.E. Book
Concern, Philadelphia.
Wright, T.S. See Cornish, Samuel E.
Zabriskie, Luther K.: The Virgin Islands of the United States of
America. G.P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1918.
* * * * *
An Address to the People of the United States, adopted at a Conference
of Colored Citizens, held at Columbia, S.C., July 20 and
21, 1876. Republican Printing Co., Columbia, S.C., 1876.
Paper (letter published in a Washington paper) submitted in connection
with the Debate in the United States House of Representatives,
July 15th and 18th, 1776, on the Massacre of Six Colored Citizens
at Hamburg, S.C., July 4, 1876.
Proceedings of the National Conference of Colored Men of the
United States, held in the State Capitol at Nashville, Tenn., May
6, 7, 8, and 9, 1879. Washington, D.C., 1879.
Story of the Riot. Persecution of Negroes by roughs and policemen
in the City of New York, August, 1900. Statement and Proofs
written and compiled by Frank Moss and issued by the Citizens'
Protective League. New York, 1900.
The Voice of the Carpet Bagger. Reconstruction Review No. 1, published
by the Anti-Lynching Bureau. Chicago, 1901.
III. Special Lists
1. On Chapter II, Section 3; Chapter III, Section 5; Chapter
VIII and Chapter XI, the general topic being the social
progress of the Negro before 1860. Titles are mainly in
the order of appearance of works.
Mather, Cotton: Rules for the Society of Negroes, 1693. Reprinted
by George H. Moore, Lenox Library, New York, 1888.
The Negro Christianized. An Essay to excite and assist that good
work, the instruction of Negro-servants in Christianity. Boston,
1706.
Allen, Richard. The Life, Experience and Gospel Labors of the Rt.
Rev. Richard Allen, written by himself. Philadelphia, 1793.
Hall, Prince. A Charge delivered to the African Lodge, June 24,
1797, at Menotomy, by the Right Worshipful Prince Hall. (Boston)
1797.
To the Free Africans and Other Free People of Color in the United
States. (Broadside) Philadelphia, 1797.
Walker, David: Appeal, in four articles, together with a Preamble
to the Colored Citizens of the World. Boston, 1829.
Garrison, William Lloyd: An Address delivered before the Free
People of Color in Philadelphia, New York, and other cities,
during the month of June, 1831. Boston, 1831.
Thoughts on African Colonization (see list above).
Minutes and Proceedings of the First Annual Convention of the
People of Color, held by adjournments in the City of Philadelphia,
from the sixth to the eleventh of June, inclusive, 1831.
Philadelphia, 1831.
College for Colored Youth. An Account of the New Haven City
Meeting and Resolutions with Recommendations of the College,
and Strictures upon the Doings of New Haven. New York, 1831.
On the Condition of the Free People of Color in the United States.
New York, 1839. (_The Anti-Slavery Examiner_, No. 13.)
Condition of the People of Color in the State of Ohio, with interesting
anecdotes. Boston, 1839.
Armistead, Wilson: Memoir of Paul Cuffe. London, 1840.
Wilson, Joseph: Sketches of the Higher Classes of Colored Society
in Philadelphia. Philadelphia, 1841.
National Convention of Colored Men and Their Friends. Troy,
N.Y., 1847.
Garnet, Henry Highland: The Past and Present Condition and the
Destiny of the Colored Race. Troy, 1848.
Delany, Martin R.: The Condition, Elevation, Emigration, and Destiny
of the Colored People of the United States, Politically Considered.
Philadelphia, 1852.
Cincinnati Convention of Colored Freedmen of Ohio. Proceedings,
Jan. 14-19, 1852. Cincinnati, 1852.
Proceedings of the Colored National Convention, held in Rochester,
July 6, 7, and 8, 1853. Rochester, 1853.
Cleveland National Emigration Convention of Colored People. Proceedings,
Aug. 22-24, 1854. Pittsburg, 1854.
Nell, William C.: The Colored Patriots of the American Revolution,
with sketches of several Distinguished Colored Persons: to which
is added a brief survey of the Condition and Prospects of Colored
Americans, with an Introduction by Harriet Beecher Stowe.
Boston, 1855.
Stevens, Charles E.: Anthony Burns, a History. Boston, 1856.
Catto, William T.: A Semi-Centenary Discourse, delivered in the
First African Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia, with a History
of the church from its first organization, including a brief notice
of Rev. John Gloucester, its first pastor. Philadelphia, 1857.
Bacon, Benjamin C.: Statistics of the Colored People of Philadelphia.
Philadelphia, 1856. Second edition, with statistics of crime,
Philadelphia, 1857.
Condition of the Free Colored People of the United States, by James
Freeman Clarke, in _Christian Examiner_, March, 1859, 246-265.
Reprinted as pamphlet by American Anti-Slavery Society, New
York, 1859.
Brown, William Wells: Clotel, or The President's Daughter (a narrative
of slave life in the United States). London, 1853.
The Escape; or A Leap for Freedom, a Drama in five acts. Boston,
1858.
The Black Man, His Antecedents, His Genius, and His Achievements.
New York, 1863.
The Rising Son; or The Antecedents and Advancement of the
Colored Race. Boston, 1874.
To Thomas J. Gantt, Esq. (Broadside), Charleston, 1861.
Douglass, William: Annals of St. Thomas's First African Church.
Philadelphia, 1862.
Proceedings of the National Convention of Colored Men, held in the city
of Syracuse, N.Y., October 4, 5, 6, and 7, 1864, with the Bill of Wrongs
and Rights and the Address to the American People. Boston, 1864.
The Budget, containing the Annual Reports of the General Officers of the
African M.E. Church of the United States of America, edited by Benjamin
W. Arnett. Xenia, O., 1881. Same for later years.
Simms, James M.: The First Colored Baptist Church in North America.
Printed by J.B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia, 1888.
Upton, William H.: Negro Masonry, being a Critical Examination of
objections to the legitimacy of the Masonry existing among the Negroes
of America. Cambridge, 1899; second edition, 1902.
Brooks, Charles H.: The Official History and Manual of the Grand United
Order of Odd Fellows in America. Philadelphia, 1902.
Cromwell, John W.: The Early Convention Movement. Occasional Paper No. 9
of American Negro Academy, Washington, D.C., 1904.
Brooks, Walter H.: The Silver Bluff Church, Washington, 1910.
Crawford, George W.: Prince Hall and His Followers. New Haven, 1915.
Wright, Richard R., Jr. (Editor-in-Chief): Centennial Encyclopædia
of the African Methodist Episcopal Church. A.M.E. Book Concern,
Philadelphia, 1916.
Also note narratives or autobiographies of Frederick Douglass, Sojourner
Truth, Samuel Ringgold Ward, Solomon Northrup, Lunsford Lane, etc.; the
poems of Phillis Wheatley (first edition, London, 1773), and George M.
Horton; Williams's History for study of some more prominent characters;
Woodson's bibliography for the special subject of education; and
periodical literature, especially the articles remarked in Chapter XI in
connection with the free people of color in Louisiana.
2. On Chapter V (Indian and Negro)
A standard work on the Second Seminole War is The Origin, Progress, and
Conclusion of the Florida War, by John T. Sprague, D. Appleton & Co.,
New York, 1848; but also important as touching upon the topics of the
chapter are The Exiles of Florida, by Joshua R. Giddings, Columbus,
Ohio, 1858, and a speech by Giddings in the House of Representatives
February 9, 1841. Note also House Document No. 128 of the 1st session
of the 20th Congress, and Document 327 of the 2nd session of the 25th
Congress. The Aboriginal Races of North America, by Samuel G. Drake,
fifteenth edition, New York, 1880, is interesting and suggestive though
formless; and McMaster in different chapters gives careful brief
accounts of the general course of the Indian wars.
3. On Chapter VII (Insurrections)
(For insurrections before that of Denmark Vesey note especially Coffin,
Holland, and Horsemanden above. On Gabriel's Insurrection see article by
Higginson (_Atlantic_, X. 337), afterwards included in Travellers and
Outlaws.)
Denmark Vesey
1. An Official Report of the Trials of Sundry Negroes, charged with an
attempt to raise an Insurrection in the State of South Carolina. By
Lionel H. Kennedy and Thomas Parker (members of the Charleston Bar and
the Presiding Magistrates of the Court). Charleston, 1822.
2. An Account of the Late Intended Insurrection among a Portion of the
Black of this City. Published by the Authority of the Corporation of
Charleston. Charleston, 1822 (reprinted Boston, 1822, and again in
Boston and Charleston).
The above accounts, now exceedingly rare, are the real sources of all
later study of Vesey's insurrection. The two accounts are sometimes
identical; thus the list of those executed or banished is the same. The
first has a good introduction. The second was written by James Hamilton,
Intendant of Charleston.
3. Letter of Governor William Bennett, dated August 10, 1822. (This was
evidently a circular letter to the press. References are to Lundy's
_Genius of Universal Emancipation_, II, 42, Ninth month, 1822, and there
are reviews in the following issues, pages 81, 131, and 142. Higginson
notes letter as also in _Columbian Sentinel_, August 31, 1822;
_Connecticut Courant_, September 3, 1822; and _Worcester Spy_, September
18, 1822.)
Three secondary accounts in later years are important:
1. Article on Denmark Vesey by Higginson (_Atlantic_, VII. 728) included
in Travellers and Outlaws: Episodes in American History. Lee and
Shepard, Boston, 1889.
2. Right on the Scaffold, or the Martyrs of 1822, by Archibald H.
Grimké. No. 7 of the Papers of the American Negro Academy, Washington.
3. Book I, Chapter XII, "Denmark Vesey's Insurrection," in Robert Y.
Hayne and His Times, by Theodore D. Jervey, The Macmillan Co., New York,
1909.
Various pamphlets were written immediately after the insurrection not so
much to give detailed accounts as to discuss the general problem of the
Negro and the reaction of the white citizens of Charleston to the event.
Of these we may note the following:
1. Holland, Edwin C.: A Refutation of the Calumnies Circulated against
the Southern and Western States. (See main list above.)
2. Achates (General Thomas Pinckney): Reflections Occasioned by the Late
Disturbances in Charleston. Charleston, 1822.
3. Rev. Dr. Richard Furman's Exposition of the Views of the Baptists
Relative to the Colored Population in the United States. (See main list
above.)
4. Practical Considerations Founded on the Scriptures Relative to the
Slave Population of South Carolina. By a South Carolinian. Charleston,
1823.
Nat Turner
1. The Confessions of Nat Turner, Leader of the Late Insurrection in
Southampton, Va., as fully and voluntarily made to Thos. C. Gray, in the
prison where he was confined--and acknowledged by him to be such, when
read before the court at Southampton, convened at Jerusalem November 5,
1831, for his trial. (This is the main source. Thousands of copies of
the pamphlet are said to have been circulated, but it is now exceedingly
rare. Neither the Congressional Library nor the Boston Public has a
copy, and Cromwell notes that there is not even one in the State Library
in Richmond. The copy used by the author is in the library of Harvard
University.)
2. Horrid Massacre. Authentic and Impartial Narrative of the Tragical
Scene which was witnessed in Southampton County (Virginia) on Monday the
22nd of August last. New York, 1831. (This gives a table of victims and
has the advantage of nearness to the event. This very nearness, however,
has given credence to much hearsay and accounted for several instances
of inaccuracy.)
To the above may be added the periodicals of the day, such as the
Richmond _Enquirer_ and the _Liberator_; note _Genius of Universal
Emancipation_, September, 1831. Secondary accounts or studies would
include the following:
1. Nat Turner's Insurrection, exhaustive article by Higginson
(_Atlantic_, VIII. 173) later included in Travellers and Outlaws.
2. Drewry, William Sidney: Slave Insurrections in Virginia (1830-1865).
A Dissertation presented to the Board of University Studies of the Johns
Hopkins University for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The Neale
Company, Washington, 1900. (Unfortunately marred by a partisan tone.)
3. The Aftermath of Nat Turner's Insurrection, by John W. Cromwell, in
_Journal of Negro History_, April, 1920.
_Amistad and Creole_ Cases
1. Argument of John Quincy Adams before the Supreme Court of the United
States, in the case of the United States, Apellants, vs. Cinque, and
others, Africans, captured in the Schooner _Amistad_, by Lieut. Gedney,
delivered on the 24th of February and 1st of March, 1841. New York,
1841.
2. Africans Taken in the _Amistad_. Document No. 185 of the 1st session
of the 26th Congress, containing the correspondence in relation to the
captured Africans. (Reprinted by Anti-Slavery Depository, New York,
1840.)
3. Senate Document 51 of the 2nd session of the 27th Congress.
4. On Chapter IX (Liberia)
Much has been written about Liberia, but the books and pamphlets have
been very uneven in quality. Original sources include the reports of
the American Colonization Society to 1825; _The African Repository_,
a compendium issued sometimes monthly, sometimes quarterly, by the
American Colonization Society from 1825 to 1892, and succeeded by the
periodical known as _Liberia_; the reports of the different state
organizations; J. Ashmun's History of the American Colony in Liberia
from December, 1821 to 1823, compiled from the authentic records of the
colony, Washington, 1826; Ralph Randolph Gurley's Life of Jehudi Ashmun,
Washington, 1835, second edition, New York, 1839; Gurley's report
on Liberia (a United States state paper), Washington, 1850; and the
Memorial of the Semi-Centennial Anniversary of the American Colonization
Society, celebrated at Washington, January 15, 1867, with documents
concerning Liberia, Washington, 1867; to all of which might be added
Journal of Daniel Coker, a descendant of Africa, from the time of
leaving New York, in the ship _Elisabeth_, Capt. Sebor, on a voyage for
Sherbro, in Africa, Baltimore, 1820. J.H.B. Latrobe, a president of the
American Colonization Society, is prominent in the Memorial volume of
1867, and after this date are credited to him Liberia: its Origin,
Rise, Progress, and Results, an address delivered before the American
Colonization Society, January 20, 1880, Washington, 1880, and Maryland
in Liberia, Baltimore, 1885. An early and interesting compilation is
G.S. Stockwell's The Republic of Liberia: Its Geography, Climate, Soil,
and Productions, with a history of its early settlement, New York, 1868;
a good handbook is Frederick Starr's Liberia, Chicago, 1913; mention
might also be made of T. McCants Stewart's Liberia, New York, 1886; and
George W. Ellis's Negro Culture in West Africa, Neale Publishing Co.,
New York, 1914, is outstanding in its special field. Two Johns Hopkins
theses have been written: John H.T. McPherson's History of Liberia
(Studies, IX, No. 10), 1891, and E.L. Fox's The American Colonization
Society 1817-1840 (Studies, XXXVII, 9-226), 1919; the first of these is
brief and clearcut and especially valuable for its study of the Maryland
colony. Magazine articles of unusual importance are George W. Ellis's
Dynamic Factors in the Liberian Situation and Emmett J. Scott's Is
Liberia Worth Saving? both in _Journal of Race Development_, January,
1911. Of English or continental works outstanding is the monumental but
not altogether unimpeachable Liberia, by Sir Harry H. Johnston, with an
appendix on the Flora of Liberia by Dr. Otto Stapf, 2 vols., Hutchinson
& Co., London, 1906; while with a strong English bias and incomplete and
unsatisfactory as a general treatise is R.C.F. Maughan's The Republic of
Liberia, London (1920?), Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. Mention must
also be made of the following publications by residents of Liberia: The
Negro Republic on West Africa, by Abayomi Wilfrid Karnga, Monrovia,
1909; New National Fourth Reader, edited by Julius C. Stevens, Monrovia,
1903; Liberia and Her Educational Problems, by Walter F. Walker, an
address delivered before the Chicago Historical Society, October
23, 1916; and Catalogue of Liberia College for 1916, and Historical
Register, printed at the Riverdale Press, Brookline, Mass., 1919; while
Edward Wilmot Blyden's Christianity, Islam, and the Negro Race is
representative of the best of the more philosophical dissertations.
Abbeville, S.C.
Aberdeen, Lord
Abolition, Abolitionists
Abraham, Negro interpreter
Abyssinia
Adams, Doc
Adams, Henry
Adams, John
Adams, John Quincy
Africa
African Methodist Episcopal Church, and schools
African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, and schools
_Age, The New York_
Aguinaldo
Akron, Ohio
Alabama
Aldridge, Ira
Allen, Richard
Alton, Ill.
Ambrister, Robert
Amendments to Constitution of United States
American Anti-Slavery Society
American Baptist Home Mission Society
American Baptist Publication Society
American Bar Association
American Colonization Society
American Convention of Abolition Societies
American Federation of Labor
American Giants
American Missionary Association
Amistad Case
Anderson, Benjamin
Andrew, John O.
Andrew, William
Anthony, Susan B.
Anti-Slavery societies
_Appeal_, David Walker's
Arbuthnot, Alexander
Arkansas
Arkwright, Richard
Armstrong, Samuel C.
Asbury, Bishop
Ashley, Lord
Ashmun, Jehudi
Assiento Contract
Atlanta, Ga.
Atlanta Compromise
Atlanta Massacre
Atlanta University
Attaway, A.T.
Attucks, Crispus
Augusta, Ga.
Ayres, Eli
Bacon, Ephraim
Bacon, John F.
Bacon, Samuel
Baker, F.B.
Balboa
Baltimore
Banbaras
Bankson, John
Banneker, Benjamin
Baptists, churches and schools
Baptist Young People s Union
Barbadoes
Barbour, Capt.
Barbour, Dan
Barclay, Arthur
Barlow, Joel
Bassa Trading Association
Bassa tribe
Bassett, Ebenezer
Batson, Flora
Baxter, Richard
Beecher, Henry Ward
Behn, Aphra
Belleau Wood
Benedict College
Benefit societies
Benezet, Anthony
Bennett, Batteau
Bennett, Gov., of South Carolina
Bennett, Ned
Bennett, Rolla
Benson, Stephen Allen
Berea College
Bethel Church, A.M.E., of Philadelphia
Birmingham, Ala.
Birney, James G.
"Birth of a Nation"
Bishop College
Black Codes
Black Star Line
Blacksmith, Ben
Blackwood, Jesse
Blair, Henry
Blanco, Pedro
Bleckley, L.E.
Blunt, John
Blyden, Edward Wilmot
Boatswain, African chief
Bogalusa, La.
Boston, Mass.
Boston Massacre
Boston, Samuel
Bouey, H.N.
Bourne, E.G.
Bowers, John
Bowler, Jack
Boyd, Henry
Brooks, Preston S.
Brooks County, Ga.
Brough, Charles H.
Brown, Bishop, of Arkansas
Brown, John
Brown, William
Brown, William Wells
Browning, Elizabeth Barrett
Brownsville, Texas
Bruce, Blanche K.
Bryan, Andrew
Bryce, James
Buchanan, Thomas H.
Bull, Gov., of South Carolina
Bullock, M.W.
Burgess, Ebenezer
Burleigh, Harry T.
Burning of Negroes
Burns, Anthony
Burnside, Gen.
Burton, Belfast
Burton, Mary
Business, Negro
Butler, B.F., District Attorney in New York
Butler, B.F., Gen.
Butler, M.C.
Butler, Sol
Buttrick, Wallace
Buzi tribe
Byron, Lord
Cable, George W.
Cadell, Major
Cæsar, in New York
Calderon, Spanish minister
Caldwell, Elias B.
Calhoun, John C.
Calvert, George, Lord Baltimore
Camp Dodge
Camp Grant
Camphor, A.P.
Canaan, N.H., school at
Canada
Canning, George
Cape Palmas
Cardozo, F.L.
Carmantee tribe
Carney, William H.
Carranza, Andrés Dorantes de
Carrizal
Cartledge, Lewis
Cary, Lott
Cass, Lewis
Cassell, Nathaniel H.B.
Catholics
Cato, insurrectionist
Cato, Will
Chain-gang
_Challenge Magazine_
Chamberlain, Gov., of South Carolina
Champion, James
Channing, William Ellery
Charles V
Charles, Robert
Charleston, S.C.
Château Thierry
Chavis, John
Cheeseman, Joseph James
Cherokees
Chesnutt, Charles W.
Chester, Penn.
Chicago riot
Chickasaws
Child, Lydia Maria
China
Choctaws,
Christianity
_Christian Recorder_
Chuma
Cincinnati
Cinque, Joseph
Civil Rights
Civil War
Claflin University
_Clansman, The_
Clark, Andrew
Clark, Major
Clark University
Clarkson, Matthew
Clarkson, Quamoney
Clarkson, Thomas
Clay, Henry
Cleveland, Grover
Cleveland, Ohio
Clinch, Duncan L.
Clinton, Sir Henry
Coatesville, Penn.
Cockburn, Sir Francis
Coker, Daniel
Cole and Johnson Company
Cole, James
Coleman, William D.
Coleridge-Taylor, Samuel
College graduates
College of West Africa
Colonization
Colored Methodist Episcopal Church, and schools
Compromise of 1850
Congregationalists
Connecticut
Constitution of the United States
Continental Congress
Conventions
Convict Lease system. _See_ Peonage.
Cook, James
Cook, O.F.
Coot, insurrectionist
Cope, Thomas P.
Cordovell, of New Orleans
Corey, C.H.
"Corkscrew" lynching
Cornish, Samuel E.
Cotton-gin
Cowagee, John
Cowley, Robert
Cowper, William
Cox, Minnie
Coybet, Gen.
Cranchell, Cæsar
Crandall, Prudence
Cravath, E.M.
Crawford, Anthony
Crawford, William
Creeks
Creole Case
Criminal, Negro
_Crisis, The_
Crompton, Samuel
Cross Keys, Va.
Crozer, Samuel A.
Crucifixion
Crum, William D.
Crummell, Alexander
Cuba
Cuffe, Paul
Cuffe, Peter
Cuffee, in New York
Curry, J.L.M.
Curtis, Justice
Cutler, Manasseh
Dade, Major
Darien, Ga.
_Darkwater_
Davis, Benjamin O.
Declaration of Independence
Declaration of Independence (Liberian)
_Defender, The_
De Grasse, John V.
Delany, Martin R.
Delaware
Democrats
Denmark
Dennison, Franklin A.
Derham, James
Dew, T.R.
Deys, in Africa
Dickens, Charles
Dillard, James H.
Disfranchisement
Dismond, Binga
District of Columbia
Dixie Kid
Dixon, George
Dixon, Thomas
Dorsey, Hugh M.
Dossen, J.J.
Douglas, Stephen A.
Douglass, Frederick
Douglass, Robert
Dow, Lorenzo
Dowdy, Jim
Draft Riot in New York
Drake, Francis
Drayton, Congressman from South Carolina
Dred Scott Decision
Drew, Howard P.
"Dreyfus," poem by Edwin Markham
DuBois, W.E. Burghardt
Dugro, Justice P.H.
Dunbar, Charles B.
Dunbar, Paul L.
Dunbar Theater, in Philadelphia
Duncan, Otis B.
Duncan, William
Dunmore, Lord
Dunning, W.A.
Durham, Clayton
Duties on importation of slaves
Duval, William P.
Dwight, Gen.
Dyersburg, Tenn.
Early County, Ga.
East St. Louis
Eaton, John, Comm. of Education
Eaton, John H., Secretary of War
Econchattimico
Education
Egypt
Elaine, Ark.
El Caney
Eliot, John
Elizabeth, Queen
Elliott, Robert B.
Emancipation
Emathla, Charley
Emathlochee
Emerson, Dr.
_Empire and Commerce in Africa_
England (or Great Britain)
Episcopalians
Erie Railroad
Estevanico
Estill Springs, Tenn.
Etheridge, at Phoenix, S.C.
Ethiopians
Evans, Lewis
Everett, Alexander H.
Everett, Edward
Exodus, Negro. _See also_ Migration.
Faber, F.W.
Factories, slave
Falkner, Roland P.
Federalists
Ferguson, Frank
Ferguson, Samuel D.
Fernandina, Fla.
Finley, I.F.C.
Finley, Robert
First African Baptist Church, in Savannah
First Bryan Baptist Church, in Savannah
Fish War
Fisk Jubilee Singers
Fisk University
Fleet, Dr.
Fleming, W.L.
Florida
F.M.C.'s
Foraker, J.B.
Forrester, Lot
Forsyth, John
Fort Brooke
Fort Gibson, Ark.
Fort Jackson, treaty of
Fort King
Fort Mims
Fort Moultrie (near St. Augustine), treaty of
Fort Moultrie (near Charleston)
Fort Pillow
Fort Sam Houston
Fort Wagner
Forten, James
Fortress Monroe
Foster, Theodore
Fowltown
France
Francis, Sam
Francis, Will
Franklin, Benjamin
Free African Society
Freedmen's Aid Society
Freedmen's Bank
Freedmen's Bureau
_Freedom's Journal_
Freeman, Cato
Free Negroes
Free-Soil Party
Fremont, John C.
Friends, Society of. _See_ Quakers.
Frissell, Hollis B.
Fugitive Slave Laws
Fuller, Meta Warrick
Furman, Richard
Gabriel, insurrectionist
Gadsden, James
Gage, Frances D.
Gailliard, Nicholas
Gaines, Gen.
Galilean Fishermen
Galveston
Gans, Joe
Gardiner, Anthony W.
Garlington, E.A.
Garnett, H.H.
Garrison, William Lloyd
Garvey, Marcus
Gatumba, Chief
Geaween, John
Gell, Monday
General Education Board
Georgia
_Georgia Baptist_
Georgia Railroad labor trouble
Georgia, University of
Germans, Germany
Germantown protest
Gibbes, Gov., of South Carolina
Gibson, Garretson W.
Giddings, Joshua R.
Gildersleeve, Basil L.
Giles, Harriet E.
Giles, Jackson W.
Gilmer, Congressman, of Georgia
Gleaves, R.H.
Gloucester, John
Gola tribe
Gold Coast
Gonzales
Goodspeed, Dr., of Benedict College
Gorden, Robert
Gordon, Midshipman
Gourdin, E.
Gradual Emancipation
Grady, Henry W.
Graeff, Abraham Op den
Graeff, Dirck Op den
Grand Bassa
"Grandfather Clause,"
Grant, U.S.
Graves, Samuel
Gray, Thomas C.
Gray, William
Great War
Grebo tribe
Greeley, Horace
Greene, Col.
Greenfield, Elizabeth Taylor
Greenleaf, Prof.
Greenville, in Liberia
Grice, Hezekiah
Groves, Junius C.
Grundy, Felix
_Guardian, The_
Guerra, Christóbal de la
Guerra, Luís de la
Guinea Coast
Gullah Jack
Gurley, R.R.
Hadjo, Micco
Hajo, Tuski
Hall, James
Hall, Prince
Hallowell, Edward N.
Hallowell, N.P.
Hamburg Massacre
Hampton Institute
Hampton, Wade
Harden, Henry
Hargreaves, James
Harper, in Liberia
Harper, F.E.W.
Harper's Ferry
Harris, Arthur
Harris, John M.
Harris, William T.
Harrison, Benjamin
Harrison, William Henry
Harrison St. Baptist Church, of Petersburg, Va.
Harry, Negro in Seminole Wars
Hart, A.B.
Hartford, Conn.
Harth, Mingo
Hartshorn Memorial College
Harvard University
Haussas
Havana
Havelock, A.E.
Hawkins, John
Hawkins, William
Hayes, R.B.
Haygood, Atticus G.
Hayne, Robert Y.
Haynes, George E.
Haynes, Lemuel
Hayti
Heber, Reginald
Helper, Hinton Rowan
Hendericks, Garret
Henry, Prince, of Portugal
Henry, Patrick
Hewell, John R.
Hicks, John
Higginson, Thomas Wentworth
Hill, Arnold
Hill, Stephen
Hoar, Samuel
Hodge, F.W.
Hoffman, Frederick L.
Hogg, Robert, and Mrs. Hogg
Holbert, Luther
Holland
Holland, Edwin C.
Holly, James Theodore
Homer
Hopkins, Samuel
Horsemanden, Judge
Horseshoe Bend
Horton, George M.
Hose, Sam
Houston, Texas
Howard, Daniel Edward
Howard, O.O.
Howard University
Howells, William Dean
Howze, Alma
Howze, Maggie
Hughes, Charles E.
Hughson, John
Hughson, Sarah
Hugo, Victor
Humphreys, Gad
Hunter, David
Illinois
_Impending Crisis, The_
Indenture. _See_ Servitude.
Indiana
Indians
Indian Spring, treaty of
_Informer_, The Houston
Insurrections
Intermarriage, Racial intermixture
Jackson, Andrew
Jackson College
Jackson, Edward
Jackson, Francis
Jackson, James
Jackson, Peter
Jacksonville, Fla.
Jamaica
James, David
James, Duke of York
Jamestown
Japan
Jasper, John
Jay, John
Jay, William
Jeanes, Anna T.
Jeanes Fund
Jefferson, Thomas
Jennings, Thomas L.
Jessup, Thomas S.
"Jim Crow," origin of
Jocelyn, S.S.
John, in Fugitive Slave case
Johnson, Andrew
Johnson, Elijah
Johnson, Henry
Johnson, H.R.W.
Johnson, Jack
Johnson, James
Johnson, Joseph
Johnston brothers, of Arkansas
Johnston, E.L.
Johnston, Sir Harry H.
Jones, Abraham
Jones, Eugene K.
Jones, George
Jones, Sam
Jones, Sissieretta
Julius, John
Kali, in Amistad case
Kansas
Kansas City, dynamiting of homes in
Kansas-Nebraska Bill
Kean, Edmund
Kentucky
Kerry, Margaret
King, C.D.B.
King, Mulatto
King, Rufus
Kizell, John
Knights of Pythias
Knights of the Golden Circle
Knoxville College
Knoxville riot
Kpwessi tribe
Kru tribe
KuKlux Klan
Labor
Lafar, John J.
Laing, Major
Lake City, S.C.
Lane College
Lane Seminary
Langston, John Mercer
Las Quasimas
Laurens, Henry
Laurens, John
Law, John
Lawless, Judge
Le Clerc, Gen.
Lee, Robert E.
Lee County, Ga.
Leicester, Earl of
Leland Giants
Lewis, William H.
_Liberator, The_
Liberia
Liberia College
Liberian Exodus and Joint Stock Company
Liberty Party
Liele, George
Lincoln, Abraham
Lincoln Giants
Lincoln University
Livingstone College
Livingstone, David
Lockwood, L.C.
London Company
Louisiana
Louis Napoleon
Lovejoy, Elijah P.
Lowell, James R.
Lugard, Lady
Lundy, Benjamin
Lutherans
Lynching
Macaulay, T.B.
Macon, Ga.
Madagascar
Madison, James
Mahan, Asa
Maine
Malays
Maldonado, Alonzo del Castillo
Mandingoes
Manly, Alex. L.
Mano tribe
Mansfield, Lord
Marcos, Fray
Markham, Edwin
Marriage
_Marrow of Tradition, The_
Marshall, J.F.B.
Marshall, J.R.
Marshall, of Univ. of Minnesota
Martin, Luther
Maryland
Mason, George
Masons, Negro
Massachusetts
Mather, Cotton
Matthews, W.C.
May, Samuel J.
Mazzini, G.
McCorkle, William A.
McIlheron, Jim
McIntosh, burned
McKay, Claude
McKelway, A.J.
Medicine, Negro in
Memphis, Tenn.
Mercer, Charles F.
_Messenger, The_
Methodists, churches and schools. _See also_ African Methodist.
Mexican War
Metz
Micanopy
Mickasukie tribe
Migration. _See also_ Exodus.
Milan, Ga.
Milliken's Bend
Mills, Samuel J.
Minstrelsy
Miscegenation. _See_ Intermarriage, Racial intermixture.
Mississippi
Mississippi Company
Missouri
Missouri Compromise
Mobile
Mohammedans
Monroe, James
Monrovia
Montes, Pedro
Montgomery, Ala.
Montgomery, James
Monticello, Ga.
Montserado, Cape
Moore, Joanna P.
Moorhead, Scipio
Moors
Morehouse College
Morell, Junius C.
Morgan, Thomas J.
Morris Brown University
Morris, Edward H.
Morris, Gouverneur
Morris, Robert, Jr.
Mortality
Mott, Lucretia
Mulattoes
Mumford, John P.
"Mungo," in The Padlock
Murphy, Edgar G.
Napoleon Bonaparte
Narvaez, Pamfilo de
Nashville, Tenn.
Nassau
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
National Urban League
Navigation Ordinance
Nea Mathla
Neau, Elias
_Negro_, the word
Negro Union
_Negro World, The_
Nell, William C.
New Bedford, Mass.
New England Anti-Slavery Society
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Orleans
New Mexico
New York (city)
New York (state)
_News and Courier_, of Charleston, S.C.
Niagara Movement
Niles, Hezekiah
Niño, Pedro Alonso
Norfolk, Va.
North Carolina
Northrup, Solomon
_North Star_
Northwest Territory
Nott, Josiah C.
Nott, Dr., of Union College
Nullification
Nunn, Joseph
Oberlin College
Odd Fellows
Ogden, Peter
Ogden, Robert C.
Oglethorpe, James
Ohio
Oklahoma
Omaha
Orange Park Academy
Osceola
Otis, James
Otis, Mayor, of Boston
Ouithlecoochee, Battle of
Ovando
Packard, Sophia B.
Page, Thomas Nelson
Page, Walter H.
Palmer, B.M.
Palmetto, Ga.
Pan-African Congress
Pappa tribe
Parker, Theodore
Parrott, Russell
Pastorius, Francis Daniel
Patterson, Joseph
Paul, William
Payne, Daniel A.
Payne, James Spriggs
Payne's Landing, treaty of
Peabody Educational Fund
Peabody, George Foster
Pembroke, Earl of
Pennington, James W.C.
Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania Railroad
Pensacola
Peonage
Perkins, Francis
Perry, Bliss
Person, Ell T.
Petersburg, Va.
Phagan, John
Phelps, John W.
Phelps-Stokes Fellowships
Philadelphia
Phillips, Wendell
Phipps, Benjamin
Phoenix societies
Pierce, Leonard
Pike, in Brooks County, Ga.
Pittman, W. Sydney
Pittsburgh, Penn.
Plançiancois, Anselmas
Pleasants, Robert
Pollard, F.
Poor, Samuel
Poor white man, as related to Negro
Population, Negro
Populist Party
Port Hudson
Porter, Henry
Portugal
Potter, James
Powell. See Osceola.
Poyas, Peter
Presbyterians
Price, Arthur
Prince
Princeton
Problem, Negro. See Table of Contents.
Progressive Party
Punishment. See also Lynching, Burning.
Purcell, Jack
Puritans
Quack, in New York
Quakers
Queen and Crescent Railroad trouble
Quinn, William Paul
Randolph, John
Reconstruction
Reed, Paul
Reese, Jack
_Republic of Liberia, The_
Republican Party
Reuter, E.B.
Revels, Hiram R.
_Review of Reviews_, quoted
Revolutionary War
Revolution, French
Rhode Island
Rhodes, Cecil
Rice, Thomas D.
Richmond, Va.
Rigaud
_Rising Tide of Color, The_
Rivers, P.R.
Robert, Joseph T.
Roberts, Joseph Jenkin
Robeson, P.L.
Rockefeller, John D.
Romanticism
Romme, John
Roosevelt, Theodore
Ross, John
Royal African Company
Roye, Edward James
Ruffin, George L.
Ruiz, José
Rush, Christopher
Russell, Alfred F.
Russwurm, John B.
Rust University
Rutledge, John
St. Augustine, Fla.
St. Louis, Mo.
St. Mihiel
St. Philip's Church, in New York
St. Thomas's Episcopal Church, in Philadelphia
Sale, George
Salem, Peter
Samba, insurrectionist
Sandford (in Dred Scott Case)
San Juan Hill
Santiago
Santo Domingo
Sargent, Frank P.
Savannah, Ga.
Schurz, Carl
Scott, Emmett J.
Scott, Lation
Scott, Walter
Seaton, Richard
Sebastian
Sebor, Capt
Secoffee
Secret societies
Segui, Bernard
Selika, Mme
Seminole Wars
Servitude
Seward, William H.
Seyes, John
Shadd, Abraham
Sharp, Granville
Shaw, Robert Gould
Shaw Monument
Shaw University
Shepherd, Randall
Sheridan, Philip
Shubuta, Miss.
Shufeldt, R.W.
Sierra Leone
Silver Bluff Church
Simon
Singleton, Benjamin
Sino, in Liberia
Slater Fund
Slavery. _See_ Table of Contents.
Slave Ships
Smith, Adam
Smith, Alfred
Smith, Edward P.
Smith, Gerrit
Smith, Hampton
Smith, Henry
Smith, Hoke
Smith, James McCune
Smith, Stephen
Smith, W.B.
Social Progress
Socialism
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts
Soldier, Negro
Somerset, James
Soulouque, Faustin
_Souls of Black Folk, The_
South Carolina
South Carolina Medical College
Southern Education Board
Southern Educational Congress
Southern Sociological Congress
Southerne, Thomas
_Southwestern Christian Advocate_
Spain
Spaniards
Spanish-American War
Spanish Exploration
Spelman Seminary
Spence, R.T.
Spencer, Peter
Sport
Springfield, Ill.
Stanton, Elizabeth Cady
Statesville, Ga.
Stephens, Alexander
Stevens, Julius C.
Stevens, Thaddeus
Steward, Austin
Stewart, Charles
Stewart, T. McC.
Stiles, Ezra
Stoddard, Lothrop
Stone, Lucy
Stockton, Robert F.
Stone, Alfred H.
Storey, Moorfield
Stowe, Harriet Beecher
Straight University
Straker, D.A.
Students' Army Training Corps
Summersett, John
Sumner, Charles
Supreme Court
Susi
Taft, W.H.
Talladega, Ala.
Talladega College
Tallahassee, Fla.
Taney, R.B.
Tanner, Henry O.
Tappan, Arthur
Tappan, Lewis
Tapsico, Jacob
Taney, Chief Justice
Taylor, John B.
Taylor, Major
Taylor, William
Tecumseh
Tennessee
Terrell, Mary Church
Terrell, J.M.
Texas
Thomas, Charles
Thomas, W.H.
Thompson, George
Thompson, Wiley
Thornton, William
_Thoughts on African Colonisation_
Tillman, Benjamin R.
Tithables, defined
Tolbert, John R.
Tolbert, R.R.
Tolbert, Thomas
Toombs, Robert
Toussaint L'Ouverture
Travis, Hark
Travis, Joseph
Tremont Temple Baptist Church
Trotter, Monroe
Truth, Sojourner
Tubman, Harriet
Tucker, St. George
Tupper, Pres., of Shaw University
Turnbull, Robert James
Turner, H.M.
Turner, Mary
Turner, Nat, and his insurrection
Tuskegee Institute
Tustenuggee, 114
_Uncle Tom's Cabin_
Underground Railroad
Universal Negro Improvement Association
Universal Races Congress
University Commission on Southern Race Questions
Ury, John
Utrecht, Peace of
Vaca, Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de
Vail, Aaron
Vai tribe
Valdosta, Ga.
Valladolid, Juan de
Van Buren, Martin
Vardaman, James K.
Varick, James
Vermont
Vesey, Denmark, and his insurrection
Vincenden, Gen.
Virginia
Virginia Union University
Virginia, University of
Virgin Islands
Vogelsang, Peter
_Voice of the Negro, The_
Vosges
Waco, Texas
Walcott, Joe
Walker, John
Walker, Mme. C.J.
Walker, David
Walker, Walter F.
Walker, Zach
War of 1812
Ward, Samuel Ringgold
Ware, Asa
Warner, Daniel Bashiel
Washington, Berry
Washington, Booker T.
Washington, Bushrod
Washington, George
Washington, Jesse
Washington, Madison
Washington, D.C.
Watson, Brook
Watt, James
Watterson, Henry
Weathersford
Webster, Daniel
Webster, Thomas
Wendell, Abraham
Wesley, John
West Virginia
Wheatley, Phillis
Whipper, of Pennsylvania
Whipper, William
White, George H.
White, Thomas J.
White, William
White, William J.
Whitfield, James M.
Whittekin, F.F.
Whitney, Eli
Whittier, John G.
Wiener, Leo
Wilberforce University
Wilberforce, William
Wilcox, Samuel T.
Wild Cat
Wiley University
Will
William and Mary College
Williams and Walker Company
Williams, Charles H.
Williams, Daniel H.
Williams, George W.
Williams, Nelson
Williams, Peter
Williams, Richard
Williamsburg, Va.
Williamson, Edward
Wilmington, N.C.
Wilson, James
Wilson, Woodrow
Winn, J.B.
Woman's American Baptist Home Mission Society
Woman Suffrage
Woods, Granville T.
Woodson, Carter G.
Woolf, Leonard
Woolman, John
Wright, Robert
Wycliffe, John C.
Yellow fever, in Philadelphia;
in Hayti
Yemassee
Y.M.C.A.
Young, Charles E.
Zuñi Indians