THE FOUNDING OF QUEBEC
After his return to France, as before described, Champlain had an
interview with de Monts, and laid before him the journal which he had
prepared of his explorations in America, together with plans of the
ports and coasts which he had minutely examined during his visits.
Champlain proposed to de Monts to continue his explorations, and
advanced some reasons for prosecuting an enterprise upon which a large
sum had been already expended, and which he was persuaded would
ultimately afford the means of repairing their fortunes. De Monts, owing
to the failure of his own efforts as a colonizer, was not at first
inclined to listen to Champlain's proposals, but he was finally
convinced of the wisdom of his suggestions, and appointed him lieutenant
of an expedition to Quebec for the purpose of trading with the Indians.
The expedition was to return to France during the same year. De Monts
obtained another commission from the king, dated at Paris, January 9th,
1608, which gave him the monopoly of the fur trade in the lands, ports
and rivers of Canada for a period of one year. Two vessels were equipped
for this expedition, the _Don de Dieu_, captain Henry Couillard, and
the _Lévrier_, captain Nicholas Marion. Champlain was given the command
of the former vessel, and Pont-Gravé was in command of the latter. The
_Lévrier_ sailed from France on April 5th, and the _Don de Dieu_ eight
days later. The two vessels proceeded directly to Tadousac, without
calling at Percé, according to the usual custom.
On the arrival of the _Don de Dieu_ at Tadousac, Champlain found that
Pont-Gravé had been attacked by Captain Darache, a Basque, who continued
to trade furs with the Indians in spite of the king's commands. Darache
had brought all his guns to bear upon the _Lévrier_, and Pont-Gravé
being unable to defend himself, had offered no resistance, whereupon
Darache's crew had boarded the vessel and carried off the cannon and
arms, at the same time intimating that they would continue to trade as
they pleased. The arrival of Champlain, however, altered the situation,
and Darache was compelled to sign an agreement by which he pledged
himself not to molest Pont-Gravé, or to do anything prejudicial to the
interest of the king or of de Monts. It was also agreed that all
differences should be settled by the authorities in France. After this
agreement was effected through Champlain's intervention, the carpenters
of the expedition fitted out a small barque to convey to Quebec all the
articles necessary for the use of the future settlement.
[Illustration: Building the _Habitation_, Quebec, 1608
From the painting by C.W. Jefferys]
In the meantime Champlain visited the river Saguenay, where he met some
Indians from whom he gathered information concerning Lake St. John and
its tributaries. The information did not differ greatly from that which
he had obtained in the year 1603. Champlain set out from Tadousac on the
last day of June and arrived at Quebec on July 3rd, "Where I searched,"
he says, "for a place suitable for our settlement, but I could find none
more convenient or better situated than the point of Quebec, so called
by the savages, which was covered with nut trees."
Champlain was accompanied by thirty men, amongst whom may be named
Nicholas Marsolet, Étienne Brûlé, Bonnerme, a doctor, Jean Duval,
Antoine Natel and La Taille. These names are specially recorded.
Champlain immediately employed some workmen to fell trees in order to
commence the construction of an _Habitation_. One party was engaged in
sawing timber, another in digging a cellar and some ditches, while
another party was sent to Tadousac with a barque to obtain supplies
which had been retained in the ships. Such was the beginning of
Champlain's city. Nothing great, it will be admitted, for a settlement
which its founder hoped before long would become the great warehouse of
New France.
Until this date the merchants had traded with the Indians only in those
places where they could easily be met, and even Chauvin, who was
mentioned in a previous chapter, had not gone further than Tadousac.
Neither Three Rivers, nor the islands of Sorel at the entrance of the
Iroquois River, now called the Richelieu River, were known to French
navigators at this period, and although these places were easily
accessible to the aborigines, they were not so available as Quebec.
Champlain well understood the advantages of founding his city on a spot
naturally fortified and where he could readily defend himself against
the attack of an enemy, whose approach he expected sooner or later. The
first foes, however, whom Champlain had to encounter were not the
Indians, but his own countrymen, members of his crew who under various
pretexts sought to kill their chief and give the command of the
settlement to the Basques. Jean Duval, the king's locksmith, was the
leader of this conspiracy against Champlain, and associated with him
were four vicious sailors to whom he promised a part of the reward which
had been offered for this treason. The conspirators agreed to preserve
secrecy, and fixed the night of the fourth day for the assassination of
their chief.
On the day upon which the plot was to be put into execution, Captain Le
Testu[9] arrived from Tadousac in command of a vessel laden with
provisions, utensils, etc. After the vessel was unloaded, one of the
conspirators, a locksmith named Natel, approached the captain and
acquainted him with the details of the plot. Champlain also listened to
the man's account and promised to observe secrecy, although he took
precautions to frustrate the scheme by inviting the leader and the four
conspirators to an entertainment on board Captain Le Testu's barque.
The men accepted the invitation, and as soon as they were on board they
were seized and held in custody until the following day. The deposition
of each man was then taken by Champlain in the presence of the pilot and
sailors, and set down in writing, after which the "worthies" were sent
to Tadousac, where Champlain requested Pont-Gravé to guard them for a
time. Some days after the men were returned to Quebec, where they were
placed on trial for attempted murder.
The jury was composed of Champlain, Pont-Gravé, Le Testu, Bonnerme, the
mate and the second mate, and some sailors. The verdict was unanimous.
Duval was condemned to death on the spot as the instigator of the plot,
and the others were also sentenced to death, but their sentence was to
be carried out in France. Duval was strangled at Quebec, and his head
was placed on a pike which was set up in the most conspicuous part of
the fort. This was the second example of capital punishment in New
France. The first case recorded was at Charlesbourg Royal, or Cap-Rouge,
near Quebec, in the winter of 1542-3, when Michel Gaillon, one of
Roberval's companions, was put to death.
Champlain was invested with executive, legislative and judiciary powers,
but the founder of Quebec never abused the authority intrusted to him.
From this time every one fulfilled his duty day by day, and Champlain
was able to continue his work in peace.
The habitation was composed of three buildings of two stories, each one
of three fathoms long and two and a half wide. The storehouse was six
fathoms long and three wide, with a cellar six feet deep. There was a
gallery around the buildings, at the second story. There were also
ditches fifteen feet wide and six deep. On the outer side of the ditches
Champlain constructed several spurs, which enclosed a part of the
dwelling, at the point where he placed a cannon. Before the habitation
there was a square four fathoms wide and six or seven long, looking out
upon the river bank. Surrounding the habitation were very good gardens,
and an open space on the north side, some hundred and twenty paces long
and fifty or sixty wide.
During the first weeks after his installation, Champlain made an
investigation of the vicinity. "Near Quebec," he says, "there is a
little river coming from a lake in the interior, distant six or seven
leagues from our settlement. I am of opinion that this river, which is
north a quarter north-west from our settlement, is the place where
Jacques Cartier wintered, since there are still, a league up the river,
remains of what seems to have been a chimney, the foundation of which
has been found, and indications of there having been ditches surrounding
their dwelling, which was small. We found also, large pieces of hewn,
worm-eaten timber, and some three or four cannon balls. All these things
show clearly that there was a settlement there founded by Christians;
and what leads me to say and believe that it was that of Jacques Cartier
is the fact that there is no evidence whatever that any one wintered and
built a house in these places except Jacques Cartier at the time of his
discoveries."
This "little river coming from a lake in the interior," is evidently the
river St. Charles, called Ste. Croix by Cartier. Champlain's conjectures
about the place where Jacques Cartier wintered, are certainly correct.
It was near this spot also that the Jesuits erected their convent of
Notre Dame des Anges in 1626, namely, at two hundred feet from the
shore, where the river Lairet joins the St. Charles.
Pont-Gravé sailed for France on September 18th, 1608, leaving Champlain
with twenty-seven men, and provisions for the approaching winter at
Quebec. The carpenters, sawyers, and other workmen were employed in
clearing up the place and in preparing gardens.
Many Indians were encamped in the vicinity, who proved troublesome
neighbours, as they were constantly visiting the habitation, either to
beg food for their families or to express their fear of invisible
enemies. Champlain readily understood the character of these people, but
he was too charitable to refuse them assistance in their need; besides
he believed that they might easily be taught how to live and how to
cultivate the soil. It was a difficult task, however, to induce the
Indians to settle in any particular place. For generations they had led
a wandering life, subsisting on the products of their hunting and
fishing. This wild freedom was as necessary to their existence as the
open air, and all attempts to make them follow the habits of civilized
races seemed to tend towards their deterioration.
The early days of the French settlement at Quebec were distinguished by
nothing remarkable. During the first winter scurvy and dysentery claimed
many victims. Natel, the locksmith, died towards the end of November,
and some time after Bonnerme, the doctor, was attacked and succumbed.
Eighteen others also suffered from scurvy of whom ten died, and there
were five deaths from dysentery, so that by the spring there were only
eight men living, and Champlain himself was seriously indisposed. This
was the third time that the founder of Quebec had had to experience the
effects of this terrible disease, and although he was beginning to
understand its causes, he was still unaware of a specific. "I am
confident," he says, "that, with good bread and fresh meat, a person
would not be liable to it."
Many trials had been experienced by the settlers during their first
winter of 1608-09, and they welcomed the return of spring. Des
Marets[10] arrived at Quebec at this time, with tidings that Pont-Gravé,
his father-in-law, had arrived at Tadousac on May 28th. Champlain at
once repaired to Tadousac, where he received a letter from de Monts
requesting him to return to France to acquaint him with the progress
which he had made in the colony, and with the result of his
explorations. Champlain returned to Quebec, and immediately fitted out
an expedition to visit the country of the Iroquois, in the company of a
party of Montagnais.
The Montagnais were anxious to carry on war against their ancient
enemies, and although the wars had no attraction for Champlain, he hoped
to be able to further his discoveries during the journey. Taking with
him the twenty men placed at his disposal by Pont-Gravé, Champlain
sailed from Quebec on June 18th, 1609. The command of the habitation
was given to Pont-Gravé in the meantime. The expedition proceeded
towards the island of St. Eloi, near the shores of which two or three
hundred savages were encamped in tents. They proved to be Hurons and
Algonquins who were on their way to Quebec to join Champlain's
expedition to the territory of the Iroquois. Their chiefs were named
Iroquet and Ochateguin, and Champlain explained to them the object of
his voyage. The next day the two chiefs paid a visit to Champlain and
remained silent for some time, meditating and smoking. After some
reflection the chiefs began to harangue their companions on the banks of
the river. They spoke for a long time in loud tones, and the substance
of their remarks has been summed up in these words:--
"Ten moons ago Champlain had declared that he desired to assist them
against their enemies, with whom they had been for a long time at
warfare, on account of many cruel acts committed by them against their
tribe, under colour of friendship. Having ever since longed for
vengeance, they had solicited all the savages whom they had seen on the
banks of the river to come and make an alliance. They had no children
with them but men versed in war and full of courage, and well acquainted
with the country and the rivers of the land of the Iroquois. They wanted
to go to Quebec in order that they might see the French houses, but
after three days they would return to engage in the war. As a token of
firm friendship and joy, Champlain should have muskets and arquebuses
fired."
Champlain replied that he was glad to be able to fulfil his promise to
them; he had no other purpose than to assist them in their wars; he had
not come as a trader, but only with arms to fight. His word was given,
and it was his desire that it should be kept. Thus was the alliance
ratified which had been made in 1603 between the French and the Hurons,
Algonquins and Montagnais, and the alliance was never broken.
Some historians have reproached Champlain for his intervention in the
wars between the Indians of Canada, and have suggested that it would
have been wiser to have preserved a strict neutrality, instead of taking
up arms against the redoubtable and valiant Iroquois. In order to
explain Champlain's actions, it is necessary to consider the relations
of the French towards the other tribes. Many years before the period of
which we are writing, certain French captains traded with the Montagnais
Indians of Tadousac. These Indians were on friendly terms with the
Hurons, the Algonquins Supérieurs of the Ottawa river, and the
Souriquois of Acadia, and were united in their desire to subdue the
terrible Iroquois. As the Iroquois did not trade, Champlain had no
relations with them of a business character, and therefore he was not
bound towards them in the same manner as he was towards the Hurons and
others.
The Iroquois at first resided at Montreal and Three Rivers, while their
neighbours, the Algonquins, were scattered along the shores of the
Ottawa River, Lake Nipissing and French River. The Algonquins, who were
brave and very numerous, succeeded in driving the Iroquois back to Lake
Erie, and afterwards to Lake Ontario, near Lake Champlain. Here the
Iroquois were distributed in five tribes, forming a great confederation.
(1.) The Tsonnontouans or Senecas. (2.) The Goyogouins or Cayugas. (3.)
The Onontagues or Onondagas. (4.) The Onneyouts or Oneidas. (5.) The
Agniers or Mohawks. The Tsonnontouans were the most numerous, but the
Agniers were the bravest and wildest.
The Iroquois or confederate tribes had by constant warfare become the
greatest warriors of New France, nor is this fact surprising when we
consider that they had waged successful warfare, extending over a long
period, against the vast coalition of Hurons, Algonquins, Montagnais and
Micmacs scattered from Lake Huron to Acadia.
Anadabijou, chief of the Montagnais, made a long speech, telling his men
that they ought to feel proud of the friendship of the king of France
and of his people, upon whom they could rely for assistance in their
wars. It was from that date that the alliance between the Indians and
the French commenced, and, as Champlain was obliged to live in the
neighbourhood of the Montagnais and Algonquins, the only course open to
him, if he desired to live in peace, was to fulfil his promise made to
them.
In this year, 1609, Anadabijou reminded Champlain of the agreement made
six years before. "Ten moons ago," he says, "the son of Iroquet had seen
you. You gave him a good reception, and promised with Pont-Gravé to
assist us against our enemies." To this Champlain replied, "My only
desire is to fulfil what I promised then." Thus was sealed this solemn
agreement.
If Champlain had refused to make an alliance with these Indians, they
would have been a constant source of trouble, for although they were
less ferocious than the Iroquois, they were still barbarians. Champlain
and his few men could never have established a settlement at Quebec if
they had been forced to encounter the hostility of the neighbouring
Indians, for the whole of his work could have been overthrown by them in
a single day.
The country of the Iroquois, on the contrary, was situated at a great
distance, and consequently he had not so much to fear from them. It was
Champlain's desire, however, to make a treaty with the Iroquois as well,
for they were at this time even, and long after remained, the terror of
North America. But war seemed necessary to the existence of the
Iroquois, and Champlain, notwithstanding the exercise of his diplomacy,
found it impossible to pacify these restless people.
It is true that the people of New Netherland had been able to maintain
a neutral stand towards the Iroquois, and Champlain has been blamed for
not following this example. It must be borne in mind, however, that the
Dutch were powerful and numerous, and it was to their interest to live
in harmony with their immediate neighbours, the Iroquois. The Dutch had
also different intentions towards the Indians. They came to America
simply to trade, and to establish themselves and live quietly along the
shores of the Hudson River, while Champlain's idea was to civilize the
Indians and bring them under the influence of the Catholic missionaries.
Champlain and the allied Indians left Quebec on June 28th, 1609. Des
Marets, La Routte, a pilot, and nine men accompanied the expedition. On
their voyage they passed certain rivers to which Champlain gave the
following names, Ste. Suzanne (River du Loup), du Pont (Nicolet), de
Gênes (Yamaska), and the Three Rivers.[11] The party stopped at the
entrance of the Iroquois River. Continuing their journey southwards,
they arrived at the Chambly Rapids. "No Christians had been in this
place before us," says Champlain. Seeing no prospect of being able to
cross the rapids alone, Champlain embarked with the Indians in their
canoes, taking only two men with him. Champlain's army, comprising
sixty men, then proceeded slowly towards Lake Champlain, and a few days
after the party arrived at Lake St. Sacrament (Lake George). On July
29th they encountered the Iroquois, who had come to fight, at the
extremity of Lake Champlain, on the western bank. The entire night was
spent by each army in dancing and singing, and in bandying words. At
daybreak Champlain's men stood to arms. The Iroquois were composed of
about two hundred men, stout and rugged in appearance, with their three
chiefs at their head, who could be distinguished by their large plumes.
The Indians opened their ranks and called upon Champlain to go to the
front. The arrows were beginning to fly on both sides when Champlain
discharged his musket, which was loaded with four balls, and killed two
of the chiefs and mortally wounded the third. This unexpected blow
caused great alarm among the Iroquois, who lost courage, abandoned their
camp and took to flight, seeking shelter in the woods. Fifteen or
sixteen men of Champlain's party were wounded, but the enemy had many
wounded, and ten or twelve were taken prisoners.
This victory did not entail much hardship on the part of the French.
Champlain and his two companions did more to rout the Iroquois than the
sixty allies with their shower of arrows. The result of this day's
proceedings was highly satisfactory to the Indians, who gathered up the
arms and provisions left behind by the Iroquois, and feasted
sumptuously amidst dancing and singing. "The spot where this attack took
place," says Champlain, "is in the latitude of 43° and some minutes, and
the lake is called Champlain." This place is now called Ticonderoga, or
the Cheondoroga of the Indians.
Champlain returned to Quebec with the Montagnais, and a few days after
he set out for Tadousac to see whether Pont-Gravé had arrived from
Gaspé. He met Pont-Gravé on the morrow, and they both decided to sail
for France, and to leave Quebec in the meantime under the command of
Pierre de Chauvin,[12] pending the decision of de Monts as to the future
of the colony. Both visited Quebec in order to invest Chauvin with
authority, and after leaving him everything necessary for the use of the
settlement, and placing fifteen men under his command, the two
commanders left Quebec on September 1st, 1609, and sailed from Tadousac
for France on the fifth day of the same month.
Champlain had sojourned in New France since the beginning of July, 1608,
and during that interval he had made good use of his time. He had chosen
the most suitable place for a habitation which was destined to become
the metropolis of the French colony; he had constructed a fort and a
storehouse, and he had also explored a very important tract of country.
Champlain had also visited a part of the river Saguenay; he had made
himself acquainted with the vicinity of Quebec, and with the rivers,
streams and tributaries of the St. Lawrence and Ste. Croix. For the
second time he had seen the river St. Lawrence as far as the Iroquois
River over which he had sailed as far as Lake Champlain, whence it
receives its waters. Besides his achievements in exploration Champlain
had cemented friendly relations with the Montagnais, Algonquins and
Hurons; he had renewed his acquaintance with Anadabijou and formed an
alliance with Iroquet and Ochateguin, three of the most powerful chiefs
of these tribes. He was also well versed in their methods of warfare and
had studied their manners and customs and their treatment of their
prisoners, so that when he returned to France he was in a position to
give de Monts a great deal of valuable information, both as regards the
inhabitants and the best means of promoting trade with them.
On his arrival in France Champlain proceeded at once to Fontainebleau,
where he met King Henry IV and de Monts. He had an audience with the
king and gave His Majesty a satisfactory account of his proceedings. He
also presented to the king a girdle made of porcupine quills, two little
birds of carnation colour, and the head of a fish caught in Lake
Champlain, which had a very long snout, and two or three rows of very
sharp teeth.
To de Monts the visit of Champlain was of great importance, because the
fate of Quebec was bound up with him. After hearing Champlain's
narrative of his voyages in New France, de Monts decided to visit Rouen
in order to consult Collier and Legendre, his associates. After
deliberation they resolved to continue their efforts to colonize New
France and to further explore the great river St. Lawrence. In order to
realize means for defraying the expenses of the expedition, Pont-Gravé
was authorized to engage in any traffic that would help to accomplish
this end. In the meantime Lucas Legendre was ordered to purchase
merchandise for the expedition, to see to the repairs of the vessels,
and to obtain crews. After these details had been arranged de Monts and
Champlain returned to Paris to settle the more important questions.
De Monts' commission, which had been issued for one year, had expired,
but he hoped that it would be renewed. His requests, which appeared just
and reasonable, were, however, refused, owing to protests on the part of
merchants of Bretagne and Normandy, who claimed that this monopoly was
ruinous to their commerce. Finally de Monts appealed to his former
partners, who decided to furnish two vessels, at their own expense, with
supplies and stores necessary for the settlement. Pont-Gravé was given
the command of a fur-trading vessel, and the other was laden with
provisions and stores necessary for the use of the settlers. Champlain
was informed that his services were dispensed with, but not believing
that this news could be true, he saw de Monts and asked him frankly
whether such was the case. De Monts told him that he could accompany the
expedition, if he chose to do so. Champlain therefore set out from Paris
on the last day of February, 1610, and proceeded to Rouen, where he
remained for two days, and then left for Honfleur, to meet Pont-Gravé
and Legendre, who informed him that the vessels were ready to sail.
FOOTNOTES:
[9] Le Testu's Christian name was Guillaume. His first voyage to
Newfoundland was made in 1601. He came to Quebec in 1608, 1610, 1611,
1612, 1613, 1614, and 1616. He was successively captain of the _Fleur de
Lys_, the _Trinité_ and the _Nativité_. He was very circumspect in his
dealings.
[10] Champlain often speaks of this man. His true name was Claude Godet,
Sieur des Marets. His father, Cléophas Godet, a lawyer, had three sons,
Claude, Jean and Jessé. Jean was Sieur du Parc, and Jessé parish priest
of Chambois in 1634. Both Claude and Jean came to Canada. Claude des
Marets was married, in 1615, to Jeanne Gravé, only daughter of François
Gravé, Sieur du Pont. He died about the year 1626, leaving one child
named François, who came to New France with his grandfather, and was
present at the capitulation of Quebec in 1629.
[11] This is the river _de Fouez_ of Jacques Cartier, and the
_Metaberoutin_ of the Indians, and now the river St. Maurice, to which
historians have given the name of Three Rivers, because two islands
divide it into three branches at its entrance; these branches are called
_Les Chenaux_, or the narrow channels.
[12] Pierre de Chauvin, Sieur de la Pierre, called Captain Pierre by
Champlain, was born at Dieppe, but after the death of his relative,
Pierre de Chauvin, Sieur de Tontuit, he resided at Honfleur. There were
many families of Chauvin in Normandy during the seventeenth century,
notably the Chauvins, Sieurs de Tontuit, and the Chauvins, Sieurs de la
Pierre.