[CONTINUED ON PAGE FIVE]
* * * * *
[Illustration: POLYCHROME ENAMELLED GLASS MOSQUE LAMP OF THE XIIITH
CENTURY]
Very few examples of this highly advanced art survive. They represent
an extremely aristocratic manifestation of art and were executed by
order of MAMELUKE CALIPHS of Egypt, and dedicated by them to their
great Mosques, individually inscribed in magnificent calligraphy.
* * * * *
[PAGE 5]
intolerance.[3] History does not record the practice of compulsory
conversion in the scheme of conquest of early converts. "It is often
supposed," says Professor BROWNE, "that the choice offered by the
warriors of ISLAM was between the QUR'AN and the SWORD; this, however,
is not the fact." There are innumerable evidences to the contrary
which history records.[4] It appears that the exemplary behavior of
the Arabs, under their newly acquired faith, was the main factor not
only in the success of their scheme of conquest, but also in the
impression which it made on the defeated in determining them to adopt
the faith which produced such upright warriors.
[Footnote 3: "Righteousness is not that ye turn your faces to the East
and to the West, but righteousness is this: Whosoever believeth in
God, and the last day, and the angels, and the book, and the prophets;
and whoso, for the love of God, giveth of his wealth unto his kindred,
and unto orphans, and the poor, and the traveller, and to those who
crave alms, and for the release of the captives; and whoso observeth
prayer and giveth in charity; and those who, when they have
covenanted, fulfil their covenant; and who are patient in adversity
and hardship, and in times of violence: these are the righteous and
they that fear the Lord."--QUR'AN, SURA II.]
[Footnote 4: The treaty concluded by HABIB B. MASLAMA with the people
of DABIL in Armenia ran as follows: "In the name of God the merciful,
the clement. This is a letter from HABIB B. MASLAMA to the people of
DABIL, Christians, Magians, and Jews, such of them as are present and
such of them as are absent. Verily I guarantee the safety of your
lives, properties, churches, temples and city walls; ye are secure,
and it is incumbent upon us faithfully to observe this treaty so long
as you observe it and pay the poll-tax and the land-tax. God is
witness, and he sufficeth as a witness."--QUR'AN, V. 104. Concerning
the acceptance of the Poll-Tax from ZOROASTRIANS, as well as from Jews
and Christians. A. VON KREMER'S "Kulturgeschichte d. Orients," Vol. I,
page 59.]
The tremendous political upheaval that the evolution of ISLAM brought
in its train to the affairs of the world does not fall within the
scope of this paper. A highly important fact, however, must not be
lost sight of, that by consolidating and unifying the tottering states
a new civilization was founded which knew how to turn to account the
culture of the ancient states conquered. In this overwhelming
transformation Persia came in, from the outset, to play the most
conspicuous and important part. The
[CONTINUED ON PAGE NINE]
* * * * *
[Illustration: ROYAL IVORY BOX, WITH METAL MOUNTING. HISPANO-ARABIAN
ART, XIITH-XIIITH CENTURY DECORATED IN ENAMEL AND GOLD, DEPICTING
INSIGNIA OF SUCCESSORS OF UMAYYAD CALIPHS OF SPAIN, AND QUR'ANIC
ROSETTES AND KUFIC CALLIGRAPHY OF THE HIGHEST DISTINCTION]
[Illustration: FAIENCE CYLINDRICAL VASE, WITH RELIEF AND LUSTRE
DECORATION. FROM FOSTAT (ANCIENT CAIRO), DYNASTY OF FATIMID
ANTI-CALIPHS (A.D. 974-1171)]
[Illustration: AN EARLY SAFAWID PAINTING (CIRCA A.D. 1525) OF
EXQUISITE RHYTHM, DEPTH AND DIGNITY]
* * * * *
[PAGE 9]
artistic productions of the MUHAMMADAN world that have come down to us
as living monuments, substantiate this statement without a shadow of
doubt, which makes it unnecessary to resort to recorded history,
although its pages abound with incontestable evidences.[5]
[Footnote 5: "Thus it is by no means correct to imply that the two or
three centuries immediately following the MUHAMMADAN conquest of
Persia were a blank page in the intellectual life of its people. It
is, on the contrary, a period of immense and unique interest, of
fusion between the old and the new, of transformation of forms and
transmigration of ideas, but in no wise of stagnation or death.
Politically, it is true, Persia ceased for a while to enjoy a separate
national existence, being merged in that great MUHAMMADAN EMPIRE which
stretched from GIBRALTAR to the JAXARTES; but in the intellectual
domain she soon began to assert the supremacy to which the ability and
subtlety of her people entitled her. Even the forms of State
organization were largely adapted from Persian models."--AL-FAKHRI
(ed. AHLWARDT, page 101), on the organization of the DIWANS or
Government offices.
"In the finance department not only was the Persian system adopted, but
the Persian language and notation continued to be used till the time
of AL-HAJJAJ B. YUSUF (about A.D. 700)."--EDWARD G. BROWNE, "Literary
History of Persia", Vol. I, page 204.]
It would be difficult to offer an explanation for the underlying unity
and integrity of character manifest in the artistic expression of the
MUHAMMADAN countries, of vast geographical range, without a clear
understanding of the vital force contained in the teachings of the
Arabian Apostle, and the characteristics of his people, destined to
carry those teachings from one end of the earth to the other. For this
reason the foregoing brief survey has been ventured.
There can be no doubt that the pivot around which the artistic
activities of MUHAMMADAN countries revolved, was Persia.[6] She was to
attain the function of the SUN, element of
[CONTINUED ON PAGE SEVENTEEN]
* * * * *
ILLUSTRATIONS FOR TITLE-PAGES OF A SHAHNAMA (EPIC OF KINGS) of the
XVth Century.
Representing TIMUR-I-LANG (A.H. 736-807) attending a festival. The
name and the full titles of TIMUR appear in excellent Thuluth
lettering round the border of the rug upon which the monarch sits.
This important Manuscript was presented by the Emperor of Russia to
the Ambassador of Persia at St. Petersburg, A.D. 1829. The
Ambassador's autograph inscription reads:
"The SHAHNAMA graciously presented by H.M. the Emperor at my third
visit--may it be omen of good fortune. MUHAMMAD ALI IBNI GHAFOURI
Ambassador, 22nd of RAJAB, A.H. 1245."
"TIMUR BEG was seated in a portal, in front of the entrance of a
beautiful Palace; and he was sitting on the ground.... The lord was
seated cross-legged, on silken embroidered carpets, amongst round
pillows. He was dressed in a robe of silk, with white headdress on his
head, on the top of which there was a spinel ruby, with pearls and
precious stones round it. As soon as the ambassadors saw the lord,
they made a reverential bow, placing the knee on the ground, and
crossing the arms on the breast; then they went forward and made
another and then a third, remaining with their knees on the ground.
The lord ordered them to rise and come forward.... Three MIRZAS, or
secretaries, ... came and took the ambassadors by the arms, and led
them forward until they stood before the lord.... He asked after the
King, saying, 'How is my son the King? is he in good health?' When the
ambassadors had answered, TIMUR BEG turned to the knights who were
seated around him, amongst whom were one of the sons of TOKTAMISH, the
former Emperor of TARTARY, several chiefs of the blood of the late
Emperor of SAMARQUAND, and others of the family of the lord himself,
and said, 'Behold, here are the ambassadors sent by my son, the King
of Spain, who is the greatest King of Franks, and lives at the end of
the world. These Franks are truly great people, and I will give my
benediction to the King of Spain, my son."--From the Diary of RUY
GONZALEZ DI CLAVIJO, principal of the embassy despatched A.D. 1404 to
the Court of SAMARQUAND by Henry III of Castile, Spain.
CLAVIJO describes the beautiful gardens with their tiled palaces where
banquets were given. The ambassador, who was invited, marvelled at the
gorgeous tents, one of which "was so large and high that from a
distance it looked like a castle, and it was a very wonderful thing to
see, and possessed more beauty than it is possible to describe". It is
interesting to notice that SHARAF-U-DIN mentions the presence of the
Ambassadors, "for," he writes, "even the smallest of fish have their
place in the sea". Truly a delightful touch!--History of Persia, by
SIR PERCY SYKES, Vol. II, page 133.
[Illustration: ILLUSTRATIONS FOR TITLE-PAGES OF A SHAHNAMA (EPIC OF
KINGS) OF THE XVTH CENTURY]
"On the extreme of the western side of the royal precincts opening on
to the CHAHAR BAGH are a garden and building. The Garden was
previously called "BAGH I BULBUL" (Garden of Nightingales).--LORD
CURZON, History of Persia.
"Night drawing on, all the pride of SPAHAUN was met in the CHAUR BAUG
and grandees were airing themselves, prancing about with their
numerous trains, striving to outdo each other in pomp and
generosity."--DR. FRYER, recorded A.D. 1677.
CHARDIN, who was at Ispahan at the time of SHAH SULEIMAN'S reign
(1667-1694), records in his "VOYAGES", Vol. VIII, page 43:
"When one walks in these places expressly made for the delights of
love and when one passes through all these cabinets and niches, one's
heart is melted to such an extent that to speak candidly, one always
leaves with a very ill grace. The climate without doubt contributes
much towards exciting this amorous disposition, but assuredly these
places, although in some respects little more than cardboard castles,
are nevertheless more smiling and agreeable than our most sumptuous
palaces."
LORD CURZON says (History of Persia, Vol. II, page 37) that "Even
CHARDIN, enthusiastic but seldom sentimental, was inspired to an
unwonted outburst by the charms of HASHT BAHISHT".
[Illustration: VIEW OF CHAHAR BAGH (FOUR GARDENS) AND HASHT BAHISHT
(PAVILION OF EIGHT PARADISES) AT ISPAHAN. CONSTRUCTED BY SHAH SULEIMAN
SAFAWI ABOUT A.D. 1670. REPRODUCTION FROM "LA PERSE, LA CHALDEE ET LA
SUSIANE" (1887) BY DIEULAFOY]
PAIR OF DOORS FROM THE PAVILION OF CHAHAL SITUN (Hall of Forty
Pillars) built by SHAH ABBAS the Great (A.D. 1588-1629).
These are decorated with representations of scenes from the Royal
Court of the great Shah, painted minutely by Court artists.
"They transport us straight to the Court of the lordly ABBAS and his
predecessors or successors on the throne.... We see the King engaged
at some royal festivity enjoying the pleasure of the Bowl."--LORD
CURZON, History of Persia, Vol. II, page 34.
KER PORTER, who saw the Palace of Chahal Situn in its perfect
condition, records: "The exhaustless profusion of its splendid
materials reflected not merely their own golden lights on each other,
but all the variegated colours of the Garden, so that the whole
surface seemed formed of polished silver and mother of pearl set with
precious stones."
LORD CURZON, who visited it soon after its last repair in 1891, quotes
KER PORTER and by way of contrast says: "The bulk of this superb
decoration which still remains in the THRONE ROOM behind, to point
bitter contrast, had on the walls of the LOGGIA been ruthlessly
obliterated by the brush of the painter, who had left in its place
pink wash; had I caught the Pagan, I would gladly have suffocated him
in a barrel of his own paint."--History of Persia, Vol. II, page 33.
[Illustration: PAIR OF DOORS FROM THE PAVILION OF CHAHAL SITUN (HALL
OF FORTY PILLARS) BUILT BY SHAH ABBAS THE GREAT (A.D. 1588-1629)]
[Illustration: RIZA ABBASI, FAVORED COURT ARTIST, PORTRAYS EUROPEANS
AT THE COURT OF SHAH ABBAS THE GREAT (A.D. 1588-1629)]
Detail of exquisitely painted woodwork from the Pavilion of CHAHAL
SITUN (Hall of Forty Pillars), the Palace at Ispahan built by SHAH
ABBAS.
The young Shah, who was pleased with the leader of the party
(Europeans), gave him royal gifts, Sir Anthony Sherley records (1598),
including "forty horses all furnished, two with exceeding rich
saddles, plated with gold, and set with rubies and turquoises." To
these he added camels, tents, and a sum of money.
* * * * *
[PAGE 17]
her old faith, source of sustaining energy; and continued to radiate
into these planets of countries and races of the System, her
all-stimulating cultural beams, the reflection of which is discernible
in all artistic manifestations of those countries. In the field of
literature, which is so little known in the western world, the
influence is even greater than in the visual art with which we are
concerned. MUHAMMADAN literature, be it Arabic, Turkish, or Persian,
is PERSIAN in spirit and feeling.[7]
[Footnote 6: "The ascendancy of the Persians over the Arabs, that is
to say of the conquered over the victors, had already for a long while
been in course of preparation; it became complete when the ABBASIDS,
who owed their elevation to the Persians, ascended the throne (A.D.
749). The most distinguished personages at court were consequently
Persians. The famous BARMECIDES were descended from a Persian noble
who had been superintendent of the Fire Temple at BALKH. AFSHIN, the
all-powerful favorite of the Caliph AL-MUTASIM, was a scion of the
Princes of USRUSHNA in Transoxiana."--DOZY, "Histoire de
l'Islamisme".]
[Footnote 7: "With the rise of PERSIAN influence, there opened an era
of culture, toleration, and scientific research. The practice of oral
tradition was also giving place to recorded statement and historical
narrative,--a change hastened by the scholarly tendencies introduced
from the East."--SIR WILLIAM MUIR, on the rise of the Abbasid
Dynasty.]
The fusion of MUHAMMADAN doctrine with this Aryan (Persian) culture of
old,[8] is an important event in the history of Art. For out of this
fusion came forth into being a new phase of artistic expression
completely different, in form and spirit, from its predecessors.
Probably of equal importance is the fact that, although practised by
divers races and subjected to many developments, fluctuations and
variations, it has retained throughout the centuries its identical
characteristics. What was the vital force that brought about this
cultural evolution and unification? The answer appears to be RELIGION,
as we shall see.
[Footnote 8: "PERSIAN influence increased at the court of the CALIPHS,
and reached its zenith under AL-HADI, HARUNU'R-RASHID, and AL-MAMUN.
Most of the ministers of the last were PERSIANS or of PERSIAN
extraction. In BAGHDAD, PERSIAN fashions continued to enjoy an
increasing ascendancy. The old PERSIAN festivals of the NAWRUZ,
MIHRGAN, and RAM were celebrated. PERSIAN raiment was the official
court dress, and the tall, black, conical PERSIAN hats were already
prescribed as official by the second ABBASID Caliph (in A.H. 153: A.D.
770). At the court the customs of the SASSANIAN Kings were imitated,
and garments decorated with golden inscriptions were introduced, which
it was the exclusive privilege of the ruler to bestow. A coin of the
Caliph AL-MUTAWAKKIL shows us this Prince actually clothed in true
PERSIAN fashions".--VON KREMER, Streitzuge, page 32.]
The foundation of the MUHAMMADAN EMPIRE was RELIGION. It was to the
Holy Standard that the nations bent
[CONTINUED ON PAGE TWENTY-THREE]
* * * * *
_"Lips sweet as sugar on my pen bestow,
And from my book let streams of odour flow."_
--J'AMI.