name of the place mentioned in (1)? Is _Chicago_, or _City of Chicago_ the
name of the steamer mentioned in (2)? Is the town mentioned in (2) named
_Jersey_, or _Jersey City_? Is the body of water mentioned in (1) known as
_Michigan_, or _Lake Michigan_? What is the name of the island mentioned in
(3)?--in (4)? Is _Irish_, or _Irish Sea_ the name of the body of water
mentioned in (4)?
Notice that _Spanish_, in (3), and _English_, in (5), are not names, or
nouns. They begin with capitals, because they are derived from the
individual names _Spain_ and _England_.
What names in (7) usually denote relationship? Notice that such words as
_uncle, captain, professor_, etc., do not necessarily begin with capitals
unless prefixed to individual names.
What group of words in (6) is treated as an individual name? What in (8)?
Which words of these groups are regarded as the most important?
In (8) do you find a period after _Miss_?--after _Mrs._?
_Miss_ is not written as an abbreviation.
What words in (9) and (10) are used as names of the Deity? What is _Old
Testament_ the particular name of?
What do you discover in the names found in (11)?
For other exercises, pupils may be required to bring in lists of
geographical and biographical names, titles of books, etc.
We earnestly recommend the introduction here of letter-writing to
illustrate the use of capitals, abbreviations, and punctuation. (See pp.
146-161.) The writing of _headings, introductions, conclusions_, and
_superscriptions_ will give most excellent practice in capitals, etc. The
_body_ of the letter may be directed to the same end. For instance, an
invitation to a friend may be accompanied by a description of the route to
be taken and of the places or objects of interest to be seen on the way. Or
the writer may mention some of the books he has read, with the names of the
characters and of the places mentioned.
ADJECTIVES--CHOICE AND ARRANGEMENT.
Words denoting quality form a very large and important group. Our knowledge
of things about us is a knowledge of their qualities. A writer's style is,
to a large extent, determined by his use of adjectives. We therefore
recommend special drill in the choice and the use of adjectives. The
exercises given below may serve as suggestions to the teacher. Groups of
adjectives like the following may be presented, the pupils being required
to join them to appropriate nouns:--
_Some Qualities learned directly through the Senses_.
+Seeing+,
scarlet
crimson
florid
sallow
opaque
dingy
vivid
gorgeous
gaudy
variegated
verdant
transparent
+Hearing+,
audible
stunning
thundering
deafening
purling
husky
monotonous
discordant
melodious
+Smelling+,
fragrant
balmy
odorous
rancid
fetid
aromatic
+Tasting+,
acid
acrid
pungent
delicious
insipid
brackish
palatable
savory
luscious
+Feeling+.
rough
gritty
hard
keen
tepid
sultry
Pupils will find little difficulty in largely increasing the lists above.
Many other groupings may be made; as, of qualities learned by comparison,
measurement, or experiment; qualities of the mind; qualities pertaining to
right and wrong, etc.
Groups of nouns like the following may be made, and the pupils may be
required to mention as many qualities as possible belonging to each of the
things named:--
chalk
ice
brooks
clouds
water
snow
ocean
music
Pupils may mention animals properly described by the following
adjectives:--
timid
fleet
cunning
ferocious
gentle
graceful
sagacious
venomous
Careless persons and those that have a meager list of adjectives at command
overwork and abuse such words as--
_nice, awful, horrid, splendid, elegant, lovely_.
We hear of _nice mountains_, _awful pens_, _horrid ink_, _splendid pie_,
_elegant beef_, _lovely cheese_, etc.
Pupils may study the meaning of the six adjectives last mentioned, and use
them to fill the following blanks:--
| distinction
----------+ workmanship
| calculation
| stillness
----------+ chasm
| rumbling
| child
----------+ features
| character
| palace
----------+ victory
| illumination
| manners
----------+ taste
| furniture
| deeds
----------+ dreams
| butchery
This work may very profitable be extended.
A word picture is often spoiled by using too many adjectives; as,
"A _great_, _large_, _roomy_, spacious hall";
"_Superb_, delicious, _magnificent_ pumpkin-pie";
"A _stingy_, miserly, _close-fisted_ fellow."
The italicized words may be omitted.
Pupils should be taught to watch for such errors, and to correct them.
Pupils may be required to copy choice selections from literature, and to
note carefully capitals, punctuation, and the use of adjectives. We offer
the following exercise as a specimen:--
We piled with care our nightly stack
Of wood against the chimney-back,--
The oaken log, green, huge, and thick,
And on its top the stout back-stick;
The knotty fore-stick laid apart,
And filled between with curious art
The ragged brush; then, hovering near,
We watched the first red blaze appear,
Heard the sharp crackle, caught the gleam
On whitewashed wall and sagging beam,
Until the old, rude-furnished room
Burst, flower-like, into rosy bloom.
_Whittier.--Snow-Bound_.
+Observation Lesson+.--Of what are the lines above a picture? Where, and in
what kind of house, do you think this picture was seen?
What object is pictured by the help of five adjectives? Are the adjectives
that precede the name of this object of the same rank? Are those that
follow of the same rank? What noun is modified by three adjectives of
different rank? What noun by three adjectives two of which are of the same
rank? What difference is found in the punctuation of these several groups?
Notice how the noun _crackle_ crackles as you pronounce it, and how the
adjective _sharp_ makes it penetrate. Notice how strong a picture is made
in the two lines immediately before the last. The adjectives here used
bring out the most prominent qualities of the room, and these qualities
bring along with them into the imagination all the other qualities. This is
what we must try to make our adjectives do.
Point out all the adjectives in the selection above, and explain the office
of each.
What peculiar use of capitals do you discover in these lines of poetry?
Much that has been suggested above concerning the use of adjectives will
apply to adverbs also.
ARRANGEMENT.
The following exercises are given to show how pupils may discover for
themselves the _natural order_ of words and phrases:--
(_a_) Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo.
(_b_) William's sister Mary is an excellent musician.
(_c_) Everything suddenly appeared so strangely bright.
(_d_) We saw it distinctly.
(_e_) We had often been there.
(_f_) Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo.
+Observation Lesson+.--The words and the phrases in the sentences above
stand in their _Natural Order_.
From (_a_) and (_b_) determine the natural order of the subject, predicate,
and complement. From (_b_) determine the natural order of a possessive
modifier, of an explanatory modifier, and of an adjective. From (_c_),
(_d_), and (_e_) determine the several positions of an adverb joined to a
verb. Determine from (_c_) the position of an adverb modifying an adjective
or another adverb. Determine from (_a_) and (_f_) the natural order of a
phrase.
Pupils may copy the following, and note the arrangement and the punctuation
of the phrases:--
(_g_) This place is endeared to me by many associations.
(_h_) To me, this place is endeared by many associations.
(_i_) Your answers, with few exceptions, have been correctly given.
(_j_) He applied for the position, without a recommendation.
+Observation Lesson+.--Phrases in their natural order follow the words they
modify. When two or more phrases belong to the same word, the one most
closely modifying it stands nearest to it.
In the first sentence above, _to me_ tells to whom the place is endeared;
_by many associations_ tells how it is endeared to me, and is therefore
placed after to me. Try the effect of placing _to me_ last. Phrases, like
adjectives, may be of different rank.
Phrases are often transposed, or placed out of their natural order. Notice
that _to me_, in (_h_) above, is transposed, and thus made emphatic, and
that it is set off by the comma.
In (_i_), the phrase is loosely thrown in as if it were not essential, thus
making a break in the sentence. To make this apparent to the eye we set the
phrase off by the comma.
Place the phrase of (_i_) in three other positions, and set it off. When
the phrase is at the beginning or at the end of the sentence, how many
commas do you need to set it off? How many, when it is in the middle?
Do you find any choice in the four positions of this phrase? After having
been told that your answers were correct, would it be a disappointment to
be told that they were not all correct? Is the interest in a story best
kept up by first telling the important points and then the unimportant
particulars? What then do you think of placing this phrase at the end?
What does the last phrase of (_j_) modify? Take out the comma, and then see
whether there can be any doubt as to what the phrase modifies.
In the placing of adverbs and phrases great freedom is often allowable, and
the determining of their best possible position affords an almost unlimited
opportunity for the exercise of taste and judgment.
Such questions as those on (_i_) above may suggest a mode of easy approach
to what is usually relegated to the province of rhetoric. Let the pupils
see that phrases may be transposed for various reasons--for emphasis, as in
(_h_) above; for the purpose of exciting the reader's curiosity and holding
his attention till the complete statement is made, as in (_i_) above, or
in, "In the dead of night, with a chosen band, under the cover of a truce,
he approached"; for the sake of balancing the sentence by letting some of
the modifying terms precede, and some follow, the principal parts, as, "In
1837, on the death of William IV., Victoria succeeded to the throne"; and
for other reasons.
Other selections maybe made and these exercises continued, the pupils
discussing fully the effects of all possible changes.
Pupils may note the transposed words and phrases in the following
sentences, explaining their office and the effect of the transposition:--
1. Victories, indeed, they were.
2. Down came the masts.
3. Here stands the man.
4. Doubtful seemed the battle.
5. Wide open stood the doors.
6. A mighty man is he.
7. That gale I well remember.
8. Behind her rode Lalla Rookh.
9. Blood-red became the sun.
10. Louder waxed the applause.
11. Him the Almighty Power hurled headlong.
12. Slowly and sadly we laid him down.
13. Into the valley of death rode the six hundred.
14. So died the great Columbus of the skies.
15. Aeneas did, from the flames of Troy, upon his shoulders, the old
Anchises bear.
16. Such a heart in the breast of my people beats.
17. The great fire up the deep and wide chimney roared.
18. Ease and grace in writing are, of all the acquisitions made in school,
the most difficult and valuable.
Pupils may read or write the following sentences in the transposed order,
and explain the effect of the change:--
19. He could not avoid it.
20. He would not escape.
21. I must go.
22. He ended his tale here.
23. It stands written so.
24. She seemed young and sad.
25. I will make one more effort to save you.
26. My regrets were bitter and unavailing.
27. I came into the world helpless.
28. A sincere word was never utterly lost.
29. Catiline shall no longer plot her ruin.
ORDER OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.
30. Who wrote the Declaration of Independence?
31. What states border on the Gulf of Mexico?
32. Whom did you see?
33. What is poetry?
34. Which course will you choose?
35. Why are the days shorter in winter?
36. When was America discovered?
37. Were you there?
38. Has the North Pole been reached?
+Observation Lesson+.--When the interrogative word is subject or a modifier
of it, is the order natural, or transposed? See (30) and (31) above.
When the interrogative word is object or attribute complement, or a
modifier of either, what is the order? See (32), (33), and (34).
When the interrogative word is an adverb, what is the order? See (35) and
(36).
When there is no interrogative word, what is the order? See (37) and (38).
The sentences above will furnish profitable review lessons in _analysis_.
REVIEW--COMPOSITION.
We suggest that, from two or more paragraphs of some interesting and
instructive article, leading sentences be selected, and that the pupils be
required to explain the office and the punctuation of the easier adjective
and adverb phrases, to vary the arrangement in every possible way, and to
discuss the effects of these changes. Then, after finding the general
subject and the heading for each paragraph, the pupils may arrange these
sentences and work them into a composition, making such additions as may be
suggested.
RESTRICTIVE MODIFIERS--PUNCTUATION.
The chief difficulty in the punctuation of the different kinds of modifiers
is in determining whether or not they are restrictive. The following
examples may serve as the basis of an observation lesson:--
(_a_) The words _golden_ and _oriole_ are pleasant to the ear.
(_b_) Words, the signs of ideas, are spoken and written.
(_c_) Use words that are current.
(_d_) Words, which are the signs of ideas, are spoken and written.
(_e_) The country anciently called Gaul is now called France.
(_f_) France, anciently called Gaul, derived its name from the Franks.
(_g_) Glass bends easily when it is hot.
(_h_) I met him in Paris, when I was last abroad.
The following explanations may be drawn from the pupils:--
In (_a_) the application of _words_ is limited, or restricted, to the two
words mentioned; in (_c_) _words_ is restricted to a certain kind. In (_b_)
and (_d_) the modifiers do not restrict. They apply to all words and simply
add information. In (_e_) the participial phrase restricts the application
of _country_ to one particular country; but in (_f_) the phrase describes
without limiting. The omission of the comma in (_g_) shows that _Glass
bends easily_ is not offered as a general statement, but that the action is
restricted to a certain time or condition. _When it is hot_ is essential to
the intended meaning. The punctuation of (_h_) shows that the speaker does
not wish to make the time of meeting a prominent or essential part of what
he has to say. The adverb clause simply gives additional information. If
(_h_) were an answer to the question, When did you meet him? the comma
would be omitted. The sense may be varied by the use or the omission of the
comma.
Let the pupils see how incomplete the statements are when the restrictive
modifiers are omitted, and that the other modifiers are not so necessary to
the sense. In such expressions as _I myself, we boys_, the explanatory
words are not restrictive, but they combine closely with the modified term.
ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.
Adjective clauses allow little change in position. They usually follow
closely the word modified. Often they may be contracted into adjectives or
into adjective phrases.
Selections from standard writers may be made with special reference to the
study of adjective clauses. The position, punctuation, and choice of
relatives may be noticed, and, as far as possible, the clauses may be
changed into equivalent adjectives or into phrases.
ADVERB CLAUSES.
An adverb clause may stand before the independent clause, between its
parts, or after it; as, "When it is hot, glass bends easily;" "Glass, when
it is hot, bends easily;" "Glass bends easily when it is hot." Notice the
punctuation of these examples.
Adverb clauses may be contracted in various ways. Clauses introduced by the
comparatives _as_ and _than_ are usually found in an abbreviated form; as,
"You are as old _as_ he (_is old_);" "You are older _than_ I (_am old_)."
Attention may be called to the danger of mistaking here the nominative for
the objective. We suggest making selections for the study of adverb
clauses.
NOUN CLAUSES.
Noun clauses may be contracted; as, "_That we should obey_ is necessary" =
"_Obedience_ is necessary," or, "_To obey_ is necessary;" "I can hardly
realize _that my friend is gone_" = "I can hardly realize _my friend's
being gone_." By substituting _it_ for the subject clause, this clause
maybe placed last and made explanatory; as, "_It_ is necessary _that we
should obey_." The object clause is sometimes transposed; as, "_That my
friend is gone_, I can hardly realize." The noun clause may be made
prominent by introducing the independent clause parenthetically; as,"_His
story_, we believe, _is exaggerated_."
Notice the punctuation of the clauses above. The noun clause used as
attribute complement is generally set off by the comma. Noun clauses that
are quotations need special treatment.
NOUN CLAUSES--QUOTATIONS.
We suggest the following observation lesson:--
1. Goldsmith says, "Learn the luxury of doing good."
2. Goldsmith says that we should learn the luxury of doing good.
3. "The owlet Atheism, hooting at the glorious sun in heaven, cries out,
'Where is it?'"
4. Coleridge compares atheism to an owlet hooting at the sun, and asking
where it is.
5. "To read without reflecting," says Burke, "is like eating without
digesting."
6. May we not find "sermons in stones and good in everything"?
7. There is much meaning in the following quotation: "Books are embalmed
minds."
8. We must ask, What are we living for?
9. We must ask what we are living for.
+Observation Lesson+.--Notice that the writer of (1) has copied into his
sentence (quoted) the exact language of Goldsmith. The two marks like
inverted commas and the two marks like apostrophes, which inclose this
copied passage (quotation), are called _Quotation Marks_.
Name all the differences between (1) and (2). Is the same thought expressed
in both? Which quotation would you call _direct?_ Which, _indirect?_
Notice that the whole of (3) is a quotation, and that this quotation
contains another quotation inclosed within _single marks_. Notice the order
of the marks at the end of (3).
Point out the differences between (3) and (4). In which is a question
quoted just as it would be asked? In which is a question merely referred
to? Which question would you call _direct?_ Which, _indirect_? Name every
difference in the form of these.
In which of the above sentences is a quotation interrupted by a
parenthetical clause? How are the parts marked?
Point out a quotation that cannot make complete sense by itself. How does
it differ from the others as to punctuation and the first letter?
In (7) a _Colon_ precedes the quotation to show that it is _formally
introduced_.
In (8) a question is introduced without quotation marks. Questions that,
like this, are introduced without being referred to any particular person
or persons, are often written without quotation marks. State the
differences between (8) and (9).
In quoting a question, the interrogation point must stand within the
quotation marks; but, when a question contains a quotation, this order is
reversed. Point out illustrations above.
Sum up what you have learned. (See rules for capitals, comma, colon, and
quotation marks, pp. 140-143.)
Selections written in the colloquial style and containing frequent
quotations and questions may be taken from reading-books, for examination,
discussion, and copying. Noun phrases may be expanded, and noun clauses
contracted, transposed, etc.
INDEPENDENT CLAUSES.
Frequently independent clauses are contracted by using repeated parts but
once and uniting the other parts into a compound term, as in Lesson 67.
They are also contracted by omitting such words as may be readily
understood; as, "Is it true, or _not;_" "He is a philosopher, _not a
poet_." For punctuation, see rules for the comma and the semicolon, p. 141.
REVIEW--COMPOSITION.
We recommend that the teacher select some short article containing valuable
information and break up each paragraph into short, disconnected
expressions. One paragraph at a time may be put on the board for the pupils
to copy. The general subject may be given, and the pupils may be required
to find a proper heading for the paragraph. The different ways of
connecting the expressions may be discussed in the class. By contracting,
expanding, transposing, and by substituting entirely different words, a
great variety of forms may be had. (The forms found in the "Example," p.
144, and the list of connectives, p. 190, may be helpful.) The pupils may
then combine the different paragraphs into a composition. For the
explanation of _paragraph_, see p. 145, and Exercises for Composition in
the Supplement.
We give below material for one composition:--
Frog's spawn found in a pond. At first like a mass of jelly. Eggs can be
distinguished.
In a few days curious little fish are hatched. These "tadpoles" are lively.
Swim by means of long tails. Head very large--out of proportion. Appearance
of all head and tail. This creature is a true fish. It breathes water-air
by means of gills. It has a two-chambered heart.
Watch it day by day. Two little gills seen. These soon disappear. Hind legs
begin to grow. Tail gets smaller. Two small arms, or forelegs, are seen.
Remarkable change going on inside. True lungs for breathing air have been
forming. Another chamber added to the heart.
As the gills grow smaller, it finds difficulty in breathing water-air. One
fine day it pokes its nose out of the water. Astonished (possibly) to find
that it can breathe in the air. A new life has come upon it. No particular
reason for spending all its time in water; crawls out upon land; sits down
upon its haunches; surveys the world. It is no longer a fish; has entered
upon a higher stage of existence; has become a frog.
This work of analyzing a composition to find the leading thoughts under
which the other thoughts may be grouped is in many ways a most valuable
discipline.
It teaches the pupil to compare, to discriminate, to weigh, to systematize,
to read intelligently and profitably.
The reading-book will afford excellent practice in finding heads for
paragraphs. Such work is an essential preparation for the reading-class.
This composition work should serve as a constant review of all that has
been passed over in the text-book.
ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS AND ADVERBS.
It is often difficult to distinguish an adjective complement from an adverb
modifier. We offer the following explanation:--
"Mary arrived _safe_." As we here wish to tell the condition of Mary on her
arrival, and _not_ the _manner_ of her arriving, we use _safe_, not
_safely_. "My head feels _bad_" (is in a bad condition, as perceived by the
sense of feeling). "The sun shines _bright_" (is bright--quality,--as
perceived by its shining).
You must determine whether you wish to tell the _quality_ of the thing
named or the _manner_ of the action.
When the idea of being is prominent in the verb, as in the examples above,
you see that the adjective, and not the adverb, follows.
Let the pupils show that the following adjectives and adverbs are used
correctly:--
1. I feel sad.
2. I feel deeply.
3. I feel miserable.
4. He appeared prompt and willing.
5. He appeared promptly and willingly.
6. She looks beautiful.
7. She sings beautifully.
PAST PARTICIPLES AND PREDICATE VERBS DISTINGUISHED.
When the past tense and the past participle differ in form, they are often
confounded in use; as,
I _done_ it;
I _seen_ it.
Pupils may be required to construct short sentences, oral or written, using
the _Past_ forms found in Lesson 91 as predicates, and the _Past
Participle_ forms either as modifiers or as completing words in compound
verbs.
They may be led to some such conclusion as the following:--
The _Past_ is always an asserting, or predicate, word; the _Past
Participle_ never asserts, but is used as an adjective modifier or as the
completing word of a compound verb; the _Present_ may be used as a
predicate or as an infinitive.
Exercises like the following may be copied, and repeated aloud:--