require the pupils to distinguish them.
When I say, I _crush_ the worm, I express an action that is going on now,
or in present time. I _crushed_ the worm, expresses an action that took
place in past time. As _tense_ means _time_, we call the form _crush_ the
_present tense_ of the verb, and _crushed_ the _past tense_. In the
sentence, The worm _crushed_ under my foot died, _crushed_, expressing the
action as assumed, is, as you have already learned, a participle; and, as
the action is completed, we call it a _past participle_. Now notice that
_ed_ was added to _crush_, the verb in the present tense, to form the verb
in the past tense, and to form the past participle. Most verbs form their
past tense and their past participle by adding _ed_, and so we call such
+Regular verbs+.
I _see_ the man; I _saw_ the man; The man _seen_ by me ran away. I _catch_
fish in the brook; I _caught_ fish in the brook; The fish _caught_ in the
brook tasted good. Here the verbs _see_ and _catch_ do not form their past
tense and past participle by adding _ed_ to the present, and so we call
them _Irregular verbs_.
Let the teacher write on the board verbs of both classes, and require the
pupils to distinguish them.
DEFINITIONS.
CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO MEANING.
+A _Transitive Verb_ is one that requires an object+. [Footnote: The
_object_ of a transitive verb, that is, the name of the receiver of the
action, may be the _object complement_, or it may be the subject; as,
Brutus stabbed _Caesar_, _Caesar_ was stabbed by Brutus.]
+An _Intransitive Verb_ is one that does not require an object+.
CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO FORM.
+A _Regular Verb_ is one that forms its past tense and past participle by
adding _ed_ to the present+. [Footnote: If the present ends in _e_, the _e_
is dropped when _ed_ is added; as, lov_e_, lov_ed_; believ_e_, believ_ed_.]
+An _Irregular Verb_ is one that does not form its past tense and past
participle by adding _ed_ to the present+.
SENTENCE-BUILDING.
Place the following verbs in two columns, one headed _transitive_ and the
other, _intransitive_. Place the same verbs in two other columns, one
headed _regular_ and the other, _irregular_. Build these verbs into
sentences by supplying a subject to each intransitive verb, and a subject
and an object to each transitive verb.
Vanish, gallop, bite, promote, contain, produce, provide, veto, secure,
scramble, rattle, draw.
Arrange the following verbs as before, and then build them into sentences
by supplying a subject and a noun attribute to each intransitive verb, and
a subject and an object to each transitive verb.
Degrade, gather, know, was, became, is.
A verb may be transitive in one sentence and intransitive in another. Use
the following verbs both ways.
+Model+.--The wren _sings_ sweetly.
The wren _sings_ a pretty little song.
Bend, ring, break, dash, move.
LESSON 75.
CLASSES OF ADVERBS.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--When I say, He will come _soon_, or
_presently_, or _often_, or _early_, I am using, to modify _will come_,
words which express the _time_ of coming. These and all such adverbs we
call +Adverbs of Time+.
He will come _up_, or _hither_, or _here_, or _back_. Here I use, to modify
_will come_, words which express _place_. These and all such adverbs we
call +Adverbs of Place+.
When I say, The weather is _so_ cold, or _very_ cold, or _intensely_ cold,
the words _so, very_, and _intensely_ modify the adjective _cold_ by
expressing the _degree_ of coldness. These and all such adverbs we call
+Adverbs of Degree+.
When I say, He spoke _freely, wisely_, and _well_, the words _freely,
wisely_, and _well_ tell how or _in what manner_ he spoke. All such adverbs
we call +Adverbs of Manner+.
Let the teacher place adverbs on the board, and require the pupil to
classify them.
DEFINITIONS.
+_Adverbs of Time_ are those that generally answer the question+, _When?_
_+Adverbs of Place are those that generally answer the question+, Where?
+Adverbs of Degree are those that generally answer the question+, To what
extent?
+Adverbs of Manner are those that generally answer the question+, In what
way?_
SENTENCE-BUILDING.
Place the following adverbs in the four classes we have made--if the
classification be perfect, there will be five words in each column--then
build each adverb into a simple sentence.
Partly, only, too, wisely, now, here, when, very, well, where, nobly,
already, seldom, more, ably, away, always, not, there, out.
Some adverbs, as you have already learned, modify two verbs, and thus
connect the two clauses in which these verbs occur. Such adverbs are called
_+Conjunctive Adverbs+_.
The following _dependent_ clauses are introduced by _conjunctive adverbs_.
Build them into complex sentences by supplying _independent clauses_.
------ _when_ the ice is smooth;
------ _while_ we sleep;
------ _before_ winter comes;
------ _where_ the reindeer lives;
------ _wherever_ you go.
LESSON 76.
CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. [Footnote: For classified lists, see pp. 190,191.]
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_Frogs, antelopes, and kangaroos can jump_.
Here the three nouns are of the same rank in the sentence. All are subjects
of _can jump. War has ceased, and peace has come_. In this compound
sentence, there are two clauses of the same rank. The word _and_ connects
the subjects of _can jump_, in the first sentence: and the two clauses, in
the second. All words that connect words, phrases, or clauses of the _same
rank_ are called +Co-ordinate Conjunctions+.
_If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. I will go, because you need
me_. Here _if_ joins the clause, _you have tears_, as a modifier,
expressing condition, to the independent clause, _prepare to shed them
now;_ and _because_ connects _you need me_, as a modifier, expressing
reason or cause, to the independent clause, _I will go_. These and all such
conjunctions as connect dependent clauses to clauses of a _higher rank_ are
called +Subordinate Conjunctions+.
Let the teacher illustrate the meaning and use of the words _subordinate_
and _co-ordinate_.
DEFINITIONS.
+_Co-ordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect words, phrases, or clauses
of the same rank+.
+_Subordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect clauses of different rank+.
SENTENCE-BUILDING.
Build four short sentences for each of the three _co-ordinate conjunctions_
that follow. In the first, let the conjunction be used to connect principal
parts of a sentence; in the second, to connect word modifiers; in the
third, to connect phrase modifiers; and in the fourth, to connect
independent clauses.
And, or, but.
Write four short complex sentences containing the four _subordinate
conjunctions_ that follow. Let the first be used to introduce a noun
clause, and the other three to connect adverb clauses to independent
clauses.
That, for, if, because.
LESSON 77.
REVIEW QUESTIONS.
What new subject begins with page 95? Name and define the different classes
of nouns. Illustrate by examples the difference between common nouns and
proper nouns. Name and define the different classes of pronouns. Can the
pronoun _I_ be used to stand for the one spoken to?--the one spoken of?
Does the relative pronoun distinguish by its _form_ the speaker, the one
spoken to, and the one spoken of? Illustrate. Can any other class of
pronouns be used to connect clauses?
For what do interrogative pronouns stand? Illustrate. Where may the
antecedent of an interrogative pronoun generally be found? _Ans.--The
antecedent of an interrogative pronoun may generally lie found in the
answer to the question_.
Name and define the different classes of adjectives. Give an example of
each class. Name and define the different classes of verbs, made with
respect to their meaning. Give an example of each class. Name and define
the different classes of verbs, made with respect to their form. Give an
example of each class.
Name and define the different classes of adverbs. Give examples of each
kind. Name and define the different classes of conjunctions. Illustrate by
examples.
Are prepositions and interjections subdivided? (See "Schemes" for the
conjunction, the preposition, and the interjection, p. 188.)
+To the Teacher+.--See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement-- Selection
from Dr. John Brown.
We suggest that other selections from literature be made and these
exercises continued.
MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.
LESSON 78.
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.
You have learned that two words may express a thought, and that the thought
may be varied by adding modifying words. You are now to learn that the
meaning or use of a word may sometimes be changed by simply changing its
_form_. The English language has lost many of its inflections, or forms, so
that frequently changes in the meaning and use of words are not marked by
changes in form. These _changes_ in the _form, meaning_, and _use_ of the
parts of speech, we call their +Modifications+.
_The boy shouts. The boys shout_. I have changed the form of the subject
_boy_ by adding an _s_ to it. The meaning has changed. _Boy_ denotes _one_
lad; _boys_, _two or more_ lads. This change in the form and meaning of
nouns is called +Number+. The word _boy_, denoting one thing, is in the
+Singular Number;+ and _boys_, denoting more than one thing, is in the
+Plural Number+.
Let the teacher write other nouns on the board, and require the pupils to
form the plural of them.
DEFINITIONS.
+_Modifications of the Parts of Speech_ are changes in their form, meaning,
and use+.
NUMBER.
+_Number_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes one thing
or more than one+.
+The _Singular Number_ denotes one thing+.
+The _Plural Number_ denotes more than one thing+.
+RULE.--The _plural_ of nouns is regularly formed by adding _s_ to the
singular+.
Write the plural of the following nouns.
Tree, bird, insect, cricket, grasshopper, wing, stick, stone, flower,
meadow, pasture, grove, worm, bug, cow, eagle, hawk, wren, plough,
shovel.
When a singular noun ends in the sound of _s, x, z, sh_, or _ch_, it is not
easy to add the sound of _s_, so _es_ is added to make another syllable.
Write the plural of the following nouns.
Guess, box, topaz, lash, birch, compass, fox, waltz, sash, bench, gas,
tax, adz, brush, arch.
Many nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a consonant form the plural by adding
_es_ without increasing the number of syllables.
Write the plural of the following nouns.
Hero, cargo, negro, potato, echo, volcano, mosquito, motto.
Common nouns ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant form the plural by
changing _y_ into _i_ and adding _es_ without increasing the number of
syllables.
Write the plural of the following nouns.
Lady, balcony, family, city, country, daisy, fairy, cherry, study, sky.
Some nouns ending in _f_ and _fe_ form the plural by changing _f_ or _fe_
into _ves_ without increasing the number of syllables.
Write the plural of the following nouns.
Sheaf, loaf, beef, thief, calf, half, elf, shelf, self, wolf, life,
knife, wife.
LESSON 79.
NUMBER.
From the following list of nouns, select, and write in separate columns:
1st. Those that have no plural; 2d. Those that have no singular; 3d. Those
that are alike in both numbers.
Pride, wages, trousers, cider, suds, victuals, milk, riches, flax,
courage, sheep, deer, flour, idleness, tidings, thanks, ashes, scissors,
swine, heathen.
The following nouns have very irregular plurals. Learn to spell the
plurals.
_Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural_.
Man, men. Foot, feet.
Woman, women. Ox, oxen.
Child, children. Tooth, teeth.
Mouse, mice. Goose, geese.
Learn the following plurals and compare them with the groups in the
preceding Lesson.
Moneys, flies, chimneys, valleys, stories, berries, lilies, turkeys,
monkeys, cuckoos, pianos, vetoes, solos, folios, gulfs, chiefs, leaves,
roofs, scarfs, inches.
LESSON 80.
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.--GENDER.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_The lion was caged. The lioness was caged_.
In the first sentence, something was said about a _male_ lion; and in the
second, something was said about a _female_ lion. Modifications of the noun
to denote the sex of the object, we call +Gender+. Knowing the sex of the
object, you know the gender of its name. The word _lion_, denoting a male
animal, is in the +Masculine Gender;+ and _lioness_, denoting a female
lion, is in the +Feminine Gender+.
The names of things _without_ sex are in the +Neuter Gender+.
Such words as _cousin, child, friend, neighbor_, may be _either masculine
or feminine_.
+DEFINITIONS.
_Gender_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes sex.
The _Masculine Gender_ denotes the male sex.
The _Feminine Gender_ denotes the female sex.
The _Neuter Gender_ denotes want of sex+.
The masculine is distinguished from the feminine in three ways:--
1st. By a difference in the ending of the nouns.
2d. By different words in the compound names.
3d. By words wholly or radically different.
Arrange the following pairs in separate columns with reference to these
ways.
Abbot, abbess; actor, actress; Francis, Frances; Jesse, Jessie; bachelor,
maid; beau, belle; monk, nun; gander, goose; administrator,
administratrix; baron, baroness; count, countess; czar, czarina; don,
donna; boy, girl; drake, duck; lord, lady; nephew, niece; landlord,
landlady; gentleman, gentlewoman; peacock, peahen; duke, duchess; hero,
heroine; host, hostess; Jew, Jewess; man-servant, maid-servant; sir,
madam; wizard, witch; marquis, marchioness; widow, widower; heir,
heiress; Paul, Pauline; Augustus, Augusta.
REVIEW QUESTIONS.
What new way of varying the meaning of words is introduced in Lesson 78?
Illustrate. What are modifications of the parts of speech? What is number?
How many numbers are there? Name and define each. Give the rule for forming
the plural of nouns. Illustrate the variations of this rule. What is
gender? How many genders are there? Name and define each. In how many ways
are the genders distinguished? Illustrate.
LESSON 81.
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.--PERSON AND CASE.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_Number_ and _gender_, as you have already
learned, are modifications affecting the _meaning_ of nouns and pronouns.
Number is almost always indicated by the ending; gender, sometimes. There
are two other modifications which refer not to changes in the _meaning_ of
nouns and pronouns, but to their different _uses_ and _relations_. In the
English language, these changes are not often indicated by a change of
_form_.
_I Paul_ have written. _Paul, thou_ art beside thyself. _He_ brought _Paul_
before Agrippa. In these three sentences the word _Paul_ has _three
different uses_. In the first, it is used as the name of the _speaker_; in
the second, as the name of _one spoken to_; in the third, as the name of
_one spoken of_. You will notice that the _form_ of the noun was not
changed. This change in the use of nouns and pronouns is called +Person+.
The word _I_ in the first sentence, the word _thou_ in the second, and the
word _he_ in the third have each a different use. _I_, _thou_, and _he_ are
personal pronouns, and, as you have learned, distinguish _person_ by their
_form_. _I_, denoting the speaker, is in the +First Person+; _thou_,
denoting the one spoken to, is in the +Second Person+; and _he_, denoting
the one spoken of, is in the +Third Person+.
_Personal pronouns_ and _verbs_ are the only words that distinguish person
by their form.
_The bear killed the man_. _The man killed the bear_. _The bear's grease
was made into hair oil_. In the first sentence, the bear is represented as
_performing_ an action; in the second, as _receiving_ an action; in the
third, as _possessing_ something. So the word _bear_ in these sentences has
three different uses. These uses of nouns are called +Cases+. The use of a
noun as subject is called the +Nominative Case+; its use as object is
called the +Objective Case+; and its use to denote possession is called the
+Possessive Case+.
The _possessive_ is the only case of nouns that is indicated by a change in
_form_.
A noun or pronoun used as an _attribute_ complement is in the _nominative
case_. A noun or pronoun following a preposition as the principal word of a
phrase is in the _objective case_. _I_ and _he_ are _nominative_ forms.
_Me_ and _him_ are _objective_ forms.
The following sentences are therefore incorrect: It is _me_; It is _him_;
_Me_ gave the pen to _he_.
+DEFINITIONS.
_Person_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes the
speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of.
The _First Person_ denotes the one speaking.
The _Second Person_ denotes the one spoken to.
The _Third Person_ denotes the one spoken of.
_Case_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes its office
in the sentence.
The _Nominative Case of a noun or pronoun_ denotes its office as subject or
as attribute complement.
The _Possessive Case of a noun or pronoun_ denotes its office as possessive
modifier.
The _Objective Case of a noun or pronoun_ denotes its office as object
complement, or as principal word in a prepositional phrase+.
LESSON 82.
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.--PERSON AND CASE.
Tell the _person_ and _case_ of each of the following nouns and pronouns.
+_Remember_+ that a noun or pronoun used as an _explanatory modifier_ is in
the same case as the word which it explains, and that a noun or pronoun
used _independently_ is in the _nominative case_.
We Americans do things in a hurry.
You Englishmen take more time to think.
The Germans do their work with the most patience and deliberation.
We boys desire a holiday.
Come on, my men; I will lead you.
I, your teacher, desire your success.
You, my pupils, are attentive.
I called on Tom, the tinker.
Friends, countrymen, and lovers, hear me for my cause.
Write simple sentences in which each of the following nouns shall be used
in the _three persons_ and in the _three cases_.
Andrew Jackson, Alexander, Yankees.
Write a sentence containing a noun in the _nominative_ case, used as an
_attribute;_ one in the _nominative_, used as an _explanatory modifier_;
one in the _nominative_, used independently.
Write a sentence containing a noun in the _objective case_, used to
_complete two predicate verbs_; one used to _complete_ a _participle_; one
used to _complete_ an _infinitive_; one used _with a preposition_ to make a
phrase; one used as an _explanatory modifier_.
+To the Teacher+.--See pp. 183, 184.
LESSON 83.
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.--DECLENSION.
+DEFINITION.--_Declension_ is the arrangement of the cases of nouns and
pronouns in the two numbers+.
Declension of Nouns.
LADY.
_Singular_. _Plural_.
_Nom_. lady, ladies,
_Pos_. lady's, ladies',
_Obj_. lady; ladies.
CHILD.
_Singular_. _Plural_.
_Nom._ child, children,
_Pos._ child's, children's,
_Obj._ child; children.
Declension of Pronouns.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
FIRST PERSON.
_Singular_. _Plural_.
_Nom._ I, we,
_Pos._ my _or_ mine, our _or_ ours,
_Obj._ me; us.
SECOND PERSON--_common form_.
_Singular_. _Plural_.
_Nom._ you, you,
_Pos._ your _or_ yours, your _or_ yours,
_Obj._ you; you.
SECOND PERSON--_old form_.
_Singular_. _Plural_.
_Nom._ thou, ye or you,
_Pos._ thy _or_ thine, your _or_ yours,
_Obj._ thee; you.
THIRD PERSON--_masculine_.
_Singular_. _Plural_.
_Nom._ he, they,
_Pos._ his, their _or_ theirs,
_Obj._ him; them.
THIRD PERSON--_feminine_.
_Singular_. _Plural_.
_Nom._ she, they,
_Pos._ her _or_ hers, their _or_ theirs,
_Obj._ her; them.
THIRD PERSON----_neuter_.
_Singular_. _Plural_.
_Nom._ it, they,
_Pos._ its, their _or_ theirs,
_Obj._ it; them.
_Mine, ours, yours, thine, hers_, and _theirs_ are used when the name of
the thing possessed is omitted; as, This rose is _yours_ = This rose is
_your rose_.
COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
By joining the word _self_ to the possessive forms _my, thy, your_, and to
the objective forms _him, her, it_, the +_Compound Personal Pronouns_+ are
formed. They have no possessive case, and are alike in the nominative and
the objective.
Their plurals are _ourselves_, _yourselves_, and _themselves_. Form the
_compound personal pronouns_, and write their declension.
RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
_Sing. and Plu._
_Nom._ who,
_Pos._ whose,
_Obj._ whom.
_Sing. and Plu._
_Nom._ which,
_Pos._ whose,
_Obj._ which.
_Of which_ is often used instead of the possessive form of the latter
pronoun.
_Sing. and Plu._
_Nom._ that,
_Pos._ ----,
_Obj._ that.
_Sing. and Plu._
_Nom._ what,
_Pos._ ----,
_Obj._ what.
_Ever_ and _soever_ are added to _who, which_, and _what_ to form the
+_Compound Relative Pronouns_+. They are used when the antecedent is
omitted. For declension, see above.
LESSON 84.
POSSESSIVE FORMS.
+RULE.--The _possessive case_ of nouns is formed in the singular by adding
to the nominative the apostrophe and the letter _s_ ('s); in the plural, by
adding (') only. If the plural does not end in _s_, the apostrophe and the
_s_ are both added+.
Write the _possessive singular_ and the _possessive plural_ of the
following nouns, and place an appropriate noun after each.
Robin, friend, fly, hero, woman, bee, mouse, cuckoo, fox, ox, man, thief,
fairy, mosquito, wolf, shepherd, farmer, child, neighbor, cow.
Possession may be expressed also by the preposition _of_ and the
_objective_; as, the _mosquito's_ bill = the bill _of_ the _mosquito_.
The possessive sign ('s) is confined _chiefly_ to the names of persons and
animals.
We do not say the _chair's_ legs, but the legs _of_ the _chair_. Regard
must be had also to the _sound_.
IMPROVE THE FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS, and expand each into a simple sentence.
The sky's color; the cloud's brilliancy; the rose's leaves; my uncle's
partner's house; George's father's friend's farm; the mane of the horse
of my brother; my brother's horse's mane.
When there are several possessive nouns, all belonging to one word, the
possessive sign is added to the last only. If they modify different words,
the sign is added to each.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS, and expand each into a simple sentence.
+Model+.--_Webster and Worcester's dictionary may be bought at Ticknor's
and Field's book-store_.
The possessive sign should be added to _Webster_, for the word _dictionary_
is understood immediately after. Webster and Worcester do not together
possess the same dictionary. The sign should not be added to _Ticknor_, for
the two men, Tieknor and Field, possess the same store.
Adam's and Eve's garden; Jacob's and Esau's father; Shakespeare and
Milton's works; Maud, Kate, and Clara's gloves; Maud's, Kate's, and Clara's
teacher was ----.
When one possessive noun is explanatory of another, the possessive sign is
added to the last only.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
I called at Tom's the tinker's.
They listened to Peter's the Hermit's eloquence.
This was the Apostle's Paul's advice.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
Our's, your's, hi's, their's, her's, it's, hisn, yourn, hern.
LESSON 85.
FORMS OF THE PRONOUN.
+_Remember_+ that _I, we, thou, ye, he, she, they_, and _who_ are
+_nominative_+ forms, and must not be used in the objective case.
+_Remember_+ that _me, us, thee, him, her, them_, and _whom_ are
+_objective_+ forms, and must not be used in the nominative case.
+To the Teacher+.--The _eight_ nominative forms and the _seven_ objective
forms given above are the only distinctive nominative and objective forms
in the English language. Let the pupils become familiar with them.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
Him and me are good friends.
The two persons were her and me.
Us girls had a jolly time.
It is them, surely.
Who will catch this? Me.
Them that despise me shall be lightly esteemed.
Who is there? Me.
It was not us, it was him.
Who did you see?
Who did you ask for?
+_Remember_+ that pronouns must agree with their antecedents in number,
gender, and person.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
Every boy must read their own sentences.
I gave the horse oats, but he would not eat it.
Every one must read it for themselves.
I took up the little boy, and set it on my knee.