race (_q.v._), allied to the Zulus, or northern stock. They are
eminently warlike, and have an interesting system of social
organisation. They are of Bantu origin, immigrants from the north,
who have dispossessed the Hottentot or Bushman aborigines. They are
tall, well-built, and muscular, with Negro features and complexion,
and woolly hair. They are semi-nomadic cattle-breeders and hunters,
but many have taken to the settled pursuits of agriculture. They
were long at war with the British and Boer settlers, but are now a
peaceful and contented people under British rule.
=Yakuts.= A Mongolic race of Turki stock, inhabiting the
province of Yakutsk in East Siberia. They are of middle height,
with black hair, flat noses, and narrow eyes. They are laborious
and enterprising, and show more aptitude for civilisation than the
Buriats or Tunguses. They inhabit log “yurtas” in winter, but camp
out in summer. Cattle-breeding, and to a less degree agriculture,
are their chief occupations.
=Yankees.= Natives of the New England States. In a wider
sense, the northern inhabitants of the United States.
=Yaos.= Agricultural aborigines of French Indo-China, perhaps
allied to the Chinese proper.
=Yedinas.= See LAKE CHAD GROUP.
=Yomuds.= See TURKOMANS.
=Yorubas.= A group of Sudanese Negro races inhabiting the
eastern half of the Slave Coast district, and united by a common
Yoruba language, though much broken up by political feuds. They
are peacefully disposed, industrious, and friendly to strangers.
Their main pursuit is agriculture, but they also practise many
industries; they are the best architects in Africa. Their chief
tribes are those of Egba, Jebu, Oworo, Ondo, Ife, and Oyo.
Abeokuta, the Egba capital, owes its fame to the success with
which it held out as a city of refuge against the slave-hunters of
Dahomey and Ibadan.
=Yukaghirs.= A nomadic tribe of north-east Siberia, probably
identical with the Tunguses (_q.v._).
=Yumas.= See OPATA-PIMA.
=Yuruks.= A nomadic Turki race in the Konia vilayet of
Turkey-in-Asia.
=Yusufzais.= See AFGHANS.
=Zambos.= See SAMBOS.
=Zaparos.= South American Indians, on the Upper Napo in Peru.
=Zapotecs.= Central American Indians of Oajaca in Mexico.
=Zendals=, =Zotzils=. See MAYA-QUICHÉ.
=Zulus=, or =Amazulu=. A very warlike Bantu race, allied
to the Xosas and other Kafir tribes, whom they resemble in physique
and organisation. Originally a small Kafir clan, the Zulus were
raised to eminence at the beginning of the nineteenth century by
the genius of Tchaka, a kind of Negro Napoleon, who established
a severe military despotism, and dominated South Africa from the
Zambesi to Cape Colony by the courage and military skill of his
regiments. Tchaka’s descendants ruled Zululand proper, and waged
war against Kafirs, Boers, and English, until their country was
annexed by Britain in 1887. The Zulus are both physically and
mentally one of the finest of African races.
=Zunis.= See PUEBLO INDIANS.
[Illustration: TYPES OF THE CHIEF LIVING RACES OF MANKIND
1. Anglo-Saxon 2. Finn 3. Celtic 4. Bulgarian
5. Greek 6. Caucasian 7. Tartar
8. Arab 9. Fellah 10. Berber 11. Syrian
12. Afghan 13. Javanese 14. Malay
15. Ladrone Islander 16. Hindu 17. Samang 18. Negrito
]
[Illustration:
19. Chinese 20. Japanese 21. Tartar 22. Aleutian
23. Kalmuck 24. Kamchadale 25. Aleoutian
26. Esquimau 27. Ainu 28. Samoyede
29. Koriak 30. Stone Indian 31. Otoe Indian
32. Kutchin Indian 34. Yucatan Indian
33. Chili Indian 35. Fuegian
]
[Illustration: GROUPED ACCORDING TO PHYSIOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIP
36. Jeba Negro 37. Beja 38. Sahara Negro
39. Hottentot 40. Kafir 41. Mozambique Negro
42. North Australian 44. South Australian
43. West Australian 45. Tasmanian
46. Tikopia Islander 47. Maori 48. Samoan
49. Melanesian (Vanikoro Island) 50. Melanesian (New Hebrides)
51. Fijian
]
ETHNOLOGICAL CHART OF THE HUMAN RACE
This Chart, intended for reference in connection with the Dictionary
of Races beginning on page 311, gives a view of the various main
divisions, families, and stocks into which the human race is divided
by ethnologists. It is impossible to give a complete list of the
individual races within the necessary limits, but the chief typical
races are named under each stock in the right-hand column. The races
marked with an asterisk are extinct.
ETHIOPIC DIVISION
Family Stock Typical races
AFRICAN NEGRO
_Sudanese_ {Mandingan
{Ashanti
{Hausa
{Azandeh
_Bantu_ {Herero
{Wanyamwezi
{Basuto
{Waganda
{Ama-Xosa (Kafir)
{Zulu
_Hottentot-Bushman_ {Nama
{Griqua
{Bushman
AFRICAN NEGRITO
_Pygmy_ {Wochua
{Akka
{Obongo
OCEANIC-NEGRO
_Papuan_ {New Guinea natives
_Melanesian_ {Fijian
{Solomon Islanders
_Australian_ {Australian aborigines
{Tasmanian*
OCEANIC NEGRITO
_Negrito_ {Andamanese
{Sakai
{Aeta
MONGOLIC DIVISION
Family Stock Typical races
NORTHERN MONGOLIC
{Sharra
{Kalmuk
_Mongol_ {Buriat
{Tungus
{Turks
{Tartars
_Turki_ {Bashkirs
{Kirghiz
{Turkoman
{Samoyede
{Magyar
_Finno-Ugrian_ {Finn
{Bulgar
{Lapp
_Siberian_ {Chukchi
{Kamchadale
_Koreo-Japanese_ {Korean
{Japanese
_Dravidian(?)_ Tamil
SOUTHERN MONGOLIC
{Tibetan
_Tibetan_ {Balti
{Lushai
{Burmese
_Indo-Chinese_ {Siamese
{Bhil
{Annamese
{Chinese
_Chinese_ {Punti
{Lolo
OCEANIC MONGOLIC
{Malay
_Malaysian_ {Dyak
{Javanese
_Malagasy_ Hova
_Philippine_ {Visayan
{Ilocano
_Formosan_
AMERICAN DIVISION
Family Stock Typical races
ARCTIC
_Eskimo_ {Eskimo
{Aleutian
NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN
_Athabascan_ {Apache
{Navajo
_Algonquian_ {Delaware
{Mohican
{Blackfoot
_Iroquioan_ {Huron
{Mohawk
{Cherokee
_Thlinkit_ Thlinkit
_Haida_ Haida
_Chinook_ Chinook
_Siouan_ {Sioux
{Dakota
{Omaha
_Shoshonean_ {Shoshone
{Utah
{Comanche
{Pawnee
_Muskhogean_ {Choktaw
{Seminole
_Natchez_ Natchez*
_Kiowa_ Kiowa
_Salish_ Flathead
_Pueblo_ {Zuni
{Taos
CENTRAL AMERICAN INDIAN
_Otomi_ Otomi
_Opata-Pima_ {Cora
{Tarahumara
_Guaicuri_ Guaicuri
_Tarascan_ Tarascan
_Nahuan_ {Toltec
{Aztec
{Mexican
_Maya-Quiché_ {Maya
{Quiché
{Huastec
_Lencan_ {Chontal
{Guatusa
_Bribri_ Bribri
_Talamanca_ Talamanca
_Zapotec_ Zapotec
_Miztec_ Miztec
_Chorotegan_ Chorotegan
SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN
_Inca_ {Quichua
{Chanca
_Aymara_ Aymara
_Chibcha_ Chibcha
_Choco_ Choco
_Zaparo_ Zaparo
_Jivaro_ Jivaro
_Mojo_ Mojo
_Chiquito_ Chiquito
_Barré_ Barré
_Charrua_ Charrua*
_Chuncho_ Chuncho
_Conibo_ Conibo
_Carib_ {Macusi
{Rucuyenne
_Arawak_ {Maypuri
{Wapisiana
_Warrau_ Warrau
_Botocudo_ Botocudo
_Tupi-Guarani_ {Paraguay
{Caribuna
{Tupinamba
_Payagua_ Payagua
_Matacoan_ Matacoan
_Toba_ Toba
_Araucanian_ Araucanian
_Puelche_ {Puelche
{Gaucho
_Patagonian_ Patagonian
_Fuegian_ Fuegian
CAUCASIC DIVISION
Family Stock Typical races
HAMITIC
_Eastern_ { Egyptian
{ Somali
{ Galla
{ Masai
_Western_ { Numidian Berber
{ Iberian { Basque
{ Pict*
{ Ligurian Corsican
{ Pelasgian { Mycenæan*
{ Etruscan*
SEMITIC
_Assyrian_ Chaldæan*
_Aramæan_ { Syrian
{ Hittite*
_Canaanite_ { Israelite
{ Phœnician*
{ Carthaginian*
_Arab_ { Arab
{ Bedouin
_Himyarite_ Abyssinian
ARYAN
_Hindu_ { Punjabi
{ Bengali
_Iranian_ { Afghan
{ Persian
{ Armenian
{ Kurd
_Hellenic_ { Albanian
{ Greek
_Italic_ { Roman
{ Italian
{ French
{ Spanish
{ Portuguese
{ Latin American
_Keltic_ { Goidelic { Irish
{ or { Manx
{ Q Kelts { Highland Scottish
{ Brythonic { Welsh
{ or { Breton
{ P Kelts { Cornish*
_Lettic_ { Lithuanian
{ Lettish
_Slavonic_ { Russian
{ Czech
{ Polish
{ Servian
_Scandinavian_ { Norwegian
{ Swedish
{ Danish
_Teutonic_ { Low { Old Saxon*
{ German { Dutch
{ { Flemish
{ { Anglo-Saxon
{ High { German
{ German { Saxon
{ Swiss
{ Austrian
CAUCASIAN
_Southern_ Georgian
_Western_ Circassian
_Eastern_ { Chechenz
{ Lesghian
INDONESIAN
_Polynesian_ { Samoan
{ Maori
{ Marquesan
AINU
_Ainu_ Ainu
[Illustration: MAKING OF THE NATIONS AND THE INFLUENCE OF NATURE]
THE BIRTH & GROWTH OF NATIONS
BY PROFESSOR RATZEL
In order that the cosmic conception of the life of man may be more
than a mere isolated idea, incapable of being applied and developed,
it is necessary to indicate the relation which human life bears to the
collective life of the earth.
[Sidenote: Man is Bound up with the Earth]
Human existence is based upon the entire development of vegetable
and animal life; or, as Alexander von Humboldt said, in reality the
human race partakes of the entire life on earth. Just as plants
and animals, vegetable and animal remains and products, occupy an
intermediate position between man and the inanimate substance of the
earth, so almost without exception the life of man depends not directly
upon the earth, but upon the animals and plants, which in turn are
immediately bound to the earth by the necessities of existence. It is
the dependence of later and more evolved types upon the earlier and
less evolved. In 1845 Robert Mayer, the German scientist, published
his epoch-making thesis on “The Relations of Organic Motion to
Metabolism,” in which he described the vegetable world as a reservoir
wherein the rays of the sun are transformed into life-supporting
material and are stored up for use. According to his view the physical
existence of the human race is inseparably linked together with this
“economic providence”; and he even went so far as to connect it with
the instinctive pleasure felt by every eye at the sight of luxuriant
vegetation.
[Sidenote: Man’s Fight with Plants and Animals]
[Sidenote: Spreading Life Over all the Earth]
The history of mankind shows how various are the elements contained
in this reservoir, and how manifold their action. Originally plants
and animals share the soil with man, who must struggle with them for
its possession. The plains favour and the forests obstruct historical
movement; the inhabitant of the tropics is hardly able to overcome the
growth of weeds that covers his field; for the Esquimau the vegetable
world exists but two months in the year, and then only in stunted,
feeble species. The unequal distribution of edible plants has in a
large measure been the cause of divergence in the developments of
different races. Australia and the Arctic countries have received
almost nothing; the Old World has had abundance of the richest gifts
showered upon it, Asia receiving more than Africa or Europe. The
most valuable of domestic animals are of Asiatic origin. America’s
pre-European history is incomparably more uniform than that of the Old
World, and this is owing to her moderate endowment of useful plants
and almost complete lack of domestic animals. The transplanting of
vegetable species from one part of the earth to another, carried on
by man, is one of the greatest movements in the collective life of
the world. Its possibilities of extension cannot be conjectured; for
the successful diffusion of single cultivated plants--the banana,
for example--over a number of widely separated countries is yet
problematical. This process can never be considered to have come to an
end so long as necessity forces man to get a firmer and firmer hold on
the store of earthly life.
The relations of man to the earth are primarily the same as those of
any other form of life. The universal laws of the diffusion of life
include also the laws of the diffusion of the human species. Hence the
study of the geographical distribution of man must be looked upon only
as a branch of the study of the geographical distribution of life, and
a succession of the conceptions belonging to the latter.
[Sidenote: The Material Tie that Binds Men Together]
To these conceptions belong the main area of distribution, the
habitable world, and all its various parts: zones, continents, and
other divisions of the earth’s surface, especially seas, coasts,
interiors of lands, bordering regions, divisions exhibiting continuity
with others as links in a chain, and isolated divisions. Also
relations as to area: the struggle for territory, variations in the
life development in small or inextensive regions, in insular or in
continental districts, on heights of land and plateaus, and, in
addition, the hindrances and the aids to development presented by
different conformations; the advance development in small, densely
populated districts; or the protection afforded by isolated situations.
All must be included. Finally, properties of boundaries must be
conceived of as analogous to phenomena occurring on the peripheries of
living bodies.
As races are forms of organic life, it follows that the state cannot
be comprehended otherwise than as an organised being; every people,
every state is organic, as a combination of organic units. Moreover
there is something organic in the internal coherence of the groups and
individuals from which a state is formed. However, in the case of a
people and a state, this coherence is neither material nor structural;
states are spiritual and moral organisms. But, together with the
spiritual, there is also a material coherence between the individual
members of a race or a nation. This is the connection with the ground.
The ground furnishes the only material tie that binds individuals
together into a state; and it is primarily for this reason that all
history exhibits a strong and ever-increasing tendency to associate the
state with the soil--to root it to the ground, as it were.
[Sidenote: The State and the Soil]
The earth is not only the connecting principle, but it is also the
single tangible and indestructible proof of the unity of the state.
This connection does not decrease during the course of history, as
might be supposed, owing to the progressive development of spiritual
forces; on the contrary, it ever becomes closer, advancing from the
loose association of a few individuals with a proportionately wide
area in the primitive community, to the close connection of the dense
population of a powerful state with its relatively small area, as in
the case of a modern civilised nation. In spite of all disturbances,
the economic and political end has ever been to associate a greater and
greater number of individuals with the soil. Hence the law that every
relation of a race or tribe to the ground strives to take a political
form, and that every political structure seeks connection with the
ground. The notion of an unterritorial and a territorial epoch in the
history of man is incorrect; ground is necessary to every form of
state, and also to the germs of states, such as a few negroes’ huts
or a ranch in the Far West. Development consists only in a constant
increase in the occupation and use of land, and in the fact that, as
populations grow, so do they become ever more firmly rooted in their
own soils.
[Sidenote: If One State Embraced the Whole Earth]
At the same time the nature of the movements of peoples must change.
Penetration and assimilation of one race by another occur instead
of displacement of one by another; and with the rapid decrease of
unoccupied territory the fate of the late-comers in history is
irrevocably sealed. Since the state is an organism composed of
independent individuals and households, its decay cannot be analogous
to the death and corruption of a plant or an animal. When plants decay,
the cells of which they are composed decay also. But in a decayed state
the freed individuals live on and unite together into new political
organisms; they increase, and the old necessity for growth continues
in the midst of the ruin. The decay of nations is not destruction;
it is a remodelling, a transformation. A great political institution
dies out; smaller institutions arise in its place. Decay is a life
necessity. Nothing could be more incorrect than the idea that the
growth of nations would come to an end were one state to embrace the
whole earth. If this were to happen, long before the great moment of
union came, there would be a multitude of processes of growth already
in operation, ready to rebuild in case of decadence, and to provide
for a new organisation if needed. As yet the political expansion of
the white races over the earth has not resulted in uniformity, but in
manifoldness.
[Illustration: THE PEOPLE OF THE MOUNTAINS: SHOWING THE INFLUENCE OF
ENVIRONMENT ON CHARACTER
This picture, by Alexander Johnston, illustrates the keynote of
Professor Ratzel’s chapters on the influence of the earth on
character. Johnston represents a marriage among the Scottish
Covenanters, who, persecuted under the Stuarts, took to the
moss-hags and the hills, of whose stern ruggedness their own stern
independence was the outcome and counterpart.
]
[Sidenote: Earth and the Movements of Peoples]
All conditions and relations of peoples and states that may be
geographically described, delineated, surveyed, and, for the greater
part, even measured, can be traced back to movements--movements that
are peculiar to all forms of life, and of which the origin is growth
and development. However various these movements may be in other
respects, they are always connected with the soil, and thus must be
dependent upon the extent, situation, and conformation of the ground
upon which they take place. Therefore, in every organic movement we
may perceive the activity of the internal motive forces which are
peculiar to life, and the influences of the ground to which the life
is attached. In the movements of peoples, the internal forces are the
organic powers of motion common to all creatures, and the spiritual
impulses of the intellect and will of man.
In many a view of history these forces alone appear; but it must not
be forgotten that they are conditioned by the fact that they cannot be
active beyond the general limits of life, and they cannot disengage
themselves from the soil to which life is bound. In order to understand
historical movements it is first necessary to consider their purely
mechanical side, which is shown clearly enough by an inquiry into the
nature of the earth’s surface. Neglect of this occasions a delay in
the understanding of the true character of such movements. Men merely
spoke of geography, and treated history as if it were an atmospheric
phenomenon.
[Sidenote: National Emigrations in History]
Nations are movable bodies whose units are held together by a
common origin, language, customs, locality, and often necessity for
defence--the strongest tie of all. A people expands in one direction
and contracts in another; in case of two adjacent nations, a movement
in the one betokens a movement in the other. Active movements are
responded to by passive, and vice versa. Every movement in an area
filled with life consists in a displacement of individuals. There are
also currents and counter-currents: when slavery was abolished in the
Southern States of America, an emigration of white men from the South
was followed by an influx of ex-slaves from the North, thus causing an
increase in the black majority of the South.
[Sidenote: Why Nations Must Seek New Homes]
Such external movements of peoples assume most varied forms. History
takes a too narrow view in considering only the migrations of nations,
looking upon them as great and rare events, historical storms as it
were, exceptional in the monotonous quiet of the life of man. This
conception of historical movements is very similar to the discarded
cataclysmic theory in geology. In the history of nations, as in
the history of the earth, a great effect does not always involve a
presupposition of its being the immediate result of a mighty cause.
The constant action of small forces that finally results in a large
aggregate of effect must be taken into account in history as well as in
geology. Every external movement is preceded by internal disturbance:
a nation must grow from within in order to spread abroad. The increase
of Arabs in Oman led to an emigration to East Africa along highways of
traffic known to times of old. Merchants, craftsmen, adventurers, and
slaves left their native land and drew together in Zanzibar, Pemba,
and on the mainland. The process was repeated from the coast to the
interior, and as a result of the aggregate labour of individuals as
merchants, colonists, and missionaries, Arabian states grew up in
the central regions of Africa. Instances of the occupation of vacant
territories are of the greatest rarity in history as we are acquainted
with it. The best example known to us is the settlement of Iceland
by the Northmen. The rule is, a forcing in of the immigrating nation
between other races already in possession; the opposition of the latter
often compels the former to divide up into small groups, which then
insinuate themselves peacefully among the people already established in
the land.
[Illustration: THE NORTHMEN TAKING POSSESSION OF ICELAND
Instances of peoples taking possession of uninhabited lands and
settling therein are extremely rare. Iceland is the best example
known. The hardy Northmen took possession of it in the ninth
century, but found the country untenanted.
]
[Sidenote: The Human Will Knows no Obstacle]
The movements of nations resemble those of fluids upon the earth: they
proceed from higher altitudes to lower; and obstacles cause a change of
course, a backward flow, or a division. Though at first there may be a
series of streams running along side by side, there is a convergence
at the goal, as shown by the migration of different peoples to a
common territory; there is concentration when there are hindrances to
be overcome, and a spreading out where the ground is level and secure.
One race draws other races along with it; and, as a rule, a troop of
wanderers come from a long distance will be found to have absorbed
foreign elements on its way. But it would be wrong to look upon the
movements of nations as passive onflowings, or even to deduce a natural
law from the descent of tribes from the mountains to the river valleys
and to the sea--an idea that once led to the acceptance of the theory
of the Ethiopian origin of Egyptian civilisation. Either the wills
of individuals unite to form a collective will, or the will of a
single man imposes itself upon the aggregate. The human will knows no
insurmountable obstacle within the bounds of the habitable earth.
[Sidenote: Bursting Nature’s Barriers]
As time goes on, all rivers and all seas are navigated, all mountains
climbed, and all deserts traversed. But these have all acted as
obstructions before which movements have either halted or turned aside,
until finally they have burst the barriers. At least two thousand years
passed from the time of the first journey of a Phœnician ship out
through the Pillars of Hercules into the Atlantic until the arrival of
the day when a voyage across was ventured from Southern Europe. The
Romans turned at the Alps, both to the right and to the left, seven
hundred years after their city had been founded, but how many nooks in
the interior of those mountains were unknown to them even centuries
later! Yet to-day Europe feels the effect of this circumstance, the
fact that the Romans did not advance straight through the Central Alps
into the heart of the Teutonic country. They followed a roundabout way
through Gaul, and thus Mediterranean culture and Christianity were
brought to Central Europe from the west instead of from the south;
hence the dependence of the civilisation of Germany upon that of France.
It is precisely the Romans who, contrasted with barbarians, show us
that will or design in the movements of nations does not necessarily
increase with growth of culture, even though culture constantly
puts more means of action at its disposal, improved methods of
transportation, by which the way may be lightened. The mounted bands
of Celts and Germans crossed the Alps quite as easily as did the Roman
legions; and in spreading about and penetrating to every corner of
the Alps and the Pyrenees, the barbarians were always superior to the
Romans.
[Sidenote: The Great Wanderers of the Earth]