We proceed now to consider the last sect_English Poor Law Policy

able-bodied man or woman without means, who becomes destitute through

not being in employment at wages. We think that it is invidious and

unwarranted to assume that such unemployment is, in any particular case,

wholly or even mainly the result of any "defect of the citizen

character." We have been unable to resist the evidence that

unemployment, and even acute distress from unemployment, comes, as a

matter of fact, to workmen of excellent skill and character. We have

been much impressed, amid the heterogeneous crowd of "the unemployed,"

by the number of worthy and capable men who have found themselves thrown

out of long-held situations by the bankruptcy of their employers, by

some change of industrial process, by the invention of a new machine, or

by the decay of particular industries. In these cases, as has been well

brought out by Mr. W. H. Beveridge,[869] the very excellence of the

workman, by his long continuance in the groove to which the employer has

required him to fit, may have rendered him less capable of obtaining

another situation, and even less able to fill it when found.

Notwithstanding the frequency of cases of this sort, it is, we think,

clear that a majority of those who, in any given state of trade, come

into distress through long-continued unemployment or chronic

"under-employment," are--with many individual exceptions--either the

less strong or the less fit, the less skilled or the less capable, the

less responsible or the less regular in their industry of the

wage-earning community. Hence though it is the relative defectiveness of

the social environment (such as the lack of organisation of the Labour

Market, or the anarchic fluctuations of trade) that in the main

determine the amount of Under-employment, or the degree to which

Under-employment prevails, at any given place and time, it is the

relative defectiveness of one wage-earner as compared with another that

in the main determines upon which individuals the Unemployment or

Under-employment will actually fall. This fact, though it does not

relieve us from the necessity of providing for these individuals, serves

as a warning against certain proposed methods of provision. Moreover,

whilst persons cannot voluntarily become infants or children, or aged or

mentally defective, in order to qualify for the provision which the

State makes for these sections, and are not likely to make themselves

acutely sick or permanently infirm in order to get medically treated,

even if this incidentally includes their maintenance, there is an

obvious danger that the lower types of men will tend to become destitute

through chronic unemployment, if "by expectation and example" they see

any chance of maintenance without sustained effort, under conditions as

pleasant to them as work at wages. Hence, in the case of the

able-bodied, it is true that the result of the State provision on the

amount and quality of productive effort, not only in the persons

treated, but also in all those who might "by expectation and example" be

led to apply for treatment, becomes the paramount consideration.

[869] _Unemployment_, by W. H. Beveridge, 1909.

The suggestion that "where there is a failure of social self-maintenance

... there is a defect in the citizen character, or at least a grave

danger to its integrity," is, indeed, in any careful analysis, seen to

be true, if at all, of the able-bodied and of the able-bodied only. It

is exactly because we realise the overwhelming importance to the

character of the community of stimulating, in all sections of the

able-bodied, the desire and faculty for self-maintenance, that we urge

the necessity of having an Authority dealing with the able-bodied, and

with the able-bodied only. It is, we suggest, just because the Parish

Council, as a Poor Law Authority, has been required to be simultaneously

a Hospital Authority for the sick, an Asylum Authority for the mentally

defective, an Education Authority for the children, and a Pension

Authority for the aged, that it has never been able to deal efficiently

with the able-bodied. If it had been able to keep its Poorhouse

exclusively for the able-bodied--even for the able-bodied whom the

medical officer felt obliged to certify as temporarily disabled lest

they should starve to death--it might, at any rate, by appropriate

discipline, have stopped the Poorhouse from becoming a visible source of

deterioration of the able-bodied inmates. The inference, therefore, that

we draw from the argument as to the "moral factor" in destitution, of

which, in the case of the able-bodied, we recognise the full force, is

that it is imperative that there should be, not one Authority for all

persons needing public assistance, whatever their age, sex, or

condition, but _one Authority for all the adult able-bodied persons_ who

are not specially certified as sick or permanently incapacitated, as

mentally defective, or as having attained a specified limit of age. We

regard the wise treatment of all such adult able-bodied persons as have

to be maintained from public funds as being of such great difficulty and

complexity as to demand, not only that it should be the work of a single

Authority specialising on their problem, but also that this Authority

should be one free from the influences of particular localities, and

able to command the highest administrative skill that the nation can

supply.

There is an additional reason for not thrusting the able-bodied

unemployed person into the hands of a new Poor Law Authority restricted

to the function of relieving destitution. Up to the present, the

Scottish Poor Law has not included any provision whatsoever for the

able-bodied, the only lawful method of relief from public funds being

that afforded by the Distress Committee under the Unemployed Workmen Act

of 1905. Hence the famous principle of the English Poor Law reform of

1834--that the condition of the able-bodied pauper should always be less

eligible than that of the lowest grade of independent labourer--has

never been adopted by the administrators of the Scottish Poor Law. To

transfer, as is proposed by our colleagues in the Majority Report, the

whole responsibility for the able-bodied unemployed from the Distress

Committees to a new Poor Law, or, as they say, Public Assistance

Authority, would, we think, inevitably tend to introduce into Scotland a

principle which has, in England, proved a complete failure. We now see

that the condition of the lowest grade of independent labourer--whether

he is chronically "under-employed" like the whole class of dock and

other casual labourers, or "sweated" like the home-working chair maker or

slipper-maker--is so deplorably below the level of adequate subsistence

that to make the lot of the pauper "less eligible" means to reduce him

below any acceptable standard of civilised existence. It has been found,

in fact, impossible to give the pauper less food, less clothing, less

rest and sleep, or less eligible housing accommodation than that of the

lowest grade of independent labourer without actually and obviously

impairing his physical health. Hence the alternative has been to

concentrate the "less eligibility" on the conditions of the pauper's

mental life. However worthy and innocent have been the able-bodied

applicants for Poor Law relief, the policy of the English Poor Law has

been to degrade them in their own eyes and in the eyes of the public, to

exclude them from citizenship by depriving them (though not the

convicted criminals) of the right to be placed on the electoral

useless character, such as stone-breaking or corn-grinding, or even

oakum-picking; to subject them to the shameful promiscuity of the

General Mixed Workhouse or the gaol-like severities of the Able-bodied

Test Workhouse; and this "deterrent" treatment has, by the very

principles of the Poor Law, had to be meted out to all comers, whether

or not they have been found, as a matter of fact, to have any moral

defect at all. This "principle of less eligibility" has been, in fact,

in the English Poor Law, a mere device for mechanically diminishing, "by

expectation and example," able-bodied pauperism--meaning help from the

Poor Rate. It has been found wholly ineffective (and has, indeed, stood

in the way of the adoption of anything effective) for diminishing the

able-bodied destitution which leads presently to pauperism, as well as

for striking at the causes which bring men to this destitution. This

policy of "less eligibility," into which any Poor Law Authority is only

too apt to be driven in dealing with the able-bodied, seems to us so

futile and so barbarous in its inhumanity, and leads to such

demoralising forms of parasitism on the labour of women and children, on

begging and vagrancy, and even on a career of crime, that we should

regard its introduction into Scotland, by the new Public Assistance

Authorities that our colleagues propose, as nothing less than a national

disaster.

We think that the time has come for the nation definitely to repudiate

the policy of "deterring" persons who are destitute from coming under

the care and control of the State; and this equally when the destitute

persons are able-bodied and when they are sick or mentally defective. We

urge the deliberate adoption of the opposite principle of searching out

those who are in any respect destitute, with a view to taking hold of

their cases at the earliest possible moment, when they may still be

curable, and of enforcing on all able-bodied persons the obligation to

maintain themselves and their dependants in health and efficiency. We

consider that it is now possible to proceed with regard to unemployment

on the same general lines as we proceed with regard to illiteracy in

children and with regard to infectious disease. We recommend that, by

the systematic enforcement of parental responsibility for the condition

of all dependants by the Local Education Authority and the Local Health

Authority, and by the systematic suppression of mendicity and vagrancy

by the Local Police Authority, every person who is not in a position to

provide for his wife and children, or who wilfully or negligently

abstains from doing so, should--whether or not he applies for

assistance--stand revealed to the new Authority that we propose for

dealing with the able-bodied. By an organised use of the National Labour

Exchange this Authority will be able to ascertain whether there are

possibilities of employment for such men, and where such openings are,

and what is the kind of training that they require. If resort to the

National Labour Exchange becomes general among employers, and if it is

made compulsory on those who take on hands for casual jobs, it will be

possible for the Authority so to "dovetail" jobs and seasonal

occupations as to go far towards ensuring continuous employment for

those who are taken on at all. There will remain the persons who by this

very "decasualisation" of labour and suppression of chronic

"under-employment" are squeezed out of their present miserable partial

earnings. For these it must be the duty of the National Authority to

provide, and, as soon as possible, absorb them in productive industry.

Fortunately there is at hand in the diminution of boy labour by the

increasing absorption of the boy's time in technical education, in the

reduction of excessive hours of labour on railways, tramways, and

omnibuses, and in the withdrawal of the mothers of young children from

the labour market when they are required, as a condition of their

aliment, to devote themselves to their family, together with the

possibilities of development opened up by afforestation, etc., which we

have elsewhere sufficiently described, more than enough opportunities

for the absorption of this temporary surplus. But the cyclical

fluctuations of trade, with the consequent waxing and waning of the

aggregate demand of productive industry, must always be counted on; and

these cyclical fluctuations in demand for labour, as we have shown, can

be counteracted, and the volume of wage-earning employment in the

country as a whole maintained at something like a constant level, by a

mere rearrangement over each decade, of the Government works and orders

that must in any case be executed within the decade, though not

necessarily, as at present, in equal instalments year by year. All this

organised attempt _to prevent unemployment_, which we regard as the

primary duty of the National Authority, though we have reason to believe

that it can obviate the greater part of the involuntary lack of work

from which so many of the wage-earners now suffer, will not, of course,

completely secure every individual workman in permanent employment. To

provide for such cases we look, in the main, to a great extension of

Trade Union insurance, rendered possible to many more industries than

can yet organise "out of work benefit" by adequate subventions from

public funds on the lines of the well-known Ghent system. Finally, when

all this is done, the National Authority for the able-bodied will still

have on its hands those who are for one reason or another uninsured, and

for whom, whether from their own faults or defects or not, the Labour

Exchange fails to find a situation. But even these must not be deterred

from coming under care and control, and must, in the public interest,

not be kept at arm's length to degenerate or become demoralised. For

them the National Authority must provide maintenance, with adequate Home

Aliment for their dependants, in the way that we have described, and

under the course of physical and industrial training best calculated to

make them more fit than they now are for the work which the Labour

Exchange will, sooner or later, be able to find for them. We see no

reason for penal conditions, such as have prevailed in the English

Able-bodied Test Workhouses, for any honest and willing man. Only when

a man has been definitely proved to be unwilling to work for the

maintenance of himself and his dependants, or persists in recalcitrancy

and refusal to co-operate in his own cure, need he be committed by the

magistrates to a Detention Colony, there to be treated in whatever way

is found best adapted to remedy the moral defect which he will then have

been actually convicted of possessing.

To sum up, we hold it untrue and unwarranted to suggest that all those

whom the State finds on its hands as destitute--the infants and

children, the sick and the mentally defective, the aged and the

unemployed able-bodied--have necessarily any moral taint or defect in

common, for which they need all to be treated by a single Authority, or

can properly all be treated by such an authority, specialising on this

presumed common attribute. We hold, on the contrary, that experience has

demonstrated that, although individuals in all sections of the destitute

may be morally defective, and this in all sorts of different ways, the

great mass of destitution is the direct and (given human nature as it

is) almost inevitable result of the social environment in which the

several sections have found themselves; and that it can, to a large and

as yet undefined extent, be obviated if the cases are taken in time, and

the environment appropriately changed. We suggest that the failure of

the existing Poor Law Authorities is due mainly to the fact that, as

Poor Law Authorities, they are inherently incapable of getting hold of

the cases in time before destitution has set in, and that they are

necessarily prevented, by their very nature as "Destitution

Authorities," from changing the social environment which is bringing

about the destitution, or from providing the new environment that is

necessary, whether by way of treatment or by way of disciplinary

supervision after actual treatment, either for the infants or for the

children, for the sick or for the mentally defective, for the aged and

infirm or for the unemployed able-bodied. We consider that it is proved,

by the experience of the several specialised and preventive Authorities

that have been established for this purpose, that the arrest of the

causes of destitution, and the necessary changes in the social

environment, can be effected only by making each such Authority

responsible for its own special part of the work of prevention, and for

providing the appropriate treatment for the particular section of

persons in whom it may have failed to prevent destitution. We fully

admit the importance of the "moral factor" in contributing to the

production of some of the destitution in all the sections; but the moral

defect is not always in the destitute person himself, and we hold that

this "moral factor" can never be effectually dealt with, and can never

be subjected to the disciplinary and reformatory treatment that it

requires, until we give up assuming its existence where we have no

actual proof, and until we are prepared to base such treatment solely

upon the definite conviction, by judicial process, of particular

individuals for particular offences. In no case, whether individually

innocent or morally guilty, do we think that the destitute person should

be refused treatment, or "deterred" from applying for it. On the

contrary, we hold that every destitute person not under treatment is a

menace to the commonweal; and the public authorities should therefore

search out all such cases, as if they were cases of typhus, and

endeavour to get hold of them at the most incipient stage of the

disease. And if we are asked what we would substitute for the

"deterrent" treatment of the Poor Law, in order to protect the State

from being eaten up by a multitude of applicants for its aid, we reply

that in no case do we suggest the provision of maintenance, or of any

form of public assistance, otherwise than in the guise of the most

appropriate treatment for the actual disease or infirmity or lack that

the individual is demonstrated to be suffering from; that this treatment

is not necessarily gratuitous, efficient provision being made for

recovery of cost wherever there is ability to pay; that such treatment

is never unconditional, and is from the very nature of the case

disciplinary; that it necessarily includes long-continued supervision,

even after treatment; and that co-operation in one's own cure, together

with willingness to fulfil all parental, marital, and personal

obligations, _opportunity to doing so being provided_, will for the

first time be really enforced, and if necessary enforced, when other

means have failed, by commitment to a Detention Colony.

_Summary of Conclusions_

It is on all these grounds that we feel compelled to dissent from the

recommendations of the Majority Report in favour of setting up a new

Destitution Authority, which should administer relief only at the period

of destitution, and which should have under its charge indiscriminately

men, women, and children, the sick and the healthy, the infant and the

aged, the unemployed workman and the incorrigible vagrant. We believe

that the establishment of any such general Destitution Authority, under

whatever designation, and however selected or appointed, would

inevitably lead to the perpetuation of the General Mixed Poorhouse, and

the customary dole of Aliment or Outdoor Relief. We cannot but fear that

such a proposal means the abandonment of any hope of _preventing the

occurrence_ of Unemployment and the gradual sinking into destitution

that we see going on; that it implies practically a despairing

acquiescence in the daily manufacture of "unemployables," and in the

daily creation of new pauperism, which is the disquieting feature of the

time. We, on the contrary, believe that _destitution can be prevented_,

and that it is the business of the State, in its national and local

organisation, to take the steps necessary to prevent it. In this dissent

we have confined ourselves to argument as to the general principle. We

have not attempted to make definite and detailed recommendations as to

how the principle of breaking up the Poor Law, and transferring its

several services to the specialised preventive Authorities, should be

applied to the present machinery of administration in Scotland. We do

not feel qualified, for instance, to decide whether the care of the

children can be best entrusted wholly to the School Boards, or whether,

with a view to an equalisation of the rates, this work might

advantageously be shared in by the County Committees of districts under

the Education (Scotland) Act of 1908. We do not pretend to advise

whether the District Boards of Lunacy, with the new duties with regard

to the feeble-minded, and the complete disconnection of all their work

from the Poor Law recommended by the Royal Commission on the Care and

Control of the Feeble-minded, as well as by ourselves, should or should

not be modified in constitution; or whether it might not be more

advantageous for Scotland, and more calculated to relieve its local

administration from an onerous and unequally distributed burden, if the

whole work of providing for the mentally defective were made a national

service and a national charge. With regard to the Local Health

organisation, which has in some parts of Scotland to cope with great

geographical difficulties, we do not feel warranted in making any

definite recommendation as to the constitutions, areas, and powers of

the present Health Authority in Burghs and Counties respectively. Nor do

we think it necessary to pronounce upon the question of whether the

National Department for the Able-bodied--with its Labour Exchanges, its

help towards Insurance against Unemployment, its duty in regularising

the seasonal trades and "decasualising" casual labour, its work in

promoting the absorption of the surplus labourers who may be thus

squeezed out, its attempts to regularise the aggregate national demand

for labour, and its training establishments and Detention

Colonies--should be separate and self-contained for Scotland, or whether

it might not, like the Board of Trade and the Factory Inspection

Department, more advantageously form part of the wider organisation for

the United Kingdom as a whole. All these are administrative details to

be determined by those personally acquainted with Scottish Local

Government, and in accordance with Scottish public opinion. We must

content ourselves with suggesting that, if it is thought that the time

has come when we need no longer rest satisfied with merely relieving

destitution, but can start an effective campaign for its prevention; if

it is felt that the children ought to be rescued from demoralisation and

the sick from preventable disease and preventable suffering; if it is

desired to put an end to the demoralisation and destruction of character

now caused by Unemployment, and especially by Under-employment, then we

must proceed generally upon the lines herein laid down.

* * * * *

We therefore recommend:--

1. That the Scottish Poor Law be abolished, and in its stead an entirely

different method of provision for those needing public aid be

inaugurated, so as to get rid of pauperism, both the name and the thing.

2. That a systematic Crusade against Destitution in all its forms be set

on foot; against the destitution caused by Unemployment, the destitution

caused by Old Age, the destitution caused by Feeble-mindedness and

Lunacy, the destitution caused by Ill-health and Disease, and the

destitution caused by Neglected Infancy and Neglected Childhood.

3. That the Local Education Authority be empowered and required to

search out all children of school age within its district who are

destitute of proper nurture, and to secure to them a fitting upbringing.

4. That the Local Health Authority be empowered and required to search

out all sick persons within its district who are destitute of medical

attendance, all infants destitute of proper nurture, and all infirm

persons needing medical attendance and nursing, and to apply the

appropriate treatment, either in the homes or in suitable institutions.

5. That the Lunacy Authority be empowered and required to search out all

feeble-minded and mentally defective persons destitute of proper care

and control, and to make appropriate provision for them.

6. That the Local Pension Authority be empowered and required to search

out all persons within its district who are destitute from old age, and

to provide Old Age Pensions for such of them as are able and willing to

live decently thereon.

7. That a new National Authority be empowered and required to search out

all able-bodied persons destitute of employment; to take the necessary

steps both to diminish, as far as practicable, the social disease of

Unemployment, and to supply proper maintenance and training for those

who are unemployed and unprovided for.

8. That all these specialised and preventive Authorities be empowered

and required to enforce, by counsel and warning, by the sustained

pressure of public opinion, and where needed by process of law, the

obligation of all able-bodied persons to maintain themselves and their

families in due health and efficiency.

INDEX OF UNIONS AND OTHER PLACES MENTIONED

Aberayron, 322

Abergavenny, 322, 324

Aberystwith, 322

Abingdon, 23 _n._, 322

Albans, St., 322

Alcester, 322

Alderbury, 322, 337

Aldershot, 217 _n._

Alnwick, 322

Alstonfield, 322, 323, 331

Alton, 322, 330

Altrincham, 322, 325

Alverstoke, 322

Amersham, 322

Amesbury, 322

Ampthill, 322, 341

Andover, 75, 132, 322

Andrew, St. (Whittlesey), 340

Anglesey, 322, 330

Arrington, 326

Arundel, 322, 327

Asaph, St., 322

Ash, 323, 328, 329

Ashbourne, 322, 323

Ashby de la Zouch, 323

Ashford, 323

Ashton-under-Lyne, 27 _n._, 130 _n._, 323

Aston, 23 _n._, 323

Atcham, 109 _n._, 323, 337

Atherstone, 323, 324

Auckland, 323

Austell, St., 323

Australia, 141, 142

Axbridge, 323

Aylesbury, 323

Aylsham, 323

Aysgarth, 323

Bainbridge, 323

Bakewell, 98 _n._, 107 _n._, 180 _n._, 323

Bala, 323

Banbury, 323

Bangor, 323

Barnet, 323

Barnsley, 128 _n._, 323

Barnstaple, 323

Barrow-in-Furness, 323, 339

Barrow-on-Soar, 323

Barton Regis, 323, 325, 326, 339

Barton-upon-Irwell, 323, 326

Barwick-in-Elmet, 323, 331, 335, 338, 340

Basford, 323

Basingstoke, 323

Bath, 173, 323

Battle, 323

Beaminster, 323

Beaumaris, 323

Bedale, 177 _n._, 323

Bedford, 323

Bedminster, 157 _n._, 323, 332

Bedwellty, 322, 324

Bedworth, 323, 324, 328, 330, 332, 333, 336

Belford, 324

Bellingham, 324

Belper, 324

Belvoir, 329, 341

Berkhampstead, 324

Berkshire, 137 _n._, 138 _n._

Bermondsey, 101-102, 137 _n._, 324, 333

Berwick-on-Tweed, 324

Bethnal Green, 324

Beverley, 324

Bichester, 324

Bideford, 324

Biggleswade, 324

Billericay, 324

Billesdon, 324

Bingham, 324

Birkenhead, 324, 341

Birmingham, 163, 178, 186 _n._, 208 _n._, 324

Bishop Stortford, 324

Bishopthorpe, 341

Blaby, 324

Blackburn, 324

Blandford, 324

Blean, 324

Blofield, 324

Blything, 324

Bodmin, 224

Bolton, 324

Bootle, 324

Bosmere, 324

Boston, 26 _n._, 324

Boughton, Great, 324, 329

Bourne, 237 _n._, 324

Brackley, 324

Bradfield, 37-38, 138 _n._, 178, 252, 324

Bradford (Wilts), 324

Bradford (Yorks), 34 _n._, 35, 96, 167 _n._, 171, 183, 230-231 _n._,

234, 239, 240 _n._, 241 _n._, 254 _n._, 324, 334

Braintree, 325, 341

Bramley, 217 _n._, 325

Brampton, 325

Brecknock, 325

Brentford, 325

Bridge, 325

Bridgend, 325

Bridgnorth, 325

Bridgwater, 325

Bridlington, 325

Bridport, 325

Brighton, 325

Brinton, 325, 339

Bristol, 157 _n._, 253, 323, 325

Brixworth, 253, 325

Broadstairs, 188 _n._

Bromley, 325

Bromsgrove, 325

Bromyard, 325

Buckingham, 325

Bucklow, 322, 325

Builth, 325

Buntingford, 325

Burnley, 325

Burton-upon-Trent, 325

Bury, 325

Bury St. Edmunds, 325

Caistor, 237, 325, 329

Calne, 325

Camberwell, 139 _n._, 187, 325

Cambridge, 325

Camelford, 325

Canada, 142, 250

Cannock, 325, 335

Canterbury, 325

Cardiff, 325, 335

Cardigan, 325

Carlisle, 237 _n._, 325

Carlton, 325, 330, 331, 340

Carmarthen, 325

Carnarvon, 325

Castle Ward, 325

Catherington, 26 _n._, 325

Caton, 326, 331, 332

Caxton, 326

Cerne, 326

Chailey, 326, 332

Chapel-en-le-Frith, 326

Chard, 326

Charterhouse, 322

Cheadle, 326

Chelmsford, 326

Chelsea, 326

Cheltenham, 326

Chepstow, 326

Chertsey, 27 _n._, 326

Cheshire, 175 _n._

Chester, 245 _n._, 326, 329, 338

Chesterfield, 326

Chester-le-Street, 326

Chesterton, 326

Chichester, 326

Chippenham, 326

Chipping Norton, 326

Chipping Sodbury, 323, 326

Chorley, 326

Chorlton, 163 _n._, 168 _n._, 214 _n._, 249, 323, 326

Christchurch, 326

Church Stretton, 326

Cirencester, 326

Clapham, 339

Clavering, 333

Claydon, 324

Cleobury Mortimer, 326

Clerkenwell, 326

Clifton, 323, 326

Clitheroe, 326

Clun, 326

Clutton, 326

Cockermouth, 326

Colchester, 34, 326

Columb, St., 326

Congleton, 326

Conway, 326

Cookham, 137 _n._, 326, 332

Cornwall, 70

Corwen, 173, 326

Cosford, 326

Coventry, 326

Cowbridge, 325

Cowley, 112 _n._

Cranborne, 340

Cranbrook, 326

Crediton, 26 _n._, 326

Crickhowell, 327

Cricklade, 327

Croydon, 217, 327

Cuckfield, 327

Darenth, 224, 225

Darlington, 192 _n._, 327

Dartford, 327

Daventry, 327

Depwade, 327, 329

Derby, 327

Devizes, 327

Devonport, 327, 338

Dewsbury, 327

Docking, 327

Dolgelly, 327

Doncaster, 327

Dorchester, 327

Dore, 327

Dorking, 327

Dover, 327

Downham, 327

Drayton, 247 _n._, 327

Driffield, 327

Droitwich, 327

Droxford, 327

Dudley, 327

Dulverton, 327

Dunmow, 327

Durham, 327

Dursley, 327

Easington, 327

Easingwold, 327

Eastbourne, 327, 340

East Grinstead, 327

Easthampstead, 327

East Preston, 322, 327, 338

East Retford, 327

Eastry, 327

East Stonehouse, 327

East Ward, 327

Eccleshall Bierlow, 327

Edmonton, 327, 329

Elham, 327

Ellesmere, 327, 340

Ely, 327

Epping, 328

Epsom, 328

Erpingham, 328, 337

Escrick, 341

Eton, 328

Evesham, 90 _n._, 114 _n._, 328

Exeter, 328

Faith, St., 328

Falmouth, 328

Fareham, 328

Faringdon, 328

Farnborough, 328, 329

Farnham, 217 _n._, 323, 328

Faversham, 232 _n._, 328

Festiniog, 328

Flaxton, 341

Flegg, East and West, 328

Foleshill, 26 _n._, 324, 328

Forden, 328, 333

Fordingbridge, 328

Forehoe, 328

Forest Gate, 190, 194

France, 132

Freebridge Lynn, 328

Fulham, 328, 329

Fylde, 328

Gainsborough, 328

Garstang, 328

Gateshead, 238 _n._, 328

George, St., Bloomsbury, 328

George, St., Hanover Square, 240, 328, 333

George, St., in the East, 328

George, St., the Martyr, 328

George, St. (Union), 328

Germans, St., 240 _n._, 328

Germany, 132

Giles, St., (Camberwell) 328

Giles, St., in the Fields, 119, 328

Glanford Brigg, 329

Glendale, 241, 329

Glossop, 329

Gloucester, 329

Godstone, 329

Goole, 329

Gosport, 322

Gower, 329, 338

Grantham, 249 _n._, 329, 341

Gravesend, 329

Great Boughton, 326, 329, 340

Great Ouseburn, 323

Great Preston, 329, 330, 331, 335, 337, 338, 339

Great Yarmouth, 329, 334, 341

Greenwich, 329, 341

Grimsby, 325, 329

Guildford, 323, 329

Guiltcross, 326, 329, 339

Guisborough, 329, 333

Hackney, 246, 329

Hadleigh, 171

Hailsham, 329, 340

Halifax, 329

Halstead, 329

Haltwhistle, 329

Hambledon, 329

Hammersmith, 328, 329

Hampstead, 327, 329

Happing, 337, 339

Hardingstone, 329

Hartismere, 329

Hartlepool, 329, 338

Hartley Wintney, 217 _n._, 323, 328, 329

Haslingden, 329

Hastings, 329

Hatfield, 329

Havant, 329

Haverfordwest, 329

Hawarden, 326, 329, 338, 341

Hay, 329

Hayfield, 330

Headington, 330

Headley, 322, 330, 335

Helmsley, 330

Helston, 330

Hemel Hempstead, 330

Hemsworth, 25 _n._, 330

Hendon, 330, 340

Henley, 330

Henstead, 330

Hereford, 330

Hertford, 330

Hexham, 247 _n._, 330

Highworth, 330, 338

Hinckley, 324, 330

Hitchin, 330

Holbeach, 330

Holbeck, 325, 330

Holborn, 102, 103, 104 _n._, 109, 119, 158, 322, 330, 331, 332

Hollingbourne, 330

Holsworthy, 330

Holyhead, 322, 330

Holywell, 330

Honiton, 330

Hoo, 330

Horncastle, 330

Horsham, 330

Houghton le Spring, 330

Howden, 330

Hoxne, 330

Huddersfield, 330

Hungerford, 330

Hunslet, 325, 330, 336

Huntingdon, 330

Hursley, 330

Inns of Court, 322

Ipswich, 331

Ireland, 118, 219

Islington, 164 _n._, 331

Ives, St., 331

James, St. (Clerkenwell), 330, 331

James, St. (Westminster), 331, 340

Jarrow, 177 _n._

Keighley, 201, 247 _n._, 331

Kendal, 331

Kensington, 163, 170, 331

Kent, 70

Kent, East, 57, 60

Kettering, 331

Keynsham, 331, 341, 342

Kidderminster, 331

Kingsbridge, 331

Kingsclere, 331

Kings Lynn, 331

Kings Norton, 331

Kingston-upon-Hull, 331

Kingston-on-Thames, 217, 331

Kington, 331, 336

Kirkby Moorside, 330, 331

Kirkdale, 112 _n._

Knaresborough, 331

Knighton, 331, 336

Laindon, 170

Lambeth, 34, 212 _n._, 215 _n._, 260, 332

Lampeter, 331

Lancashire, 59 _n._, 90 _n._, 91, 92-94, 105, 129 _n._, 136 _n._, 142,

166, 222 _n._

Lancaster, 326, 331

Lanchester, 331

Langport, 331

Launceston, 331

Launditch, 333

Ledbury, 331

Leeds, 217 _n._, 323, 325, 331, 336

Leek, 322, 331

Leicester, 113 _n._, 165 _n._, 331

Leigh, 331

Leighton Buzzard, 332, 341

Leominster, 332

Leonard, St. (Shoreditch), 332

Lewes, 326, 332, 340

Lewisham, 332, 341

Lexden, 332, 341

Leyburn, 332

Lichfield, 332

Lincoln, 332

Lingfield, 171

Linton, 332

Liskeard, 332

Liverpool, 19, 55, 112 _n._, 120, 146 _n._, 217, 237, 332

Llandilo Fawr, 332

Llandovery, 332

Llanelly, 332

Llanfyllin, 332

Llanidloes, 334

Llanrwst, 332

Loddon, 332

London, 14, 25, 34, 35, 91, 96-98, 99, 108, 112, 116, 118, 119, 120,

121, 122, 123, 127, 129, 136 _n._, 137 _n._, 139 _n._, 140, 145, 147

_n._, 148, 151, 156, 159, 160, 161, 163, 166, 168, 169 _n._, 174 _n._,

178, 186, 188 _n._, 190, 192 _n._, 207 _n._, 208, 212 _n._, 214, 215,

224, 225, 227, 231, 233 _n._, 235, 242, 243, 264, 332 Long Ashton,

323, 332

Longtown, 332

Lothingland, 334, 341

Loughborough, 332

Louth, 332

Ludlow, 109 _n._, 332

Luke, St. (Chelsea), 332

Luke, St. (Middlesex), 330, 332

Lunesdale, 326, 332

Luton, 332

Lutterworth, 324, 332

Lymington, 332

Macclesfield, 332

Machynlleth, 332

Madeley, 332

Maidenhead, 326, 332

Maidstone, 332

Maldon, 26 _n._, 332, 341

Malling, 332

Malmesbury, 332

Malton, 332, 342

Manchester, 92 _n._, 94, 104, 105 _n._, 108 _n._, 112 _n._, 118 _n._,

119 _n._, 120 _n._, 124, 141, 152, 153, 163, 168 _n._, 175, 178, 214

_n._, 215, 217 _n._, 333, 336

Mansfield, 333

Margaret, St., 328, 333

Margate, 108 _n._, 188 _n._, 241 _n._

Market Bosworth, 324, 333

Market Drayton, 333

Market Harborough, 333

Marlborough, 333

Marston Green, 186 _n._

Martin, St., 333, 338

Mary, St. (Islington), 333

Mary, St. (Lambeth), 333

Mary, St. (Newington), 333

Mary, St. (Rotherhithe), 333

Mary, St. (Whittlesey), 333, 340

Mary Magdalen, St., 324, 333

Marylebone, St., 145 _n._, 333

Medway, 333

Melksham, 333, 339

Melton Mowbray, 333

Mere, 333

Meriden, 333

Merthyr Tydfil, 333, 335

Middlesborough, 329, 333, 338

Midhurst, 333, 338

Mildenhall, 225, 333

Mile End New Town, 333

Mile End Old Town, 214 _n._, 333, 338

Milton, 329, 333

Mitcham, 127 _n._

Mitford and Launditch, 333

Monmouth, 333

Montgomery, 328, 333

Morpeth, 334

Mutford and Lothingland, 334, 341

Nantwich, 334, 340

Narberth, 334

Neath, 334, 335

Neot's, St., 334

Newark, 334

Newbury, 334

Newcastle in Emlyn, 334

Newcastle-under-Lyme, 334

Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 34 _n._, 59 _n._, 105 _n._, 112-113 _n._, 114 _n._,

151 _n._, 158 _n._, 216 _n._, 220 _n._, 334

Newent, 334

New Forest, 334

Newhaven, 334

Newington, 152 _n._, 334

Newmarket, 334

Newport (Monmouth), 334

Newport (Salop), 334

Newport Pagnell, 334

Newton Abbot, 334

Newtown and Llanidloes, 334

Norfolk, 218

Northallerton, 334

Northampton, 334

North Aylesford, 334, 338

North Bierley, 324, 334

Northleach, 334

North Shields, 177 _n._

North Witchford, 334

Norton, 332, 342

Norwich, 25, 66, 109-111, 129, 201, 334

Norwood, 44, 108 _n._

Nottingham, 322, 334, 336, 342

Nuneaton, 26 _n._, 334

Oakham, 334

Okehampton, 334

Olave, St., 212 _n._, 324, 333, 334

Old Gravel Lane, 238 _n._

Oldham, 334

Ongar, 334

Ormskirk, 334

Orsett. 334

Oswestry, 334

Oundle, 334

Ouseburn, 335

Oxford, 112 _n._, 335

Paddington, 119 _n._, 335

Pancras, St., 322, 335, 342

Pateley Bridge, 335

Patrington, 335

Pembroke, 335

Penbridge, 325, 335

Penistone, 335, 341

Penrith, 335

Penzance, 335

Pershore, 335

Peterborough, 335

Petersfield, 330, 335

Petworth, 335, 338

Pewsey, 335

Pickering, 335

Plomesgate, 335

Plymouth, 28 _n._, 42 _n._, 125 _n._, 208 _n._, 335

Plympton, 335

Pocklington, 335

Pontadawe, 334, 335, 338

Pontefract, 323, 335, 336

Pontypool, 335

Pontypridd, 325, 333, 335

Pool, 328, 333

Poole, 335

Poplar, 63 _n._, 73, 121 _n._, 129, 142, 144 _n._, 157, 161-163, 164

_n._, 166 _n._, 169-171, 178, 211 _n._, 232 _n._, 236, 236-237 _n._,

241, 243, 260, 335

Portsea Island, 208 _n._, 335

Portsmouth, 335

Potterspury, 336

Prescot, 336

Presteigne, 331, 336

Preston, 336

Prestwich, 92 _n._, 214 _n._, 333, 336

Purbeck, 339

Pwllheli, 336

Radford, 334, 336

Ramsbury, 330

Reading, 336

Redruth, 221, 336

Reeth, 336

Reigate, 336

Rhayader, 336

Richmond (Surrey), 217, 336

Richmond (Yorks), 336

Ringwood, 336

Ripon, 336

Risbridge, 336

Rochdale, 222 _n._, 336

Rochford, 336

Romford, 336

Romney Marsh, 57, 336

Romsey, 336

Ross, 336

Rothbury, 336

Rotherham, 336

Rotherhithe, 119 _n._, 324, 333, 336

Rottingdean, 188 _n._

Royston, 77, 336

Rugby, 324, 336

Runcorn, 336

Ruthin, 336

Rye, 336

Saddleworth, 336, 337

Saffron Walden, 337

Salford, 105 _n._, 129 _n._, 214 _n._, 337

Salisbury, 322, 337

Samford, 337

Saviour's Street, 328, 333, 337

Scarborough, 337

Scotland, 95, 114, 343-363

Sculcoates, 337

Sedbergh, 337

Sedgefield, 337

Seisdon, 337

Selby, 336, 337

Settle, 337

Sevenoaks, 60, 337

Shaftesbury, 337

Shardlow, 337

Sheffield, 187 _n._, 337

Sheppey, 337

Shepton Mallet, 337

Sherborne, 337

Shiffnal, 337

Shipston-on-Stour, 337

Shoreditch, 337

Shrewsbury, 323, 337

Shropshire, 113

Skipton, 337

Skirlaugh, 337

Sleaford, 337

Smallburgh, 337, 339

Solihull, 337

Southam, 337

Southampton, 337

South Molton, 337

South Shields, 337

South Stoneham, 337

Southwark, 127 _n._, 152 _n._, 328, 333, 337

Southwell, 337

Spalding, 337

Spilsby, 337

Stafford, 337

Staines, 337

Stamford, 337

Stepney, 121 _n._, 161 _n._, 236, 333, 338

Steyning, 338

Stockbridge, 338

Stockport, 338

Stockton, 329, 333, 338

Stoke Damerel, 327, 338

Stokesley, 333, 338

Stoke-upon-Trent, 338

Stone, 338

Stourbridge, 338

Stow, 338

Stow-on-the-Wold, 338

Strand, 119 _n._, 333, 338, 340

Stratford-on-Avon, 338

Stratton, 338

Strood, 338

Stroud, 338

Sturminster, 338

Sudbury, 338

Suffolk, 225

Surrey, North, 188 _n._

Sussex, 70

Sutton, 327, 333, 335, 338, 340

Sutton Courtney, 23 _n._

Swaffham, 338

Swansea, 329, 335, 338

Swindon, 330, 338

Swinton, 108 _n._, 112 _n._

Tadcaster, 323, 336, 338

Tamworth, 338

Tarvin, 324, 326, 329, 338

Taunton, 338

Tavistock, 338

Teesdale, 117 _n._, 338

Tendring, 338

Tenterden, 338

Tetbury, 338

Tewkesbury, 338

Thakeham, 338

Thame, 338

Thanet, Isle of, 339

Thetford, 329, 339

Thingoe, 339

Thirsk, 339

Thomas, St., 339

Thornbury, 323, 339

Thorne, 339

Thrapston, 339

Ticehurst, 339

Tisbury, 339

Tiverton, 339

Todmorden, 339

Tonbridge, 339

Tooting, 108

Torrington, 339

Totnes, 339

Towcester, 339

Toxteth, 217, 339, 340

Tregaron, 339

Trowbridge, 333, 339

Truro, 339

Tunstead, 337, 339

Tynemouth, 177 _n._, 339

Uckfield, 339

Ulverston, 323, 339

Uppingham, 339

Upton-on-Severn, 339

Uttoxeter, 339

Uxbridge, 339

Wakefield, 336, 339

Wallingford, 339

Walsall, 193 _n._, 339

Walsingham, 325, 339

Wandsworth, 339

Wangford, 339

Wantage, 339

Ware, 339

Wareham, 339

Warminster, 339

Warmley, 331, 342

Warrington, 157, 339

Warwick, 339

Watford, 339

Wayland, 329, 339

Weardale, 339

Wellingborough, 339

Wellington (Salop), 339

Wellington (Som.), 339

Wells, 339

Welwyn, 339

Wem, 339, 340

Weobley, 340

Westbourne, 340

West Bromwich, 193 _n._, 340

Westbury, 340

Westbury-on-Severn, 340

West Derby, 216, 339, 340

West Firle, 327, 329, 332, 340

West Ham, 225 _n._, 340

Westhampnett, 338, 340

Westminster, 102 _n._, 128 _n._, 331, 338, 340

West Ward, 340

Wetherby, 323, 325, 340

Weymouth, 340

Wharfedale, 325, 340

Wheatenhurst, 340

Whitby, 340

Whitchurch (Hants), 340

Whitchurch (Salop), 327, 334, 338, 339, 340, 341

Whitechapel, 158 _n._, 170, 171, 260, 340

Whitehaven, 340

Whittlesey, 340

Whorwellsdown, 340

Wigan, 330

Wight, Isle of, 340

Wigton, 340

Willesden, 330, 340

Williton, 340

Wilton, 340

Wimborne, 340

Wincanton, 340

Winchcombe, 341

Winchester, 341

Windsor, 341

Winslow, 341

Winstree, 332, 341

Wirral, 247 _n._, 324, 341

Wisbeach, 341

Witham, 325, 332, 341

Witney, 341

Woburn, 322, 341

Wokingham, 137 _n._, 341

Wolstanton, 341

Wolverhampton, 341

Woodbridge 242 _n._, 341

Woodstock, 341

Woolwich, 239 _n._, 329, 332, 341

Wootton Bassett, 327

Worcester, 341

Worksop, 341

Wortley, 335, 341

Wrexham, 329, 340, 341

Wycombe, 341

Yarmouth, 329, 334, 341

Yeovil, 341

York, 192 _n._, 341, 342

Yorkshire, 59 _n._, 91, 105 _n._, 234, 322

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

Able-bodied, the, attendance at classes as condition of relief, 94;

not to be allowed out to look for work, 80;

but so allowed, 260;

beer granted to, 246-247;

classification of, 32-33;

detention of, 268, 291;

definition or want of definition of, 4, 11, 13, 15, 22-23, 32, 51, 90,

100-101;

discrimination among, 3-4, 259;

disfranchisement of, 261;

under Distress Committees, 260-262;

emigration of, 260;

employment of, under Poor Law, 4-6, 10, 28, 74-75, 121, 133, 246;

employment of, at wages, 29, 83, 260-261;

families of, 28, 158-159, 170-171, 184;

in Farm Colonies, 260;

in 1834 Report, 3-6, 11, 13, 236;

Ins and Outs among, 288;

ineligible for relief in Scotland, 95, 356-361;

industrial and reformatory institutions for, 235;

labour test for, 36, 84, 154, 156-158, 259-262;

luncheon allowed to, 246;

under Majority Report, 275;

Manchester rules as to, 152;

mental trainer for, 260, 265;

migration of, 260;

under Minority Report, 297;

and Modified W. T. Order, 158-159, 170-171;

and non-resident relief, 53;

outdoor relief to, 4-8, 13, 15, 22-32, 51, 54, 83-87, 90-91, 130, 149,

152-158, 167, 257-259, 260-262;

at Poplar, 260;

power of Central Authority to regulate, 12-13, 21;

and Principle of Curative Treatment, 265;

and Principle of Less Eligibility, 3-11, 83-84, 259-261;

and Principle of National Uniformity, 3-4, 83, 90-91, 257;

relief in kind for, 39, 42, 43, 130;

relief on loan, 11;

in Scotland, 95, 356-361;

Test Workhouse for, 159-164, 243, 358-359;

women as, 3, 15;

and the workhouse, 5-6, 9-10, 32-33, 61, 74-75, 83-85, 91, 121, 128,

134, 140, 151, 154-160, 165, 235-236, 244-247, 259-260, 262, 268.

We proceed now to consider the last section of all, the adult