TRADE: INDUSTRIES AND PRODUCTS
For many years prior to the reign of Abdur Rahman, trade with
Afghanistan itself or in transit to regions beyond the frontiers had
to contend against two difficulties, the one arising from the heavy
imposts upon goods intended for local consumption, and the other from
the excessive charges levied upon merchandise destined for markets
beyond the Oxus. Under the Khans commerce struggled ineffectually
against exactions which, if comprehensible during a period when the
country was parcelled out among a number of reigning families, were
directly inimical to its better interests so soon as the several
territories became incorporated within one central administration.
At this juncture the trade of Afghanistan followed these routes, none
of which were practicable for wheeled traffic:
(1) From Persia, _viâ_ Teheran and Meshed to Herat.
(2) From Khiva, _viâ_ Bokhara, Merv and the Murghab valley to Herat.
(3) From Bokhara, _viâ_ Karshi, Balkh and Khulm to Kabul.
(4) From Chinese Turkestan, _viâ_ Chitral to Jelalabad.
(5) From India, _viâ_ the Khyber and the Ghwalari passes, to Kabul and
the Oxus.
(6) From India, _viâ_ the Bolan and the Gomul passes, for Kandahar and
Herat.
In connection with these routes the following duties were levied at the
different points upon passing caravans.
From India, _viâ_ the Khyber and Ghwalari passes, for Kabul, in
addition to a 2½ per cent. _ad valorem_:
At Peshawar: 1 rupee per horse or camel.
At Jelalabad: 2 rupees per horse or camel.
At Butkhak: no duty was levied at this point, but a customs
officer inspected the goods and sent a detailed list of them to
Kabul.
At Kabul: 2 rupees 8 annas per horse or camel, or 1/40 _ad
valorem_, on entering Kabul and 13 or 14 annas per 100 rupees’
worth on leaving, by which payment through caravans were
exempted from further duties until beyond Bamian.
Between the Kabul and Balkh territories local caravans, carrying goods
within the boundaries of either khanate, had, in their passage of the
Hindu Kush, _viâ_ the Kushan pass, to pay:
One pony-load (3 maunds) of indigo, silk or asbury, 1 rupee 2
shahis.
One camel-load (5 maunds) of indigo, silk or asbury, 2 rupees 1½
shahis.
One ass-load of indigo, silk or asbury, 7 shahis.
One camel-load of salt, 7 shahis.
One camel-load of almonds, 1 rupee 2 shahis.
One camel-load of pistacia nuts, 1½ rupees.
Horses and mares, 5½ rupees for Bamian and beyond Kushan; 1
rupee 2 shahis for Kushan.
Foot passengers, 1 rupee.
Beyond Bamian caravans destined for the Oxus had to meet charges:
At Rui, of 4 annas per load, camel or horse.
At Kamard, of 4 annas per load, camel or horse.
At Balkh, of 2 rupees per load, camel or horse.
Merchandise from Eastern Turkestan paid at Jelalabad, in addition to 2½
per cent. _ad valorem_, as follows:
_s._ _d._
On a load of salt 3 shahis[34] = 0 3
On a load of cotton 5 ” = 0 5
On a load of ghee 5 ” = 0 5
On a load of cloth 6 ” = 0 6
Upon trade coming into Herat and the north-western districts of
Afghanistan from regions beyond the Oxus, in addition to a 5 per cent.
_ad valorem_, duties were paid at:
Tungeh,[35] Tungeh, Tungeh, Tungeh, Tungeh,
per bale. per camel. per horse. per ass. per slave.
Karki 20 5 3 1 22
Andkhui 26 5 3 2 20
Maimana 28 5 3 1 25
Almar -- 3 2 — --
Kalch Wali -- 5 3 1 5
Murghab 30 5 3 2 15
Kala Nau -- 5 3 2 --
Kuruk -- 15 10 5 --
From India, _viâ_ the Gomul and the Bolan, for Kandahar and Herat, in
addition to 2½ per cent. _ad valorem_, tolls were levied at:
R. A.
Ghazni 2 0 per load of camel or horse
Kandahar 2 8 ” ” ”
Girishk 1 0 ” ” ”
Farah 2 0 ” ” ”
Herat 2 8 ” ” ”
Examination of these imposts goes to prove that, under the rule of the
khans and in the reign of Shir Ali, trade received no encouragement;
while, if Abdur Rahman were the father of his people, there is no doubt
that judged by his domestic policy he revealed a lack of foresight
in fulfilling his parental obligations. If overweening vanity and
ignorance contributed to the failure of Abdur Rahman’s attempt to
make Afghanistan a self-supporting State, it can be pleaded for him,
nevertheless, that it was his intention to help trade and industries
which were indigenous to the country. To effect this, he abolished
inter-provincial tolls, maintained the scale of rates which was levied
upon caravans in transit to trans-Oxus markets, increased the frontier
duties in proportion to the loss which he sustained by withdrawing
charges hitherto imposed within his dominions, and began various
industrial works in the capital.
Enamoured of his idea, he unfortunately omitted from consideration,
besides a certain inadequacy of revenue, the overwhelming intolerance
of his subjects to every form of labour. There was thus in Afghanistan
itself when, six years after his accession to the throne, the Amir
embarked upon a campaign of commercial expansion, no reserve of
capital behind the Government and no fund of energy in the people. In
spite of the number of miscellaneous industries which he attempted in
Kabul no continuity of success was preserved, while reaction against
his penalties upon Indian trade resulted in the opening up of the
Quetta-Nushki-Nasratabad road as a commercial route. Direct loss of
revenue, therefore, befel Abdur Rahman through his encouragement of a
policy which was prejudicial to his own interests, as it was hostile to
the trade of India and Russia. So far from profitable was the issue,
indeed, that the position of the State at the close of his reign was in
anything but a condition of comfortable prosperity.
The movement of the principal imports and exports in the closing years
of his reign is given on pp. 292, 293.
Under pressure of financial difficulties arising from debts contracted
by his father for the supply of military stores and equipment, the
development of public works and a host of minor obligations, Habib
Ullah was compelled to reconsider his economic position. Accepting the
situation on its merits, during the first year of his reign he remitted
certain duties and lowered the transit charges on “through” caravans,
in respect of indigo and tea, to the equivalent of 2½ per cent. _ad
valorem_ duty. This impost upon tea works out at the rate of 7 pies
per pound, but the tax on tea intended for the markets of Afghanistan
is much higher. This is returned at 125 rupees per camel-load of 360
pounds, thereby levying a charge of 5 annas against each pound which,
although an exceedingly high rate, compares not unfavourably with the
crushing Customs dues on the Russian frontier and the tax in England. A
revival of the demand in Afghanistan for tea grown in India has shown
itself during the past year or two; and, undoubtedly, if the import
duty were lowered the Afghans would become better customers, especially
for the green variety, which they most favour. If the Amir could
be convinced that a smaller duty would involve no loss of revenue,
owing to larger imports, a reduction of the tariff might possibly be
sanctioned.
TABLE SHOWING PRINCIPAL IMPORTS AND EXPORTS IN CLOSING YEARS
OF THE REIGN OF ABDUR RAHMAN
------------------------------------------------------------------
1892-93. 1893-94. 1894-95. 1895-96.
------------------------------------------------------------------
_Imports._ Rupees. Rupees. Rupees. Rupees.
Horses, ponies, mules 16,200 27,079 18,759 32,540
Drugs and medicines 14,849 11,320 11,962 9,661
Fruits, etc. 98,353 60,198 56,502 46,422
Hides, skins, and leather 13,788 17,943 14,019 17,775
Ghee 35,088 24,900 20,086 17,042
Wool, raw and 15,023 12,908 11,927 13,961
manufactured
_Exports._
Cotton yarn 5,215 6,083 8,674 11,530
” piece-goods 430,978 275,235 151,400 172,488
Dyeing materials 10,552 9,004 15,218 17,823
Leather 14,433 10,446 7,599 15,251
Brass, copper and iron 14,945 12,404 11,421 11,688
Sugar 15,055 15,714 10,228 8,895
Tea 99,874 61,112 45,097 27,129
-------------------------------------------------------------------
[TN: Table continues]
-------------------------------------------------------------------
1896-97. 1897-98. 1898-99. 1899-1900.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
_Imports._ Rupees. Rupees.
Horses, ponies, mules 11,955 2,275
Drugs and medicines 2,258 7,766
Fruits, etc. 51,709 30,854
Hides, skins, and leather 19,416 8,895
Ghee 19,475 24,444
Wool, raw and manufactured 11,445 17,003
Not Not
specified specified
_Exports._
Cotton yarn 11,088 6,537
” piece-goods 145,082 203,444
Dyeing materials 15,512 6,986
Leather 5,800 3,914
Brass, copper and iron 23,209 7,026
Sugar 10,569 8,672
Tea 35,770 15,860
--------------------------------------------------------------------
TABLE SHOWING IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF NORTHERN AND EASTERN
AFGHANISTAN FOR THE YEARS 1892-1900
+-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| | 1892-93. | 1893-94. | 1894-95. | 1895-96. |
+-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| | | | | |
| | Rupees. | Rupees. | Rupees. | Rupees. |
| Imports | 220,850 | 188,831 | 160,400 | 165,003 |
| Exports | 610,501 | 405,215 | 267,365 | 306,233 |
| +----------+----------+----------+----------+
| Combined values | 831,351 | 594,046 | 427,765 | 471,236 |
+-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
[TN: Table continues]
+-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| | 1896-97. | 1897-98. | 1898-99. |1899-1900.|
+-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| | | | | |
| | Rupees. | Rupees. | Rupees. | not |
| Imports | 151,538 | 129,110 | 217,235 |specified |
| Exports | 290,163 | 274,638 | 294,605 | — |
| +----------+----------+----------+----------+
| Combined values | 441,701 | 403,748 | 511,840 | 442,087 |
+-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
TABLE SHOWING IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF SOUTHERN AND WESTERN
AFGHANISTAN FOR THE YEARS 1892-1900
+-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| | 1892-93. | 1893-94. | 1894-95. | 1895-96. |
+-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| | | | | |
| | Rupees. | Rupees. | Rupees. | Rupees. |
| Imports | 234,428 | 335,849 | 299,090 | 410,541 |
| Exports | 297,657 | 328,172 | 309,762 | 257,002 |
+-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| Combined values | 532,085 | 664,021 | 608,852 | 667,543 |
+-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
[TN: Table continues]
+-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| | 1896-97. | 1897-98. | 1898-99. |1899-1900.|
+-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| | | | | |
| | Rupees. | Rupees. | Rupees. | not |
| Imports | 418,405 | 309,299 | 329,917 |specified |
| Exports | 227,376 | 163,785 | 263,884 | — |
+-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| Combined values | 645,781 | 473,084 | 593,801 | 714,318 |
+-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
On the whole the fiscal policy of the present Amir encourages the
belief that, in time, many of the existing obstacles to free commercial
intercourse with India will be removed. The small benefits already
offered to Indian merchants have produced immediate response and the
prospect of further concessions is widely appreciated. Trade exports
from Kabul during 1904-05 alone increased by 25 lakhs of rupees, the
volume of trade proceeding from Kandahar showing an improvement no
less emphatic. The total value of exports and imports combined, since
indications of a more liberal fiscal policy first were manifested, in
lakhs of rupees, is shown in the following table:
1900-01. 1901-02. 1902-03. 1903-04. 1904-05.
Lakhs. Lakhs. Lakhs. Lakhs. Lakhs.
Southern and Western
Afghanistan 58.19 68.54 53.48 68.02 76.53
Northern and Eastern
Afghanistan 48.01 61.00 63.99 70.56 95.36
The values of the principal imports from Kabul during 1904-05 were
fruits and nuts, 7.9 lakhs; animals (horses, sheep, and goats), 4.4
lakhs; hides (including skins) and ghee, each about 2½ lakhs, the
total being 26 lakhs as in the previous year. Exports during 1904-05
improved by 25 lakhs to 69⅓ lakhs. Cattle, sheep, and goats accounted
for 8⅘ lakhs of this increase. Cotton fabrics, valued at 38⅓ lakhs
(more than two-thirds being of foreign manufacture), increased by 12½
lakhs. The other principal articles were cotton yarn (mostly foreign),
3.2 lakhs, and leather, 2.5 lakhs. The exports of tea (nearly all
green tea) were 397,265 pounds Indian, value 1.5 lakhs, 300,384 pounds
foreign, value 3.1 lakhs. Among imports from Kandahar during 1904-05,
valued at 40⅕ lakhs, were raw wool, 18.8 lakhs; fruits and nuts, 12.2
lakhs; and ghee, 2.6 lakhs, in all of which there has been a larger
trade. The exports during 1904-05 reached 36⅓ lakhs, the two principal
articles--Indian cottons, 14.7 lakhs, and foreign piece-goods, 10
lakhs--both showing an improvement.
The general character of the trade conducted between Afghanistan and
India is indicated by the appended list of the principal imports and
exports with their values during the last three years in lakhs of
rupees:
_Exports from Afghanistan._
1902-03. 1903-04. 1904-05.
Lakhs. Lakhs. Lakhs.
Cattle 31.31 23.61 33.29
Other animals 36.66 24.41 38.38
Drugs and medicines, including
charas 24.01 23.98 20.72
Fruits, vegetables and nuts 37.69 28.59 31.01
Grain and pulse (largely rice) 1.37.73 1.36.64 1.49.78
Hides, skins, and horns 26.70 26.49 35.41
Provisions: ghee 82.78 53.09 64.05
Pickled tea 15.02 17.62 22.06
Seeds (chiefly linseed and
rapeseed) 53.28 39.97 34.80
Silk 25.69 20.10 17.44
Spices 13.86 20.25 17.17
Wood and timber, chiefly teak 74.60 86.31 1.22.35
Wool, raw 32.92 23.91 27.05
Woollen goods 14.19 9.47 11.16
_Imports into Afghanistan._
1902-03. 1903-04. 1904-05.
Lakhs. Lakhs. Lakhs.
Cotton, raw 12.76 12.49 7.60
Cotton yarn
Foreign 35.68 32.58 28.28
Indian 26.11 25.63 33.30
Cotton goods:
Foreign 1.78.57 1.55.28 1.50.31
Indian 64.37 52.60 63.34
Grain and pulse 10.35 18.65 17.39
Metals, mainly brass, copper,
and iron 33.10 25.27 30.42
Oils 13.12 11.34 13.50
Provisions 21.47 20.49 19.43
Salt 43.14 31.42 31.46
Silk goods 11.24 9.54 8.22
Spices 16.69 16.76 14.04
Sugar 32.20 25.04 27.04
Tea 13.20 11.73 10.69
Tobacco 12.82 10.16 12.10
If India conducts with Afghanistan a trade which, although subject to
fluctuations, enjoys considerable prosperity, the flow of commerce
from the Trans-Oxus region towards the same markets is by no means
contemptible. Indeed, articles imported into Afghanistan from Moscow,
Merv, Bokhara and Samarkand figure in every bazaar in the Herat and
Afghan Turkestan provinces. This trade passes through the customs
stations of Kelif, Chushka Gusar, 40 miles to the east of Kelif, and
Termes, 34 miles to the east of Chushka Gusar, the former of which is
the principal seat of Russian Customs on the middle Oxus. Trade between
Afghanistan and Russia has never been altogether prohibited by the
Kabul authorities, Abdur Rahman permitting kafilas to travel by the
routes on which he had established customs posts. On goods purchased in
Russian territory by Afghan traders a rebate equal to the tax levied
by the Amir’s officials is granted. Further, customs dues on goods
imported from Afghanistan have been reduced by 50 per cent. Russian
trade is therefore making rapid progress. The value of the goods which
passed through the Russo-Afghan posts was £450,000 in 1902. To-day it
probably exceeds half a million sterling. The import into Central Asia
of goods from India has been strangled by the high Customs’ tariff of
the Russians, plus the heavy transit dues in Afghanistan itself. The
agents of Russian firms at Kelif and Chushka Guzar state that they
can now compete successfully with British Indian trade in Northern
Afghanistan owing to the comparative cheapness of transport from
Europe, which means that the Trans-Caspian and Orenburg-Tashkent lines
of railway are carrying Russian merchandise at specially low rates.
None the less, the Russian traders complain of the Afghan transit dues,
as their imposition causes delay on all the principal caravan routes
and adds enormously to the transport charges. With the advantages which
Russia now possesses, unless a determined effort is made to save the
situation for the benefit of Indian trade, we may presently expect her
to renew her efforts to open up direct relations with Kabul in order
to obtain greater facilities for commerce. It may be, too, that it
will be in this manner rather than by active aggression that she will
seek to lessen British influence in Afghanistan, and even to raise
complications with the Amir.
The principal Russian commodities are:
_Article._
Broad-cloth.
Fine linens and calicoes.
Silk goods.
Velvet.
Chintzes.
Sewing thread and silk.
Gold and silver lace.
Gold and silver thread.
Needles.
Steel and copper wire.
Russia leather.
Paper.
China-ware.
Glass-ware.
Cutlery.
Loaf sugar.
Pig iron.
Steel ingots.
Tin in plates.
Copper in plates.
Brass.
Quicksilver.
Cochineal.
Tea.
Honey.
Wax, white and yellow.
In silk, linen and cotton goods the Russian fabrics are quite equal to
those articles of Anglo-Indian manufacture which find their way into
the country. Russian chintzes are more durable and of coarser texture
than the Anglo-Indian article; although less elegant in appearance and
of colours that are not so fast, they meet with a ready sale among the
poorer classes. The silk goods imported from Bokhara are of Russian
manufacture, but they might well be superseded by better and cheaper
importations from India. Silk handkerchiefs of various colours, and
even black ones, are in great demand. Foreign silks do not sell so
readily as certain lines in cotton and linen fabrics, since Kandahar,
Herat and Kabul possess their own silk looms, each loom paying an
annual tax of 23 rupees to the State. The articles manufactured by the
native looms are plain silks, called _kanavaz_; red, yellow and purple
_durahee_ of slighter texture, less width and of the same colours;
_suga khanmee_ of large and small widths, with perpendicular white
lines on a red ground; _dushmals_ or handkerchiefs, black and red,
with white spots, bound by females around their heads; and _broonghees
hummam_, for the bath. To meet the demands of the Kabul market, raw and
spun silks are imported from Bokhara, Kandahar and Herat, but the great
bulk of either variety required by the Kabul looms comes from districts
in the Kabul province. Velvets and satins are imported from both sides
of the frontier; but wherever Indian or British goods meet the products
of the Russian market in Afghanistan, the bounty-fed trade of Russia in
Central Asia enjoys a conspicuous advantage.
Certain imports from Russia and India suffer from competition with
the Kabul made product. In this respect the trade in gold and silver
lace from Bokhara and India has fallen away very noticeably, although
the quantity despatched from Bokhara still exceeds that imported from
India. The trade in leather has also suffered by the development
of local tanneries, but importations of the raw material are still
necessary on account of the demands of the factory where the military
equipment is made.
The trade in paper comes almost solely from the Russian market and
quantities are imported from across the Oxus. The paper is of foolscap
size, of stout, inferior quality and white or blue in colour. There
are two assortments: glazed and unglazed. The blue glazed variety is
preferred, the unglazed kind usually being sized at Kabul. A busy
trade in this commodity passes between Kabul and Kandahar, the Russian
product having captured the market to the practical exclusion of all
other brands. The paper needs to be stout to allow facility of erasure;
on this account, and with reference to the nature of the ink employed,
glazed paper is most satisfactory.
The attention of the people is directed to the land rather than to
trade and a very large proportion of the population takes naturally
to cultivation. Farming is divided between the production of fruit
and the growth of cereals. The Afghans are a fruit-loving people; in
certain districts fruit, both in its fresh and preserved condition,
forms the staple diet of a large section of the population throughout
the year. A rapidly growing export in fresh and dried fruits exists
with India. Indeed, so important has this industry become that, in the
country round Kandahar, a marked increase in the number of orchards and
fruit gardens has taken place within the last five years, the presence
of the railway at New Chaman and its extension to Nushki making the
exportation of fresh fruit not only practicable but profitable. Fruit
farming is divided between orchard fruits, with which vegetable farming
is usually combined and those fruits which may be grown in fields on
a large scale. In the one class are apples, pears, almonds, peaches,
apricots, plums, cherries, grapes, figs, quinces, pomegranates and
mulberries, in addition to walnut, pistacia, the edible pine and
rhubarb, which grow wild in the northern and eastern highlands.
Vegetable produce, which holds a high position in the export trade,
includes most domestic vegetables; while, of the uncultivated vegetable
products, the castor-oil plant, the mustard, sesame and assafœtida grow
in great abundance. The fruit fields also produce several varieties
of melons, including musk, water and scented melons, cucumbers and
pumpkins.
[Illustration: COTTON FIELDS UNDER IRRIGATION FROM THE AMU DARIA
_Photo, Olufsen_]
In the direction of cereal production there are two harvests. One,
reaped in summer, is the result of an autumn sowing and includes
wheat, barley and certain varieties of peas and beans. The second
harvest is gathered in autumn from a spring sowing, and embraces crops,
rice, Indian corn, millet, arzun and jowari, besides other grains
of less importance. In addition to these cereals, crops of madder,
tobacco, cotton, opium, hemp, clover and lucerne are very generally
cultivated. Clover and lucerne are produced for fodder, hemp for
its intoxicating properties and madder, tobacco, cotton and opium
for export. In relation to the other crops, wheat is the food of the
people, barley and jowari are given to horses, and arzun and Indian
corn are grown for culinary purposes.
In greater detail the distribution of the vegetation is as follows:
On the main range of the Safed Koh there are--
_Cedrus deodara_, the Deodar.
_Abies excelsa_, Norway Spruce.
_Pinus longifolia_, Turpentine Pine.
_P. pinaster_, Cluster Pine.
_P. pinea_, the Edible Pine.
_Larix communis_, Larch.
_Citrus limonum_, Lemon.
Yew, _Taxus baccata_.
Hazel, _Corylus avellana_.
Juniper, _Juniperus communis_.
Walnut, _Juglans regia_.
Wild peach, _Amygdalus persica_.
Almond, _Amygdalus communis_.
Wild vine, _Vitis vinifera_.
Protected by these there flourish several varieties of--
Rose, _Rosa canina_.
Honeysuckle, _Lonicera_ (_caprifolium_).
Currant, _Ribes rubrum_.
Gooseberry, _Ribes grossularia_.
Hawthorn, _Cratægus oxyacantha_.
Rhododendron, _Rhododendron arboreum_.
Between the main crests of the summit and the secondary heights are
found--
Walnut, _Juglans regia_.
Alder, _Alnus glutinosa_.
Ash, _Fraxinus excelsior_.
Khinjak.
Dwarf laburnum, _Cytisus laburnum_.
_Quercus_, Oak.
_Arbor-vitæ_, Thuja.
_Juniperus communis_, Juniper.
_Astragalus_, Gum Tragacanth.
_Indigo feræ_, Commercial Indigo.
At a lower altitude and descending to 3000 ft. there are--
Wild Olive, _Olea europæa_.
Rock-rose, _Cistus_.
Wild privet, _Ligustrum vulgare_.
Acacia, _Acacia_.
Mimosa, _Albizia_.
Barberry, _Berberis vulgaris_.
Edible fruit, _Zizyphus_.
_Chamtærops humilis_, Wild palm.
_Bignonia_, Trumpet flower.
_Dalbergia sissoo_, Sissu.
_Salvadora persica_, Mustard tree of Scripture.
_Verbena_, Lemon plant.
Acanthus.
Ferns and mosses are confined to the higher ranges, while the lowest
terminal ridges are scantily clothed with an almost wholly herbal
vegetation.
The following plants, thorny in character, are to be found scattered
over less elevated valley bottoms:
_Hedysarum Alhagi_, Camel-thorn.
_Astragalus_, Milk Vitch.
_Ononis spinosa mimoseæ_, Spiny rest-harrow.
_Mimosa pudica_, Sensitive mimosa.
_Lipad_ (plant of the Rue family), _Rutaceæ_.
Common wormwood, _Artemisia absinthium_.
Rue, _Ruta graveolens_.
Rose bay, _Nerium Oleander_.
Wild laburnum, _Cytisus laburnum_.
Commercial Indigo, _Indigo feræ_.
The following trees have been introduced into the cultivated districts,
and they are now native to the country:
Mulberry, _Morus nigra_.
Willow, _Salix_.
Poplar, _Populus_.
Ash, _Fraxinus excelsior_.
Plane, _Platanus_.
The important uncultivated products are:
Gum-resin, _Narthex assafœtida_(grown chiefly on the plains between
Kandahar and Herat).
Walnut, _Juglans regia_.
Pine-nut, _Pinus pinea_.
Rhubarb (edible, chiefly grown in the highlands of Kabul).
_Elæagnus orientalis Sanjit._
_Pistacia khinjak_, Gul-i-pista.
_Fraxinus ornus_, Ash.
Mushrooms, _Agaricus campestris_.
As regards vertebrate zoology Afghanistan lies on the frontier of three
regions--the Eurasian, the Ethiopian and the Indo-Malayan. In the main
the species are Eurasian.
The following wild animals are to be found:
⎧ _Felis catus_ Wild cat.
⎪ _F. chaus_ Jungle cat.
_Felidæ_ ⎨ _F. caracal_ Kara-kul.
⎪ _Cynælurus jubatus_ Cheetah.
⎪ _F. pardus_ Common leopard.
⎩ _F. tigris_ Tiger.
⎧ _Caries aureus_ Jackal.
⎪ _C. bengalensis_ Wolf.
_Canidæ_ ⎨ _Hyæna striata_ Hyæna.
⎪ _Vulpes bengalensis_ Wild dog.
⎩ _V. flavescens_ Small Indian fox.
⎧ _Herpestes_ Mongoose.
⎪ _Mustela erminea_ Stoat.
_Mustelidæ_ ⎨ _M. flavigula_ Marten.
⎪ _Ursus torquatus_ Black bear.
⎩ _Ursus isabellinus_ Yellow bear.
⎧ _Capra ægagrus_ Ibex.
⎪ _C. megaceros_ Markhoor.
⎪ _Ovis vignei_ Wild sheep.
_Ruminants_ ⎨ _Gazella subgutturosa_ Persian gazelle.
⎪ _Gazella dorcas_ Common gazelle.
⎪ _Cervus wallichii_ Indian barasingha.
⎪ _Sus scrofa_ Wild hog.
⎩ _Equus onager_ Wild ass.
⎧_Talpha europæa_ Mole.
⎪ _Sorex indicus_ Indian shrew.
⎪ _Erinaceus collaris_ Collared hedgehog.
⎪ _E. auritus_ Long-eared hedgehog.
_Talpidæ_ ⎨ _Phyllorhinus cineraceus_ ⎫
⎪ _Scotophilus bellii_ ⎬ Bats.
⎪ _Vespertilio auritus_ ⎪
⎩ _V. barbastellus_ ⎭
⎧ _Sciurus syriacus_ Squirrel.
⎪ _Dipus telum_ Jerboa.
⎪ _Alactaga bactriana_ Bactria Jerboa.
_Rodentia_ ⎨ _Gerbillus indicus_ Gerbit.
⎪ _G. erythrinus_ Gerbit.
⎪ _Lagomys nepalensis_ Pica, or Tailless Hare.
⎩ _Lepus ruficaudatus_ Hare.
_Birds._--There are 124 species of Afghan birds, comprised as follows:
95 Eurasian;
17 Indian;
10 both Eurasian and Indian;
1 Eurasian, Ethiopian and Indian;
1 _Carpodacus (Bucanetes) crassirostris_, peculiar to the country.
_Reptiles_:
_Pseudopus gracilis_ Glass “snake.”
_Argyrophis horsfieldii_ ⎫
_Salea horsfieldii_ ⎪
_Calotes maria_ ⎬ Lizards. All Indian forms, without
_C. versicolor_ ⎪ distinctive English names.
_C. minor_ ⎪
_C. emma_ ⎪
_Phrynocephalus tickelii_ ⎭
_T. horsfieldii_ A tortoise peculiar to Kabul.
_Domestic Animals_:
Camels: Bactrian and Dromedary.
Horses.
Cows, humped.
Sheep--white and black, fat-tailed.
Goats--black, parti-coloured.
Dogs--pointers, greyhounds, _khandi_ (sporting dog).
The mineral wealth of Afghanistan is at present almost entirely
undeveloped, the late Amir, Abdur Rahman, being possessed by an
instinctive animus against company promoters and concession hunters.
Habib Ullah, too, has not yet made any sign of permitting the evident
resources of the country to be exploited. The localities, in which
deposits are known to exist, are shown in the accompanying table:
_Mineral._ _Locality._
Gold Laghman and adjoining districts.
Silver Panjshir Valley.
Iron ore Bajaur; Permuli district and Hindu Kush.
Copper ore Various districts.
Lead Upper Bangash, Shinwari country,
Kakar country, and in neighbourhood
of Herat.
Lead with antimony At Argandab; in the Wardak hills;
Ghorband valley; Afridi country.
Antimony Shah-Maksud.
Silicate of zinc Zhob valley.
Sulphur Herat; Hazara country; Pirkisri.
Sal-ammoniac Pirkisri.
Gypsum Plain of Kandahar.
Coal Zurmat; near Ghazni; Afghan Turkestan.
Nitre South-western Afghanistan.
Among the industries of Afghanistan, exclusive of the agricultural
activities of a large section of the people, the production of silks,
the manufacture of felts, postins and rosaries, the cultivation of
turmeric and ginger, and horse-breeding occupy important positions.
Silk is produced in considerable quantity at Kandahar, which is also
the centre of other arts and crafts that afford occupation and support
to numerous families. The quality of silk Kandahar is capable of much
improvement. The cocoons are small, of unequal size and of different
colours--yellow, white and grey. The majority of the worms are reared
in neighbouring villages, but principally in those along the Argand-ab,
where also the mulberry-trees are most abundant. The value of the
mulberry-trees around Kandahar is estimated at several lakhs. The
whole of the silk produced in the district pays a tax to the Government
and its sale without permission is prohibited.
The manufacture of sheepskin coats is an important industry which once
made Kandahar province its centre. Of late years the trade has so
greatly increased, owing to the demands for this article from India,
that other districts have devoted themselves to it with equal success.
The leather is prepared and made up in Kandahar, Ghazni and Kabul on an
extended scale, thus giving occupation to many hundreds of families.
The method of manufacture is not without interest. The dried, unshorn
sheepskin is immersed in running water until it is soft and pliant,
while at the same time the wool is thoroughly washed with soap. After
this the fleece is combed and the skin stretched on a board, when the
inside surface is smeared with a thin paste, composed of equal parts
of fine wheaten and rice flour, to which is added a small proportion
of finely-powdered salt. This dressing is renewed daily for five or
six days, throughout which time the pelt is exposed to the sun. Before
the conclusion of this process the skin is again cleansed, washed and
dried, after which all superfluous growths are removed. The surface is
then treated with a tanning mixture made of dried pomegranate rinds,
powdered alum, red ochre and sweet oil. After some days, when the
requisite suppleness has been gained, this preparation is scraped off.
In the western districts a mixture of alum and white clay is used in
preference to the pomegranate rinds. In such cases the skins, when
cured, are white and somewhat coarser to the touch than those prepared
with pomegranate rinds. In the Kabul process the pomegranate rind is
used most freely; as the Kabul skins are prepared with the greatest
care, they are esteemed more than those of Ghazni and Kandahar. Before
the tanning is completed the skins are handed over to tailors, who
reduce them to strips of 2 feet long by 4 or 5 inches wide, from which
they make three varieties of coats. One class comprises small coats
with short sleeves and requires only two or three skins; another
description reaches to the knees and is furnished with full sleeves
fitting close to the arm. This takes five or six pelts. A third pattern
forms a large loose cloak of capacious dimensions extending from head
to heel and furnished with long sleeves, very wide above the elbow
and very narrow below it; it also projects several inches beyond the
tips of the fingers. These require ten or twelve skins. Usually the
edges and sleeves of the coats are embroidered with yellow silk. The
completed articles cost from one to fifty rupees, according to size and
finish. They are well adapted to the climate of the country; except
in exposure to rain, when they are reversed, the woolly side is worn
next the body. The full-length coat is a very cumbrous dress and is
usually only worn in the house; it serves alike for bed, bedding, or as
a cloak. The nature of the material favours the harbouring of insects,
and few people are met whose coats do not serve as a breeding-ground
for an immense colony of vermin.
An industry of equal importance with the postin trade is the
manufacture of felts, which similarly centres in Kandahar. From there
these goods are distributed throughout the country, besides being
exported to India, Persia and the Trans-Oxus region.
Rosaries are also extensively manufactured at Kandahar from soft
crystallised silicate of magnesia. This is quarried from a hill at
Shah Maksud, about 30 miles north-west of the city, where soapstone
and antimony are also obtained in considerable abundance. The stone
varies in colour from a light yellow to a bluish white and is generally
opaque. The most popular kind is straw coloured and semi-transparent. A
few specimens are of a mottled greenish colour, brown or nearly black;
they are used for the same purposes as the lighter varieties. Rosaries
and charms of various sorts are made for exportation to Mecca. They
range in price from a couple of annas to a hundred rupees. The refuse
from the work is reduced to powder and utilised by native physicians as
a remedy for heart-burn.
The land measure used by the Afghans is--
4 spans = 1 guz (Maimana).
4 spans = 1 pace.
60 paces = 1 tunnab.
1 tunnab square = 1 jereeb.
16 girahs (cloth) = 1 guz = 5 spans.
1 girah = 4 nookteh.
The English equivalent is--
_feet_ _inches_
1 khoord = 0 0.632
1 girah = 0 2.531
1 guzishah = 0 40.500
1 guz (cloth) = 3 8
1 biswah = 4 0
1 sureeb = 80 0
1 koss = 2 miles.
1 munzil = 24 ”
The table of weights is--
6¾ rupees = 1 khoord.
4 khoords = 1 pow.
4 pows = 1 charrek.
4 charreks = 1 seer = 20 miscals = 24 nukhods.
1 seer = 432 rupees.
8 seers = 1 maund kham.
10 maunds = 1 kharwar.
1 mun (Tabriz) = 260 rupees.
The relative equivalent of some of the above in English weights is--
_pounds_ _ounces_ _grains_
1 nukhod = 0 0 2.958
1 miscal = 0 0 71.000
1 pow = 0 12 .428
1 mum (Herati) = 7 0 0
1 seer = 12 15 0
1 kharwar (Afghan) = 1038 6 0
1 kharwar (Persian) = 649 0 0
It should be remembered, that everything, whether solid or liquid, is
sold by weight in Afghanistan. In cloth the conventional measure in the
bazaar is from the top of the middle finger to the point of the elbow.
[Illustration: ACROSS THE PASSES]
[34] One shahi equalled one penny; twelve shahis equalled
one rupee Kandahar.
[35] One tungeh equals three farthings.
[Illustration]