THE KHANATE OF BOKHARA, THE PROVINCE
OF SAMARKAND, THE DISTRICTS OF
TASHKENT AND MERV
[Illustration: SHIR DAR, SAMARKAND]
The Khanate of Bokhara, across which lies the direct line of any
advance upon Afghanistan, is the most important of the Russian
protected states in Central Asia. It is situated in the basin of
the Amu Daria between the provinces of Trans-Caspia on the west, of
Samarkand and Ferghana on the north and east; while, in the south, the
course of the Oxus separates, along 500 versts of the frontier, the
dominions of Bokhara from those of Afghanistan.
The area occupied by Bokhara, including the sub-territories Darwaz,
Roshan and Shignan situated upon the western slopes of the Pamirs,
amounts to 80,000 square miles, over which in the western part certain
salt marshes and desolate stretches of sandy desert extend. The eastern
area is confined by the rugged chains of the Alai and Trans-Alai
systems, the Hissar mountains, the immediate prolongation of the
Alai range and crowned with perpetual snow, attaining considerable
altitude. This group divides the basins of the Zerafshan and Kashka
Daria from the basin of the Amu Daria. The rivers of Bokhara belong
to the Amu Daria system, the Oxus flowing for 490 versts through the
Khanate itself. Constant demands for purposes of irrigation are made
upon its waters as well as upon the waters of its many tributaries, a
fact which rapidly exhausts the lesser streams. In the western portion
of the Khanate the Zerafshan river is the great artery; and although
it possesses a direct stream only 214 versts in length it supplies a
system of canals, the aggregate length of which amounts to more than
1000 versts. These again are divided to supply a further thousand
channels, from which the water actually used for irrigating the various
settlements and fields is finally drawn. The second most important
river in the western part of the Khanate is the Kashka Daria, which
waters the vast oases of Shakhri, Syabz and Karshine. In the eastern
areas numerous streams are fed by the snows and glaciers of the Alai
mountain system.
The western region of Bokhara possesses an extremely dry climate which,
while hot in summer, tends to emphasise the severe cold of the winter
months. Occasionally at that time the Amu Daria freezes, when the ice
remains about the river for two or three weeks. The break-up of winter
is manifested by heavy rains which, falling in February, continue until
the middle of March when, after a short month of spring, a hot sun
burns up the vegetation. At this period the nomadic tribes abandon the
plains for the mountains, large areas of the Khanate now presenting the
appearance of a sparsely populated desert in which the sole vegetation
is found along the banks of the rivers or in oases watered by the
canals. With the advent of autumn, the steppe once more reflects the
movements of these people.
In its eastern part the altitude varies between 2500 and 8500 feet
above sea-level. The climate, warm and mild in summer, is of undue
severity in winter, the period of extreme cold lasting some four
months. Snow, commencing to fall in October, remains upon the ground
until April, the frosts always being severe. At such a season the
winds, blowing from the north-east, possess an unusual keenness in
contradistinction to the strong south-south-westerly winds which,
prevailing in summer, are the precursor to burning sand-storms.
[Illustration: THE AMIR OF BOKHARA ON PALACE STEPS]
The total population of the Khanate amounts approximately to 2,500,000;
the well-watered, flourishing oases bear in some places as many as
4000 people to the square mile. The steppe and mountainous regions are
sparsely populated. The most important inhabited centres of the Khanate
are as follows:
DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION.
_Town._ _Population._
Bokhara 100,000
Karshi 60,000
Shaar 10,000
Guzar 25,000
Kara Kul 5,000
Ziadin 8,000
Hissar 15,000
Shir Abad 20,000
Karki 10,000
Charjui 15,000
Kermine 12,000
Kelif 7,000
According to ethnographic distribution the population falls into
two divisions. To the first belong those of Turki extraction and
to the second the Iranian group. Amongst those of Turki descent
the Uzbegs take the most prominent place, constituting not only a
racial preponderance but the ruling power in the Khanate. Among
the remaining constituents of the Turki division are the Turcomans
(chiefly Ersaris) and the Kirghiz. To the Iranian category belong the
Tajiks--the original inhabitants of the country, even now constituting
the principal section of the population throughout its eastern and
southern portions; the Sarts, a conglomeration of Turki and Iranian
nationalities, comprise a considerable proportion of the urban and
rural population. In smaller numbers are the various colonies of
Jews, Afghans, Persians, Arabs, Armenians, Hindus and others. With
the exception of the Jews and the Hindus the entire population is
Mahommedan.
It will be seen that the population is represented by sedentary,
semi-nomadic and nomadic classes. The first, constituting about 65
per cent. of the whole population, is distributed principally in the
plains, a considerable proportion comprising Tajiks, Sarts, Jews,
Persians, Afghans and Hindus. The semi-nomadic population forms about
15 per cent., consisting partly of Uzbegs, Turcomans and Tajiks
dwelling in the hills. The nomads, who make up 20 per cent. of the
population, live in the steppes of the western portion of the Khanate,
in Darwaz and along the slopes of the Hissar mountains. They comprise
Uzbegs, Turcomans and Kirghiz.
The soil, in general adapted to agriculture, yields with irrigation
excellent harvests. The amount of cultivated land in the Khanate is
little in excess of 8000 square miles; but, in order to make full use
of the waters of the Amu Daria, Surkan, Kafirnigan and Waksh rivers, a
large expenditure would be required, the present system of irrigation
being very inadequate. Apart from cotton which is exported in the
raw state to the value of several million poods annually and the silk
industry which, owing to disease among the worms, has deteriorated,
the chief agricultural interest lies in the production of fruit,
the produce of the orchards forming a staple food during the summer
months. As a consequence, many different varieties of grapes, peaches,
apricots, melons, water-melons, plums, apples, and pears are cultivated
in the several gardens and orchards. Cattle-farming is conducted
extensively in the valleys of the Hissar and Alai ranges and in Darwaz;
in Kara Kul, situated in the vast Urta Chul steppe between the towns
of Bokhara and Karsi, is the home of the famous caracal sheep. Other
industries are the manufacture of leathern goods: shoes, saddles,
saddle-cloths, metal and pottery ware; while a staple product, employed
in the manufacture of felts, carpets and the clothes of the people, is
cotton wool.
The yearly budget of the Khanate amounts to 8,000,000 roubles,
1,005,000 roubles of which are spent upon the army. The standing
army, comprising Guards, battalions of the line, cavalry regiments, a
brigade of mounted rifles and a small corps of artillerists, possesses
a strength of 15,000 men with twenty guns. In addition there is a
militia liable for duty in case of necessity but, equally with its more
imposing sister service, of little practical utility.
[Illustration: THE GATES OF BOKHARA]
The city of Bokhara is surrounded by massive walls which were built
in the ninth century, 28 feet in height, 14 feet in thickness at the
base, with 131 towers and pierced at irregular intervals by eleven
gates. These ramparts contain, within a circuit of 7½ miles, an area
of 1760 acres. The population numbers some hundred thousand and the
variety of types included in this estimate is immense. The Tajiks, who
predominate, are well favoured in their appearance; they have clear,
olive complexions with black eyes and hair. Polite, hard-working and
intelligent, they possess considerable aptitude for business. Against
these excellent traits, however, must be noted the fact that they are
inclined to cowardice and dishonesty. On this account they are regarded
with contempt by the Uzbegs, a race whose physical characteristics
cause them to resemble the rude warriors of the Osmanlis who supplanted
the Cross by the Crescent in the fifteenth century. Independent in
their bearing, the Uzbegs possess high courage together with something
of the inborn dignity of the Turk; but they are distinguished from
that nation by a greater grossness of manner and less individuality.
Equally with the Kirghiz and the Turcomans, the Uzbegs are divided
in their classes between sedentary people and nomads. Then, also, in
this dædalus there is the Jewish community, which is traditionally
believed to have migrated hither from Baghdad. The Jews in Bokhara are
forbidden to ride in the streets; while they must wear a distinctive
costume, the main features of which include a small black cap, a
dressing-gown of camel’s hair and a rope girdle. They are relegated to
a filthy ghetto; and, although they may not be killed with impunity by
a good believer, they are subjected to such grinding persecution that
their numbers have been reduced in the course of half a century to
something less than 75 per cent. of the 10,000 who originally composed
the colony. The Jew in Bokhara shares with the Hindu settler there
the profits of money-lending and the two classes are keen hands at a
bargain. In addition to the Hindus there are a few Mahommedan merchants
from Peshawar who are concerned in the tea trade. Other races among
the moving mass comprise Afghans, Persians and Arabs, the variety
of features shown by a Bokharan crowd suggesting so many different
quarters as their place of origin that one would need to recite the map
of High Asia to describe them.
The town of Bokhara is supplied with water from the Shari Rud canal,
which, in turn, is fed by the Zerafshan river. A considerable amount is
stored locally in special reservoirs, of which there are eighty-five.
As their contents are seldom changed the supply soon assumes a thick,
greenish consistency, the use of which is extremely detrimental to the
health of the inhabitants. The deficiency of fresh water for drinking
purposes, the oppressiveness of the summer heat and the propinquity of
numerous cemeteries, together with the dust and dirt of the crowded
streets, make life in Bokhara almost intolerable. The city, too, is
a hot-bed of disease, malaria being specially prominent at certain
seasons. The _filaria medinesis_, a worm of burrowing propensity, is
endemic.
In Bokhara, as in most Eastern cities, the feminine element is entirely
excluded from the street. The emancipation of women has not begun in
the Middle East; should any have to venture forth they are muffled up
so carefully that not even a suggestion of their personal appearance
can be gathered. Yet there is a certain charm and mystery in the
flitting of the veiled Beauty and one would fain linger to speculate
further, if such dallying with fortune were not eminently injudicious.
If there is no revelation of the female form divine in the bazaar
there is, at least, a wonderful wealth of gorgeous colouring. In time
of festival the scene, welling up to break away in endless ripples,
suggests the myriad beauties of a rainbow splintered into a million
fragments.
There is relief, too, from the burning sunshine in the cool, lofty
passages: shady, thronged and tortuous they extend in endless
succession for mile after mile. The roof of the bazaar is a rude
contrivance of undressed beams upon which there is a covering of
beaten clay. Behind each stall is an alcove in the wall serving as
home and office to the keen-visaged merchant who presides. In this
little recess, piled upon innumerable shelves, rammed into little
niches or strewn upon the floor, are the different articles which
his trade requires. Carpets and rugs of harmonious hues, a wealth of
parti-coloured shawls, innumerable lengths of dress pieces, cutlery,
trinkets, snuff-boxes, gorgeous velvets and brilliant silks, the
shimmer of satin and the coarse tracing of gold-wire embroidery, are
here all displayed in prodigal confusion. As to the sources of supply,
a good deal of the merchandise is the produce of Russian markets. For
the rest, a certain proportion comes from Germany and a small amount is
imported from France. England, it may be noted, is not represented at
all.
The money-changers have a quarter to themselves, as have also the
metal-workers and the vendors of silks and velvets. At every corner
and odd twist of the passages there are the sweet-sellers, the tea
merchants and the booths for food. China is the principal source
of the tea supply, but of late a certain amount has found its way
into Bokhara from the gardens of India and Ceylon. It is before the
steaming samovars that the crowd of prospective purchasers is apt to be
thickest. Beyond the bazaar boundaries are the wonderful relics of a
bygone grandeur--imposing buildings and mosques, touched with the glory
of the sunlight and capacious enough to contain within their courtyards
10,000 people at one time.
Although the chief interest of Bokhara centres in the portion just
described, its public buildings well repay leisurely examination.
The Registan, the market-place of the north-west quarter, acts as a
central zone. On one side standing upon a vast artificial mound is
the citadel or Ark, its mighty walls forming a square of 450 yards,
its parapet crenellated and its corners set with towers. The building
dates from the era of the Samanides. In addition to the Amir’s palace
the walls of the Ark enclose the houses of the chief ministers, the
treasury, the State prison and various offices. The entrance to the
citadel, which is defended by two imposing towers, is closed by massive
gates above which there is a clock. None save the highest officials
are permitted to enter the Ark; visitors, irrespective of rank, are
compelled to dismount at its doors and to proceed on foot to the Amir’s
quarters. Opposite the Ark stands the largest mosque in Bokhara, the
Medjidi Kalan or Kok Gumbaz--the Mosque of the Green Cupola--which the
Amir attends every Friday when he is in residence.
[Illustration: THE PRISON, BOKHARA]
[Illustration: THE MINAR KALAN, BOKHARA]
A smaller market-place, where transactions in cotton are carried out,
is surrounded by several imposing edifices that rise with infinite
grace to the sky, besides countless minarets of prayer acting as
landmarks to the faithful. Here is the Great Mosque, the Masjid-i-Jama,
while facing it is the Medresse Mir-i-Arab. This latter building ranks
first among the many stately colleges of Bokhara. Near at hand is the
Minar Kalan, 36 feet at the base and tapering to a height of over 200
feet. From a small platform just below the lofty pinnacle, miscreants
were hurled to destruction in bygone days. With the exception of these
buildings the city contains little of antiquity.
For its size the native quarter is a centre of the greatest importance;
and its streets, although mean and sinuous, are filled by a crowd most
typical of Asia. Ten thousand students receive instruction in its
schools. It contains:
Streets 360
Caravansaries 50
Covered bazaars 50
Mosques 364
Native schools 138
Russian school 1
Russian hospital and dispensary 1
[Illustration: THE ARK, BOKHARA]
The houses, which are set in small compounds approached by narrow
alleys, are composed of clay with low roofs and without windows. A hole
in the roof suffices for a chimney, and the open door affords light.
Samarkand, the administrative centre of the province of the same
name and founded in 1871, is a close reproduction of a large Indian
cantonment. The streets are wide, well paved, fringed with tall poplars
and set with shops which are kept by Europeans. For the Russians, as
the centre of the province and the location of army headquarters,
it has special importance. Although without any architectural
pretensions--the buildings are all one-storey structures on account
of frequent visitations from earthquakes--its comparatively lofty
position makes it an agreeable station and one of the most attractive
gathering-places for Europeans in Asiatic Russia. The city is situated
upon the south-western slopes of the Chupan Ata range, 7 versts from
the Zerafshan river. The close proximity of the hills naturally
influences its rainfall, which is greatest in March and April. The
period from June to September is dry; and by February or March the
trees are in bloom. By a happy choice in construction it has been
planned upon exceptionally generous lines which, although imparting to
the outskirts a desolate aspect, have been the cause of securing to the
community a number of spacious squares, around which are placed the
barracks and certain parks. The principal square, named after General
Ivanoff, a former Governor of the province, is Ivanovski Square.
Another interesting memento of the Russian conquest of Turkestan is
situated between the military quarter and the green avenues of the
Russian town, in a spot where the heroes who fell in the defence of the
citadel in 1868 were buried. At the same place, too, a memorial has
been erected to Colonel Sokovnin and Staff-Captain Konevski, who were
killed in 1869.
The population of Samarkand at the census of 1897 was 54,900:
_Males._ _Females._
31,706 23,194
According to the statistics of 1901, which are the most recently
available, these figures had increased by a few thousands; they were
then 58,194:
_Males._ _Females._
36,621 21,573
Russians 10,621
Poles 315
Germans 378
Armenians 335
Jews 4,949
Sarts 40,184
Kirghiz 36
Afghans 186
Persians 237
Hindus 10
In the town itself there are:
Orthodox churches 4
Private houses 1,100
Clubs 2
Library 1
Schools 9
Hospital 1
Theatre 1
Museum 1
and various medical, charitable and other institutions.
The native quarter, which is separated from the Russian town by the
Abramovski Boulevard--so named in honour of General Abramoff, another
military Governor of the province--covers an area of 4629 dessiatines.
It was built by Timur the Lame. The streets with few exceptions are
narrow, winding and unpaved; the houses are of baked mud, mean and
cramped, with flat earthen roofs and no windows. In this division there
are:
Shops 1,169
Caravansaries 28
Market-places 4
Squares 2
Medresses 14
Mosques 105
Jewish synagogue 1
Jewish prayer-houses 6
Mektebs 91
The value of Government property in the Russian and native areas of the
city is estimated at 4,077,681 roubles. The city revenue approximates
147,616 roubles. The native quarter is the great commercial centre of
the province and the trade returns for the city and its surrounding
district amount to 17,858,900 roubles out of 24,951,320 roubles for the
entire province. Of the squares the most celebrated is the Registan,
with a length of 35 sagenes and width of 30 sagenes. It is bounded by
three large mosques: the Tillah Kori--the Gold Covered; Ulug Beg; and
Shir Dar--the Lion Bearing.
[Illustration: THE TOMB OF TAMERLANE, SAMARKAND]
The Registan is the heart of ancient Samarkand. Prior to the advent
of the Russians pardon and punishment were dealt from it to the
people by their rulers, executions performed and wars declared, as
the authorities pleased. Even up to the present day the Registan has
preserved in some degree its importance as a popular tribune. From
it self-constituted orators, holy men and politicians, expound their
doctrines before a people gathered together from the most distant
corners of the Continent of Asia. The Registan is only one feature
of this delightful city; for here, too, are the stately ruins of the
Bibi Khanum, tomb of the wife of Timur, and the Gur Amir where
Timur’s remains lie amid a scene eloquent in its simple grandeur.
Although, unfortunately, this building has been spoilt by attempts
at restoration, its encrusted tiles are as beautiful as when they
were made, 400 years ago. Here, too, is the resting-place of the Shah
Zindeh; and in its Urda or ancient citadel, now a weak, bastioned fort,
is the Kok Tash--the coronation-stone of the descendants of Timur.
The charm of the Gur Amir is supreme. Within its dome, before the
horse-hair standard, the sheer force of association and the infinite
suggestion of the spot make one feel the great presence of this
renowned soldier. Beneath the cupola there is a nephrite cenotaph;
perhaps, as Colonel C. E. de la Poer Beresford has said, the largest
block of green jade in the world.[5] Close to it other tombs, lighter
in colour, are erected to the memory of Ulug Beg and Mir Sayid, Timur’s
grandson and tutor. Around these is a carved gypsum balustrade and
in the crypt below, under a simple brick-tomb, lies the vanquisher
of Toktamish Khan, of Sultan Bayazid, of Persia, the Caucasus and
India--Timur himself.
[Illustration: SAMARKAND--THE HOUR OF PRAYER]
In its economic aspect Samarkand occupies a very important position.
Although scarcely serving as a mart to the produce of British India and
Afghanistan, it is nevertheless a great emporium of trade. The roads,
leading to the town or from it, as the case may be, are an index of
its wide-reaching commercial influence. They run from Samarkand to
Karki on the Amu Daria; and to Tashkent _viâ_ Jizak; while Khojand,
Khokand, Namangan, Andijan, Margelan and Osh are all in direct
communication with it. Caravans from the east and north, from Persia
and from China, carts perched on two gigantic wheels or transport
bullocks laden with skins, even sheep carrying small packages--all are
impressed into service and seem to be revolving in a constant stream
round Samarkand. There is a steady traffic and the numerous bazaars
are the centre of a brisk trade in skins and pelts. Unlike the bazaars
of Bokhara, along the sides of which the merchants have their stalls,
the passage-ways are open to the heavens. After the wonderful picture
of Asiatic life presented by Bokhara, there are those who complain of
a feeling of disappointment at the more subdued current which flows
through Samarkand. Nevertheless the town has a charming setting. The
snow-peaks of the Hissar chain and the curtain of enchanting fields
and spreading vineyards, which hides the hideous aspect of the Kara
Kum, add to the pleasure which is derived from the delicate mingling
of the colours of the street life. There is, indeed, a very special
type found in the bazaars of Bokhara and Samarkand. Dressed in the
choicest of silks, so soft that it suggests the rustle of the wind
through the peach-trees and dyed in tones of yellow, green and brown,
in shades of magenta and purple, in a note of blue reflecting the sky
or touched with the blush of a red rose, are men of fine stature. They
move with their long-skirted gowns clasped at the waist and their
silken trousers tucked into brown, untanned boots, the seams of which
are delicately embroidered. Every individual reserves to himself a most
exclusive manner, representing the embodiment of dignity. There is such
an air of contentment about the gaily-clad crowd as it passes from
stall to stall; such perfect self-possession, suggested humility and
independence that the difference in size between Bokhara and Samarkand
goes unnoticed; the atmosphere being no less pleasing, the picture no
less acceptable, in the smaller city than in the capital.
[Illustration: SAMARKAND--A BIRD’S-EYE VIEW]
As the administrative focus of the Syr Daria province Tashkent
is the principal city of Russian Turkestan and the seat of the
Governor-General. The Russian quarter at once recalls memories of
other spheres of Central Asia. The streets are wide and long. Dusty
but much frequented, they are bordered by high, white poplars set in
double rows, while upon each side there run the gurgling waters of the
irrigation canals. The city is laid out in a sector of a circle, three
great boulevards radiating from the cathedral, a handsome, octagonal
building in freestone. Surmounted by the dome and golden cross, which
mark in Russia all Orthodox places of worship, it occupies the centre
of Konstantinovski Square. It contains the remains of General von
Kauffman, Governor-General of Russian Turkestan between 1867 and 1882
and, incidentally, conqueror of Khiva in 1873 and of Samarkand in 1868.
He died May 4, 1882.
[Illustration: SOBORNAYA BOULEVARD IN TASHKENT]
Tashkent, situated upon the slopes of the Tian Shan 172 sagenes above
sea-level, lies in the midst of an extensive oasis whose fertile acres
are watered by the river Chirchik and its tributaries. January is
the coldest month, while July is the hottest. The prevailing breezes
are north and north-east; but the characteristic peculiarity of the
climate is the absence of wind, which makes the high temperature in the
summer particularly oppressive. Spring weather begins in March; the
hot season, commencing in May, continues until the middle of August.
Speaking generally the place possesses the attributes of the climate in
the plains of Central Asia while distinguished by its greater yearly
rain-fall--384 millimètres--in consequence of the proximity of the
mountains. The drinking water question, an ever-attendant difficulty
in Central Asia, is no less acute in Tashkent, constituting a serious
drawback to conditions of life there. An ample supply of water is
available for irrigation, the Chirchik river, as well as numerous wells
and springs, being diverted for this purpose.
The Russian quarter, founded in 1865 after the capture of the native
town from the Khan of Khokand upon June 15 by the Russian forces under
General Chernaieff, is separated from the native by the Angar canal.
It is divided into official and residential areas, and contains many
large streets. The Sobornaya, in which are situated the best shops,
is perhaps more animated than any other thoroughfare in the town,
while the Romanovski Street, which crosses the official quarter, is
devoted principally to the Government offices. Three wide streets--the
Gospitalnaya, Dukhovskaya, and the Kailuski Prospekt--along which it
is proposed to erect business premises, also run from this quarter
to the station. The residential part is of much later construction;
its population is more scattered, the houses are surrounded with
dense gardens and the streets are wider. The houses in each section
are, for the most part, single storeyed. The chief public works are
the Alexandrovski Park, Konstantinovski Square, Gorodskoi Garden and
the gardens surrounding the residence of the Governor-General. The
Turkestan Public Library, founded by General von Kauffman with the
object of furthering the education of the country, now contains more
than 40,000 volumes.
The following table shows the existing statistics of the Russian
quarter:
Military club 1
General club 1
Houses 3776
Schools 22
Orthodox churches 10
Protestant church 1
Synagogues 3
Sunnite mosques 17
The town revenues for 1902 were as follows:
_Revenue._ _Expenditure._
427,572 roubles. Police 90,599
Local administration 67,867
General expenditure 269,106
-------
Roubles 427,572
The permanent garrison is never less than 10,000 men. Barracks and
store-house accommodation for military supplies abound in the place.
Between the spacious station and the Russian city, a distance of
one verst, there are very commodious infantry quarters. A long row
of buildings, somewhat more remote and erected upon slightly rising
ground, contains the lines of the Cossack establishment. The climate of
Tashkent is too unhealthy to be endured in the hot weather. In summer
the garrison moves to Chigman, a defile 671 sagenes above sea-level,
situated 80 or 90 versts beyond the town on the river Chirchik, where
there is a sanatorium for the troops. The families of the officers
usually pass the season at the village of Troitzki, 25 versts from
Tashkent. Five versts from the city is Nikolski, the first Russian
settlement founded in the Syr Daria province. Lying between it and
the Russian town is the native quarter. Recalling Andijan, Margelan,
Khokand and Osh, it lacks the animation of the streets of Bokhara and
is destitute of the architectural beauties of Samarkand. Surrounded on
three sides by gardens, the fourth side touches the Russian town with
which it is connected, as also with the station, by means of a horse
tramway. It is divided into four parts called respectively Kukchinski,
Sibzyarski, Shaikhantaurski and Bish Agatchski. Each is separated into
districts, these sub-divisions totalling 206 in all.
The two quarters of Tashkent occupy to-day an area of 20 square versts.
Forty years ago the site of the Russian settlement covered no more
ground than that required by the village which contained the garrison.
This original section has now disappeared, becoming merged as time
passed and the colony expanded with the Fortress Esplanade, while the
population has similarly increased. In May 1871 the combined figures of
the native and Russian colony gave only 2701 inhabitants. In 1897 the
census returns showed the population to be:
_Natives._ _Russians._
131,414 25,000
Total 156,414
These figures, particularly in connection with the Russian colony,
exhibit a gradual increase throughout the period intervening between
the census of 1897 and that in 1901, when the returns were as follows:
1901.
_Russians._ _Natives._
Men 16,416 Men 70,903
Women 16,926 Women 59,019
------ -------
Total 33,342 Total 129,922
In greater detail the population of the native quarter was composed as
follows:
Russians 109
Persians 18
British Indian subjects 38
Jews 543
Tartars 420
Kirghiz 378
Sarts 128,406
Afghans 10
In the native area there were:
Houses (private) 17,164
Shops 45,000
Mosques 328
Mektebs 242
Medresses 24
Russian native schools 6
Although the importance of Merv, as a military district, has increased
since the Orenburg-Tashkent railway was opened the numbers of the
resident population continue to decline. This proceeds from the
unhealthy conditions that obtain locally. Malaria, the most prevalent
complaint, runs a very level course throughout the year. Between July
and November it becomes exceptionally virulent; and a recent Medical
Commission returned the causes of the sickness in Merv as due solely
to the presence of a specific organism which, passing from the soil
into the water, was absorbed by the inhabitants. So rife is the disease
that it is estimated that not one person escapes its attacks in the
course of the year. The highest sick-rate occurs between the months
of July and November, when it is responsible for 80 per cent. of the
“Daily State” in the garrison and district hospitals. Merv malaria
generally attacks the liver and kidneys, rapidly affecting the spleen.
Every effort has been made to cope with its ravages. Among the attempts
was a scheme for the introduction of a new system of irrigation and
the purification of the water system, to which the Minister of War
assigned 63,000 roubles. Hitherto the drinking-water, derived from the
Murghab, has been altogether unfit for consumption. Apart from possible
contamination in the sources of the water-supply, there is no doubt
that much of the malaria in Merv arises from constant displacement
of soil in the oasis; similar conditions prevail, usually for three
or four years, in all tropical and semi-tropical countries whenever
agricultural or other development requires the breaking of ground.
[Illustration: BAZAAR SCENE]
Certain features encountered in Merv--such as groups of chaffering
natives, clusters of small, open shops, dusty trees, open drains and
sweltering heat--are strangely reminiscent of India, but the absence
of punkahs and the high price of ice prove that the Russians in Central
Asia are indifferent to comfort. Even the hotels make no attempt
to relieve the effect of the temperature; while, in general, the
houses are built without verandahs and the windows are unfitted with
_jalousies_. Within the houses, too, conditions are most trying, the
policy of every one being to admit the flies and exclude the air. Trade
manages to thrive; and a weekly market is held on Mondays upon a plain
to the east of the town. Thither all roads converge; thronged with
two-wheeled Persian carts, ill-fed baggage horses burdened with goods,
and gurgling camels. Standing solitary and forlorn is the patient ass
whose lament is so eloquently described by Mr. Shoemaker, where that
author says:
Oh, my brother from that far western land where even
a little ass like me has some chance to sleep in quiet,
blame me not, I beseech you, that I weep. You have seen
how dignified and self-contained my brethren are in Egypt;
but there we never carry more than two of the heathen at
the most, whereas here, you see, it is always three and
sometimes four; therefore I weep, oh my brother, and will
not be comforted.
Fair days in the town bazaars are held upon Sundays and Thursdays,
when the Hebrew, Persian and Armenian merchants are surrounded by
crowds of Tekkes from neighbouring villages. Disposed for sale are
the innumerable commodities of the Middle East--rice from Meshed;
fruits from Samarkand; silk, sweetmeats and velvet from Bokhara; cheap
cutlery, trinkets, leather goods and samovars from Russia; beautiful
embroidery and shawls from the stores of the wealthier merchants;
carpets from Herat; sheepskins from the country-side; plough-shares
and knives from local forges; and relics of Old Merv. Prices are high;
but the Turcomans make their purchases very willingly, unconscious of
the contrast between their present peaceful demeanour and the attitude
which distinguished them when they were robbers of the countryside.
Apart from the garrison the population numbers less than 5000,
including:
_Races._ _Total._
Russians 2297
Armenians 609
Sarts 167
Tartars 85
Khivans 36
Afghans 33
Germans 38
Persians 838
Jews 225
Gruzenes 63
Tekkes 33
Bokharans 56
Ersaris 41
Poles 30
The revenues derived from the native town amount to 42,000 roubles a
year and the volume of business annually turned over is a little short
of 100,000 roubles. The prosperity of the place is attested by the
individual wealth of merchants attending the bazaars. Many of these
men live in spacious houses, the majority of the natives frequenting
the bazaar being well-to-do and apparently contented. Trade is brisk
and, as the Russians have imposed but a few taxes and the Turcomans
are exempt from military service, no particular difficulty attends the
earning of the daily wage.
[Illustration: BREAKING CAMP ON MANŒUVRES, TASHKENT]
It is said occasionally that the disasters which attended Russia in
Manchuria have stimulated the ambitions and desires of the Mahommedan
population of Asiatic Russia to throw off the yoke of Muscovite rule.
Hence it is possible that the reading of the existing situation in
Central Asia, which is here presented, may not be accepted. In point
of fact, the Mahommedan attitude towards Russian rule in Mid-Asia has
no relation whatever to the outcome of the late war in Manchuria; nor
was it influenced in any way by the developments of that unfortunate
struggle. Contrary belief is based upon the impression that the animus
entertained against the Russians by the races of British India, where
it is now assumed by the ignorant and very foolish that Russian arms
would be at once defeated in any Indo-Russian conflict, exists equally
among the Mahommedan population of Asiatic Russia. The comfortable
acceptance of this doctrine of Indian superiority--one of the most
amusing and dangerous fallacies of public opinion--shows the need
of more discriminating criticism, upon the character of Russian
administration of native races in Central Asia, to distinguish all
shades of public and Indian opinion. The Russians are no less careful
of the several peoples that find refuge under their rule than our own
authorities, a fact which, unfortunately, we are inclined to ignore
in our estimate of their present position through a conceit which
inspires Anglo-Indians to regard British administration of native races
as heaven-born. The opinion in reference to the Russo-Japanese War is
equally erroneous; because, while it is known that our Indian subjects
had recourse to all reports upon it and thus were at liberty to arrive
at their preposterous conclusions, native opinion in Central Asia knew
almost nothing of its course, character and result. Even if suspicions
of the actual results were entertained, the constant display of troops,
which was made in all Central Asiatic centres of importance during the
progress of the campaign, would have dispelled the belief that the
Russian military resources were straitened. Apart from this fact, the
public in Central Asia were supplied only with those versions of the
truth which were most acceptable--and useful--to the Russian _amour
propre_. It will be seen, therefore, that wherever Mahommedan feeling
may be opposed in the Tsar’s Asiatic dominions to Russian domination,
such sentiment is spontaneous and as deeply rooted or easily appeased
as the circumstances, which may have excited it, dictate. It is well
to understand this phase of the situation in Central Asia since, in
itself, it is very significant.
Merv, perhaps, is a case in point. On the surface the aspect of affairs
there is placid enough; but the Russians in Central Asia have read
so many effective lessons to their subject races that at best opinion
upon the possible chances of an outbreak is a blind hazard. Doubtless
religious and racial prejudices are smouldering; yet, if there is any
feeling of discontent, it must arise from an animosity born of pure
fanaticism. Certainly the Russian rule in Mid-Asia is tolerant--now
that the lesson has been taught--and there is neither religious nor
educational interference. Moreover trade, fostered by very careful
protection, prospers; and at least one secret of success in any Central
Asian system of government is to let well alone and appeal to the
vulgar through their pocket. This principle the Russians support with
admirable patience, taking precautions at the same time that their
benevolent administration shall not be endangered by too much licence
in the matter of importing or possessing arms. A native rising would
be difficult upon this account alone; while it should be remembered,
too, that many years of leisured ease have brought about considerable
deterioration in the instinctive passion for rape, bloodshed and
plunder, which distinguished, only a few years ago, the inhabitants of
these Central Asian Khanates.
Again, always pre-supposing the steady loyalty of the great bulk of the
European troops, Russia has not enrolled any large number of native
recruits in regions beyond the Caspian Sea; although her policy in the
Caucasus has not been quite so exclusive. The success of any native
insurrectionary movement in Trans-Caspia would depend, therefore, upon
the precise amount of support that it received from any disaffected
sections of the Caucasian establishment that might be incorporated
with the Russo-European army on service in the Khanates. No doubt the
wide area covered by the rebellion in the Caucasus will encourage the
Caucasian element in the Trans-Caspian army to be troublesome; and,
since the Caucasian races in a measure are akin with the Central Asian
peoples, mutual sympathy may give rise to positive revolt in Central
Asia. Between the European soldiers and the native races, however,
there is little in common; and unless revolutionary agents from St.
Petersburg, Moscow or the larger centres of disturbance contaminate the
adherence of the men, there is really nothing to cause them to listen
to any seditious overtures which might emanate from native sources.
It is very easy in Central Asia to remove the rails of the permanent
way or to interrupt telegraphic communication, since the railway and
the wires run for hundreds of miles unguarded and at the mercy of any
wandering, discontented miscreant. Such instances of disaffection
would be sporadic. Difficulties of combination--if the great distances
separating Khiva, Merv, Bokhara and Tashkent were ignored, which they
cannot be if the position of affairs is to be appraised properly--would
alone prevent any simultaneous co-operation; while whatever unanimity
might be disclosed by actively hostile parties of native or European
revolutionaries, the forces at the disposal of the military authorities
must enable them to suppress the movement rapidly and at once.
Of course the agitation in European Russia cannot leave Russians in
Central Asia unaffected; continuation of the widespread irruptions of
disorder in European Russia obviously imparts a new and most serious
complexion to affairs in Asiatic Russia. Moreover signs of unrest,
in consequence of interference by revolutionary agents from St.
Petersburg, have already been displayed. At Askhabad the officers were
locked in their quarters; at Kushkinski Post 200 soldiers joined in a
strike of railway and telegraph officials. Further, at the instigation
of Sokoloff an engineer and Simonoff an engine-fitter, a variety of
farcical intentions were proclaimed, the main outcome of this signal
act of rebellion culminating in a little temporary dislocation of the
railway and telegraph services and the arrest of the ringleaders. None
the less, the activity of these revolutionary agents does constitute
a possible menace to the peace of Mid-Asia; for, while the native
population recks little of the wiles of European agitators and can
be overawed by the authorities, the situation, where it concerns the
ultimate effect of the revolutionary propaganda upon the Russo-European
army, rests upon the knees of the gods. There, unfortunately, it
must remain; emphasising the fact that, on account of the means of
checking the dissemination of revolutionary heresies and the growth
of the operations of the agitators in Central Asia which the Russian
authorities have at hand, the chances are much against any violent or
widespread upheaval of the peace in these territories.
[5] Lecture before the Central Asian Society, December
1905.
[Illustration: NATIVE QUARTER, TASHKENT]