§ 1. Numbers of positive and negative cases in the three agricultural
groups 292
§ 2. Development of agricultural and development of slavery 293
Slavery considerably more frequent among agriculturists of the
higher stages than among hunting agriculturists 294.—Hunting
agriculturists bear a strong resemblance to hunters 294.—Yet many
hunting agriculturists keep slaves; this will have to be accounted
for by secondary causes 296.—Slavery does not appear to be more
frequent among fishing than among hunting agriculturists 296.
§ 3. Capital and labour among agricultural tribes 297
Where agriculture is carried on without the aid of domestic
animals, subsistence does not depend on capital 297.—One apparent
exception 297.—Agriculture does not require any peculiar skill
298.—Compulsion the only means, in primitive agricultural
societies, of getting labourers 298.—Adam Smith’s view 299.—Cairnes
on cultivation by slaves and by peasant proprietors 299.—Cairnes’
argument does not hold with regard to primitive slavery
301.—“Retail” and “wholesale slavery” 301.
§ 4. Land and population 302
The general rule of the last paragraph does not obtain where all
land has been appropriated 303.—Cairnes’ view 303.—Here again
Cairnes’ argument does not apply to primitive slavery 304.—Loria’s
argument 304.—Loria’s reasoning is not correct in all details, but
in the main he is right 306.—Wakefield’s argument derived from the
conditions of life in the colonies 306.—Merivale on colonization
308.—We shall only speak of self-dependent agricultural countries
310.—Meaning of “appropriation” 310.—Criteria from which we may
infer whether all land has been appropriated 311.—Meaning of “land
fit for cultivation” 312.—We shall confine ourselves to a survey of
land tenure in Oceania 313.—Slavery in Oceania has never prevailed
to any great extent. We shall try to account for this by all land
having been appropriated 314.
§ 5. Land tenure in Polynesia 314
On most Polynesian islands all land has, or had been appropriated.
In Samoa, New Zealand and Savage Island there was still free land.
Manahiki is a doubtful case.
§ 6. Land tenure in Micronesia 321
Almost everywhere in Micronesia all land is held as property.
Mortlock is perhaps an exception.
§ 7. Land tenure in Melanesia 324
On most of the Melanesian islands clearing is a modus acquirendi,
which proves that there is still free land. In Fiji all land has
been appropriated.
§ 8. Landlords, tenants and labourers in Oceania 328
Wherever in Oceania all land is held as property, there are nearly
always people destitute of land 328.—The principal cause of this
fact is probably the arbitrary conduct of chiefs and nobles, who
appropriate the land of their enemies 329,—and even that belonging
to their own subjects 331.—Condition of the lowest classes
destitute of land. They perform the drudgery for the landlords, and
are sometimes heavily oppressed 333.—In Melanesia there are no
subjected lower classes, except in Fiji 338.—Subjected lower
classes exist nearly always where all land is held as property, and
are not found where there is still free land 341.—In some parts of
Oceania the great depopulation has enabled many of the lower orders
to obtain land 341.—The labouring classes of Oceania are not
attached to the soil, but, being destitute of land, are obliged to
apply to the landlords for employment 342.—Position of foreigners
342.—Over-population 343.—Skilled labourers are in a much better
position and sometimes held in high esteem 343.—Oceanic labourers
as compared with debtor-slaves: the former are compelled to work
for others by circumstances, the latter by social regulations
344.—The state of labourers in Oceania would even be worse, but
that they are employed in warfare 345.
§ 9. Transition from serfdom to freedom in Western Europa 346
Our theory must also hold with regard to civilized countries: as
soon as all land is held as property slavery must disappear
347.—Wakefield’s opinion 347.—We shall not enter into a thorough
investigation of this subject 347.—We limit our remarks to England
and Germany 348.—Slavery in Western Europe 348.—Our argument
applies to serfdom as well as slavery, for serfdom too is a system
of compulsory labour 348.—Serfs and free tenants; Freizügigkeit
349.—Inaccurate use of the term “free tenants” 350.—Commutation of
services for money not identical with transition from serfdom to
freedom 351.—Hildebrand’s theory: natural economy leads to serfdom,
money economy leads to freedom 352.—Why this theory is erroneous
354.—Hildebrand’s theory has been accepted by several writers 362.
§ 10. The rural classes of medieval England 362
In the 11th century land was still abundant and servile labour
prevailed; rent in the modern sense and free labourers dependent on
wages were wanting 363.—During the 12th and 13th centuries the
population increased and land became more scarce. Disafforesting
controversy. Free tenants. Commutation. The landlords become mere
receivers of rent instead of agricultural entrepreneurs. Free
labourers 364.—The Black Death of 1349. Labour becomes scarce, much
land goes out of tillage. Oppression of villeins by landlords.
Assessment of wages. The stock and land lease 366.—1450–1550. Rise
of sheep farming. Disastrous consequences: labourers thrown out of
employment, commons and holdings of villeins inclosed and
appropriated by the lords, depopulation, rise of pauperism
369.—Disappearance of serfdom. Copyhold 372.—Conclusion 372.
§ 11. The rural classes of medieval Germany 373
Merovingian period. Most of the land is covered with forests. A few
slaves and lites; most cultivators are peasant proprietors
373.—Carolingian period. Much land is taken into cultivation, yet
land remains abundant. Absorption of the free peasants by the great
proprietors; rise of serfdom and manorial economy. “Freemen
destitute of land” 374.—10th–12th centuries. Rise in the value of
land. The whole of the population can still secure land to live
upon. The class of peasant proprietors disappears. The use of
labour becomes less. Free tenants arise, but free labourers are
still wanting 375.—13th and 14th centuries. Extension of the arable
area. More value than before is attached to uncultivated land.
Rights of common restricted. Scarcity of meat. The use of labour
continues diminishing. Lords set serfs free in their own interest.
Bauernlegen. Free tenants. Obligations become territorial. Free
servants and agricultural labourers 378.—15th century.
Over-population. Reappearance of slavery (?) 380.—16th century.
Evictions 382.—Serfdom in Eastern Germany. Conclusion 382.
§ 12. Open and closed resources 383
Slavery, as an industrial system, is not likely to exist where
subsistence depends on material resources which are present in
limited quantity 384.—All the peoples of the earth can be divided
into peoples with open, and with closed resources. Definition of
these terms. Generally speaking, among the former only can a system
of compulsory labour (slavery or serfdom) exist 385.—Savages with
open and with closed resources 386.—Closed resources in present
Western Europe 386.—Lange on open and closed countries
386.—Regarding secondary causes we shall not enter into many
details 387.
§ 13. Condition of women 388
Slaves often perform domestic, i.e. female labour. Compare Rome and
Mohammedan countries 388.—Domestic labour is not probably among any
agricultural tribe the chief business of all slaves 389.—Slaves
help the women in agricultural labour 389.—“Slavery of women”
389.—Melanesian women held in a slave-like state 389.—Though the
absence of slavery is perhaps one of the causes of this subjection
of women, the latter again prevents the rise of slavery 393.
§ 14. Commerce 393
Numbers of positive and negative cases among commercial
agricultural tribes 394.—The term “commercial tribes” used in a
wide sense 394.—Commerce furthers the slave-trade, requires more
work than would otherwise be wanted, and renders development of
wealth possible 394.—The last point is very important. Luxury
arises: the wants of the slave-owners, and accordingly the use of
slave labour, become practically unlimited 394.—“Wholesale slavery”
in the United States, and among some tribes of Africa and India
395.—We know little as yet of the general effects of trade
397.—Manufactured goods and raw products 397.—Three categories of
commercial tribes 397.—Significance of trade 397.
§ 15. Slaves employed in warfare 398
Instances 398.—Slaves are generally excluded from military pursuits
399.—Causes 399.—Only among some agriculturists of the higher
stages are slaves employed in warfare 400.—The coercive power of
hunting agriculturists is not great enough to admit of the
employment of slaves in warfare 400.—Where political institutions
are more highly developed, employment of slaves in the army becomes
practicable 401.—Military function of slaves in ancient Rome
401.—Slaves holding high offices of state 402.
§ 16. Slaves kept as a luxury 403
The possession of many slaves is indicative of wealth and therefore
considered an honour 403.—Slaves and cattle almost the only luxury
of primitive times 404.—But this does not prove that slaves are a
mere luxury 404.—In many countries part of the slaves are not
productively employed 405,—but we have not found any instance of
none of the slaves being employed for productive labour 405.
§ 17. Other secondary internal causes 406
Preserving of food as a circumstance furthering the growth of
slavery calls for no special remark here 406.—Subjection of tribes
does not seem to occur outside Oceania, except among
cattle-breeding agriculturists 406.—The reason is the insufficiency
of the military power of agricultural savages 407.
§ 18. External causes, especially the slave-trade. Recapitulation. 407
Fixed habitations, living in large groups, and preserving of food
call for no remark here 407.—The slave-trade. Geographical survey
408.—Most slave-keeping agricultural savages are found in those
parts where the slave-trade has been carried on by civilized and
semi-civilized peoples 411.—These savages could not have adopted
slavery, if it were inconsistent with their mode of life
411.—Effect of the slave-trade: it makes the keeping of slaves much
easier, and breaks the vis inertiae 412.—Vicinity of inferior races
does not seem to have any considerable influence here
414.—Recapitulation of the causes of slavery among agricultural
tribes 415.