part of the chuck-rib and neck of beef, are the parts most commonly used
for stewing. All meat for stews should be carefully dressed and free
from blood. Those portions which have bone and fat, as well as lean
beef, make much better-flavored stews than pieces which are wholly lean.
The bones, however, should not be crushed or splintered, but carefully
sawed or broken, and any small pieces removed before cooking. It is
generally considered that beef which has been previously browned makes a
much more savory stew, and it is quite customary first to brown the meat
by frying in hot fat. A much more wholesome method, and one which will
have the same effect as to flavor, is to add to the stew the remnants of
roasts or steak. It is well when selecting meat for a stew to procure a
portion, which, like the aitch-bone, has enough juicy meat upon it to
serve the first day as a roast for a small family. Cut the meat for a
stew into small pieces suitable for serving, add boiling water, and cook
as directed on page 396. Remove all pieces of bone and the fat before
serving. If the stew is made of part cooked and part uncooked meat, the
cooked meat should not be added until the stew is nearly done. The
liquor, if not of the proper consistency when the meat is tender, may be
thickened by adding a little flour braided in cold water, cooking these
after four or five minutes.
MUTTON.
The strong flavor of mutton is said to be due to the oil from the wool,
which penetrates the skin, or is the result, through heedlessness or
ignorance of the butcher, in allowing the wool to come in contact with
the flesh. There is a quite perceptible difference in the flavor of
mutton from a sheep which had been for some time sheared of its woolly
coat and that from one having a heavy fleece.
The smallest proportion of both fat and bone to muscle is found in the
leg; consequently this is the most valuable portion for food, and is
likewise the most economical, being available for many savory dishes. On
account of the disagreeable adhesive qualities of its fat when cold,
mutton should always be served hot.
_RECIPES._
BOILED LEG OF MUTTON.--Wipe carefully, remove the fat, and put into
boiling water. Skim, and cook as directed on page 395, twelve minutes
for each pound.
BROILED CHOPS.--The best-flavored and most tender chops are those
from the loins. Remove carefully all the pink skin above the fat,
scraping it off if possible without cutting into the lean. Wipe with a
wet cloth, and broil in the same manner as beefsteak over hot coals or
in a hot skillet, turning frequently until done; five or eight minutes
will suffice to cook. Sprinkle salt on each side, drain on paper, and
serve hot.
POT-ROAST LAMB.--For this purpose a stone jar or pot is best,
although iron or granite-ware will do; wipe the meat well and gash with
a sharp knife. If crowded closely in the pot, all the better; cover with
a lid pressed down firmly with a weight to hold it if it does not fit
tightly. No water is needed, and no steam should be allowed to escape
during the cooking. Roast four or five hours in a moderate oven.
ROAST MUTTON.--The best pieces for this purpose are those obtained
from the shoulder, and saddle, loin, and haunches. Wipe carefully, sear
the cut surfaces, and proceed as directed for roasting beef. Cook slowly
without basting, and unless desired rare, allow twenty-five or thirty
minutes to the pound. A leg of mutton requires a longer time to roast
than a shoulder. When sufficiently roasted, remove from the pan and
drain off all the grease.
STEWED MUTTON.--Pieces from the neck and shoulder are most suitable
for this purpose. Prepare the meat, and stew as directed for beef,
although less time is usually required.
STEWED MUTTON CHOP.--Wipe, trim off the fat, and remove the bone
from two or three pounds of chops. Put into the inner dish of a double
boiler with just enough hot water to cover; add a minced stalk of
celery, a carrot, and a white turnip cut in dice; cover, and cook until
the chops are tender. Sliced potato may be added if liked, when the meat
is nearly done. Remove the grease and thicken the liquor with a little
browned flour braided with thin cream.
STEWED MUTTON CHOP NO. 2.--Prepare the chops as in the preceding.
Place a layer of meat in a deep baking dish, and then a layer of sliced
potato, sprinkled with a little minced celery. Add two or more layers of
meat, alternating with layers of potatoes. Cover with boiling water and
bake closely covered in a very moderate oven two and a half hours.
VEAL AND LAMB.--Both veal and lamb should be thoroughly cooked;
otherwise they are not wholesome. They may be prepared for the tale in
the same way as beef or mutton, but will require longer time for
cooking.
POULTRY AND GAME.
Poultry and game differ from other animal foods in the relative quantity
of fat and the quality of their juices. The fat of birds is laid up
underneath the skin and in various internal parts of the body, while but
a small proportion is mingled with the fibers or the juices of the
flesh. The flesh of the chicken, turkey, and guinea-fowl is more
delicately flavored, more tender and easy to digest, than that of geese
and ducks. Chickens broiled require three hours for digestion; when
boiled or roasted, four hours are needed.
The flesh of poultry is less stimulating than beef, and is thus
considered better adapted for invalids. The flesh of wild fowl contains
less fat than that of poultry; it is also tender and easy of digestion.
Different birds and different parts of the same bird, vary considerably
in color and taste. The breed, food, and method of fattening, influence
the quality of this class of foods. Fowls poorly fed and allowed wide
range are far from cleanly in their habits of eating; in fact, they are
largely scavengers, and through the food they pick up, often become
infested with internal parasites, and affected with tuberculosis and
other diseases which are liable to be communicated to those who eat
their flesh.
SUGGESTIONS FOR THE SELECTION OF POULTRY AND GAME.--The first care
in the selection of poultry should be its freedom from disease. Birds
deprived of exercise, shut up in close cages, and regularly stuffed with
as much corn or soft food as they can swallow, may possess the requisite
fatness, but it is of a most unwholesome character. When any living
creature ceases to exercise, its excretory organs cease to perform their
functions thoroughly, and its body becomes saturated with retained
excretions.
A stall-fed fowl may be recognized by the color of its fat, which is
pale white, and lies in thick folds beneath the skin along the lower
half of the backbone. The entire surface of the body presents a more
greasy, uninviting appearance than that of fowls permitted to live under
natural conditions.
Never purchase fowls which have been sent to the market undrawn. All
animals intended for use as food should be dressed as quickly as
possible after killing. Putrefactive changes begin very soon after
death, and the liver and other viscera, owing to their soft texture and
to the quantity of venous blood they retain, advance rapidly in
decomposition. When a fowl or animal is killed, even if the large
arteries at the throat are cut, a large quantity of blood remains in and
around the intestines, owing to the fact that only through the
capillaries of the liver can the blood in the portal system find its way
into the large vessels which convey it to the heart, and which at death
are cut off from the general circulation at both ends by a capillary
system. This leaves the blood-vessels belonging to the portal
circulation distended with venous blood, which putrefies very quickly,
forming a virulent poison. The contents of the intestines of all
creatures are always in a more or less advanced state of putrescence,
ready to undergo rapid decomposition as soon as the preservative action
of the intestinal fluids ceases. It will readily be seen, then, that
the flesh of an undrawn fowl must be to a greater or less degree
permeated with the poisonous gases and other products of putrefaction,
and is certainly quite unfit for food.
Young fowls have soft, yellow feet, a smooth, moist skin, easily torn
with a pin, wings which will spring easily, and a breastbone which will
yield to pressure. Pinfeathers are an indication of a young bird; older
fowls are apt to have sharp scales, long hairs, long, thin necks, and
flesh with a purplish tinge.
Poultry should be entirely free from disagreeable odors. Methods are
employed for sweetening fowls which have been kept too long in market,
but if they need such attention, bury them decently rather than cook
them for the table.
Turkeys should have clear, full eyes, and soft, loose spurs. The legs of
young birds are smooth and black; those of older ones, rough and
reddish.
Geese and ducks, when freshly killed, have supple feet. If young, the
windpipe and beak can be easily broken by pressure of the thumb and
forefinger. Young birds also have soft, white fat, tender skin, yellow
feet, and legs free from hairs.
The legs of young pigeons are flesh-colored. When in good condition, the
breast should be full and plump, and if young, it is of a light reddish
color. Old pigeons have dark flesh; squabs always have pinfeathers.
Partridges, when young, have dark bills and yellow legs.
The breast of all birds should be full and plump. Birds which are
diseased always fall away on the breast, and the bone feels sharp and
protrudes.
TO DRESS POULTRY AND BIRDS.--First strip off the feathers a few at
a time, with a quick, jerking motion toward the tail. Remove pinfeathers
with a knife.
Fowls should be picked, if possible, while the body retains some warmth,
as scalding is apt to spoil the skin and parboil the flesh. When all the
feathers but the soft down have been removed, a little hot water may be
poured on, when the down can be easily rubbed off with the palm of the
hand. Wipe dry, and singe the hairs off by holding the bird by the legs
over the flame of a candle, a gas-jet, or a few drops of alcohol poured
on a plate and lighted. To dress a bird successfully, one should have
some knowledge of its anatomy, and it is well for the amateur first to
dress one for some dish in which it is not to be cooked whole, when the
bird may be opened, and the position of its internal organs studied.
Remove the head, slip the skin back from the neck, and cut it off close
to the body, take out the windpipe and pull out the crop from the end of
the neck. Make an incision through the skin a little below the
leg-joint, bend the leg at this point and break off the bone. If care
has been taken to cut only through the skin, the tendons of the leg may
now be easily removed with the fingers.
If the bird is to be cut up, remove the legs and wings at the joints.
Then beginning near the vent, cut the membrane down between the
breastbone and tail to the backbone on each side, and separate just
below the ribs. The internal organs can now been seen and easily
removed, and the body of the bird divided at its joints.
If desired to keep the fowl whole, after removing the windpipe and crop,
loosen the heart, liver, and lungs by introducing the forefinger at the
neck; cut off the oil-sack, make a slit horizontally under the tail,
insert the first and middle fingers, and after separating the membranes
which lie close to the body, press them along within the body until the
heart and liver can be felt. The gall bladder lies directly under the
left lobe of the liver, and if the fingers are kept up, and all
adhesions loosened before an effort is made to draw the organs out,
there will be little danger of breaking it. Remove everything which can
be taken out, then hold the, fowl under the faucet and cleanse
thoroughly.
TO TRUSS A FOWL OR BIRD.--Twist the tips of the wings back under
the shoulder and bend the legs as far up toward the breast as possible,
securing them in that position by putting a skewer through one thigh
into the body and out through the opposite thigh. Then bring the legs
down and fasten close to the vent.
TO STUFF A FOWL.--Begin at the neck, stuff the breast full, draw
the neck skin together, double it over on the back and fasten with a
darning needle threaded with fine twine. Put the remainder of the
stuffing into the body at the other opening.
_RECIPES._
BIRDS BAKED IN SWEET POTATOES.--Small birds, of which the breast is
the only suitable portion for eating, may be baked in the following
manner: Cut a sweet potato lengthwise; make a cavity in each half. Place
the breast of the bird therein; fit, and tie together carefully; bake
until the potato is soft. Serve in the potato.
BOILED FOWL.--After cleaning and dividing the fowl, put into
boiling water, and proceed as directed on page 395.
BROILED BIRDS.--Pluck and wipe clean with a damp cloth. Split down
the middle of the back, and carefully draw the bird. Proceed as directed
below.
BROILED FOWL.--A young bird well dressed and singed is best for
this purpose. Split down the middle of the back, wipe clean with a damp
cloth, twist the top of the wings from the second joint; spread out
flat, and with a rolling pin break the projecting breastbone so that the
bird will lie flat upon the broiler. When ready to cook, place it skin
uppermost and sear the under side by pressing it on a hot pan; then
broil the same as beefsteak over glowing coals.
CORN AND CHICKEN.--Clean and divide a chicken in joints. Stew in
milk or part milk and water until nearly tender; then add the grains and
juice from a dozen ears of corn. Cook slowly until the corn is done;
season lightly with salt, and serve with dry toast.
PIGEONS, QUAILS, AND PARTRIDGES may be half baked, then cooked as
directed for Smothered Chicken until tender.
ROAST CHICKEN.--Dress carefully, singe, wash, and wipe dry. Put
into a pan of the proper size, add a cup of boiling water, and cook very
slowly for the first half hour, then increase the heat, baste
frequently, turn occasionally so that no portion will brown too fast.
Cook from one to two hours according to size and age of the bird. It is
usually considered essential to stuff a fowl for roasting, but a
dressing compounded of melted fat and crumbs seasoned with herbs and
strong condiments is not to be recommended.
If a dressing is considered necessary, it may be made of a quart of
crumbs of rather stale whole-wheat bread, moistened with cream, to which
add a small handful of powdered and sifted sage leaves which have been
dried in the oven until crisp. Add salt as desired, a well-beaten egg,
and a little chopped celery.
ROAST TURKEY.--Pluck, singe, and dress the turkey; wash thoroughly
and wipe with a dry cloth. If dressing is to be used, stuff the body
full, sew up, and truss. Place in a dripping-pan, add a pint of boiling
water, and put in an oven so moderate that the turkey will not brown for
the first hour; afterward the heat may be somewhat increased, but at no
time should the oven be very hot. After the bird becomes brown, baste it
occasionally with the water in the pan, dredging lightly with flour.
Cook until the legs will separate from the body; three or four hours
will be necessary for a small turkey. One half hour to the pound is the
usual rule. When tender, remove the stuffing and serve it hot, placing
the turkey on a large hot platter to be carved. It may be garnished with
parsley or celery leaves and served with cranberry sauce.
Ducks and geese may be prepared and roasted in the same manner, but less
time will suffice for cooking, about one and one third hours for ducks
of ordinary size, and about three hours for a young goose.
A stuffing of mashed potato seasoned with onion, sage, and salt is
considered preferable for a goose. Equal parts of bread crumbs and
chopped apples moistened in a little cream are also used for this
purpose.
SMOTHERED CHICKEN.--Cut two chickens into joints and put in a
closely covered kettle with a pint of boiling water. Heat very slowly to
boiling, skim, keep covered, and simmer until tender and the water
evaporated; add salt, turn the pieces, and brown them in their own
juices.
STEAMED CHICKEN.--Prepare the chicken as for roasting, steam until
nearly tender, dredge with flour and a little salt; put into a
dripping-pan and brown in the oven. Other birds and fowls may be
prepared in the same way.
STEWED CHICKEN.--Divide a chicken into pieces suitable for serving,
and stew as directed for beef on page 400. Old fowls left whole and
stewed in this manner for a long time and afterward roasted, are much
better than when prepared in any other way. If a gravy is desired,
prepare as for stewed beef. Other poultry may be stewed likewise.
FISH.
Fish is a less stimulating article of food than other meats. Edible fish
are generally divided into two classes, those of white flesh and those
more or less red. The red-fleshed fish, of which the salmon is a
representative, have their fat distributed throughout the muscular
tissues, while in white fish the fat is stored up in the liver; hence
the latter class is much easier of digestion, and being less
stimulating, is to be recommended as more wholesome. Different kinds of
fish have different nutritive values. Their flavor and wholesomeness are
greatly influenced by the nature of their food and the condition of the
water in which they are caught; those obtained in deep water with strong
currents are considered superior to those found in shallow water. Fish
are sometimes poisonous, owing no doubt to the food they eat.
Like all animal foods, fish are subject to parasites, some of which take
up their abode in the human body when fish infected with them are eaten.
An eminent scientist connected with the Smithsonian Institution,
contributed an article to _Forest and Stream_ a few years ago, in which
he stated that in the salmon no less than sixteen kinds of parasitic
worms have been discovered, and undoubtedly many others remain unknown;
four species were tapeworms, and four, roundworms. The yellow perch is
known to be infested with twenty-three species of parasitic worms.
The pike carries with him at least twenty kinds, while many other
varieties of fish are equally infested.
Fish have been highly lauded as a food particularly suited to the
development of the brain and nervous system. This no doubt has arisen
from the fact that fish contain a considerable amount of phosphorus.
Phosphorus is also present in the human brain, and for this reason it
has been supposed that fish must be excellent nutriment for the brain;
but the truth is, there is no such thing as any special brain or nerve
food. What is good to build up one part of the body is good for the
whole of it; a really good food contains the elements to nourish every
organ of the body.
Salted fish, like salted meat, is deprived of most of its nutriment
during the curing process, and being rendered much more difficult of
digestion, possesses very little value as a food.
SHELL-FISH (OYSTERS, CLAMS, SCALLOPS, LOBSTERS, CRABS,
ETC.)--Although considered a luxury by epicures, shellfish are not
possessed of a high nutritive value. The whole class are scavengers by
nature and according to recent researches it appears that they are not
altogether safe articles of diet. Many cases of severe and extensive
sickness have been traced to the use of clams and oysters.
Investigations made to ascertain the cause show the poisonous part of
the mussel to be the liver. Rabbits and other small animals inoculated
with the poison died in one or two minutes. Not all mussels are thus
poisonous, but inasmuch as there is an abundance of wholesome food, it
would certainly seem the part of wisdom to discard shellfish altogether.
HOW TO SELECT AND PREPARE FISH.--The flesh of good, fresh fish is
firm and hard, and will respond at once to pressure with the fingers. If
the flesh feels soft and flabby, the fish is not fresh. The eyes should
be full and bright and the gills of a clear red color.
Fish should be cleaned as soon as possible after being caught. To do
this, lay the fish upon a board, and holding it by the tail, scrape off
the scales with a dull knife held nearly flat, working from the tail
toward the head. Scrape slowly, and rinse the knife frequently in cold
water. Cut off the head and fins, make an opening from the gills halfway
down the lower part of the body, scrape out the entrails and every
particle of blood. Remove the white part that lies along the backbone,
then thoroughly rinse and wipe dry.
Keep in a cool place until ready to cook, but do not place directly on
ice, as that will have a tendency to soften the flesh. Fresh fish should
never be allowed to soak in water. If salt fish is to be used, it should
be freshened by placing it skin-side up in cold water, and soaking for
several hours, changing the water frequently.
Frozen fish should be placed in cold water to thaw, and when thawed,
should be cooked immediately.
Fish is cooked by nearly all methods, but retains more nourishment when
broiled or baked. It should be thoroughly cooked, being both
indigestible and unpalatable when underdone.
Boiled fish is usually dependent for flavor upon some kind of rich sauce
so incompatible with healthy digestion that we do not recommend this
method.
_RECIPES._
BAKED FISH.--Select a perfectly fresh, properly dressed fish. Rinse
thoroughly and wipe dry. Fold it together and place in a dripping pan
with a cup of boiling water. Cook slowly and steadily until tender. A
fish weighing three or four pounds will require at least two hours. If
desired, the fish may be lightly dredged with flour, toward the last, as
it begins to brown.
BROILED FISH.--Thoroughly clean the fish, and if small, split down
the back. Fish of larger size should be cut into inch slices. Use a
double wire broiler well oiled with a bit of suet. Lay the fish, with
its thickest part next the center of the broiler, skin uppermost, and
broil over a bed of clear coals until the flesh-side is of an even
brown. The time required will vary, according to the size of the fish,
from five to twenty minutes; then turn and brown on the other side. If
the fish be very thick, when both sides are browned, put the broiler in
the oven over a dripping pan and cook until done.
MEAT SOUP.
Soups made from meat require first the preparation of a special material
called _stock_, a liquid foundation upon which to begin the soup.
Beef, veal, mutton, and poultry are all made into stock in the same
manner, so that general rules for its preparation will be sufficient for
all meat soups.
The principal constituents of meat and bones, the material from which
stock is compounded, are fiber, albuminous elements, gelatinous
substances, and flavoring matters. The albuminous elements are found
only in the flesh. The gelatinous substance found in bones, skin, and
tendons, is almost devoid of nutriment. In selecting material for stock,
therefore, it is well to remember that the larger the proportion of lean
meat used, the more nutritious will be the soup.
But little else than gelatine is obtained from the bones, and although
serviceable in giving consistency, a soup made principally from bones is
not valuable as a food. The amount of bone used for soup should never
exceed the flesh material in weight. The bones, trimmings, and remnants
of steaks, chops, and roasts may be advantageously utilized for soups.
Bits of roast meat and roast gravies are especially serviceable
material, since they are rich in the flavoring elements of meat. It
should be remembered, however, that these flavoring matters are chiefly
excrementitious or waste substances, derived from the venous blood of
the animal.
The greatest care must be observed to keep the scraps perfectly sweet
and fresh until needed, as stale meat is exceedingly unwholesome. If the
scraps are mostly cooked meats and bones, a small portion of raw, lean
meat should be used with them; it need not be of the choicest quality;
tough, coarse meat, when fresh and good, can be advantageously used for
soup stock.
If fresh material is to be procured, select for beef soups a piece from
the shin or lower round; the same choice of pieces may be made of veal;
of mutton, pieces from the forequarter and neck are best.