cooks. Their comparative value depends mainly upon the length of time
they will keep good, or the facility with which they can be prepared.
Essentially the same principles are involved in the making of them all;
viz., the introduction of a small quantity of fresh, lively yeast into a
mixture of some form of starch (obtained from flour, potato, or a
combination of both) and water, with or without the addition of such
other substances as will promote fermentation, or aid in preventing the
yeast from souring. Under proper conditions of warmth, the small amount
of original yeast begins to supply itself with food at once by
converting the starch into dextrine, and then into grape sugar, and
multiplies itself with great rapidity, and will continue to do so as
long as there is material to supply it with the means of growth. While
its growth is rapid, its decay is equally so; and unless some means of
preservation be employed, the yeast will die, and the mixture become
sour and foul. Ordinarily it can be kept good for several days, and
under the best conditions, even three or four weeks. After it has been
kept from four to six hours, it should be placed in some receptacle as
nearly air-tight as possible and set in the cellar or refrigerator,
where it can be kept at a temperature not conducive to fermentation.
Thus the little yeast organisms will remain in a quiescent state, but
yet alive and capable of multiplying themselves when again surrounded
with favorable conditions.
The yeast should be kept in glass or glazed earthen ware. The vessel
containing it should be washed and scalded with scrupulous care before
new yeast is put in, since the smallest particle of sour or spoiled
yeast will ruin the fresh supply in a very short time. It is generally
conceded that yeast will keep longer if the material of which it is made
be mixed with liquid of a boiling temperature, or cooked for a few
minutes at boiling heat before adding the yeast. The reason for this
undoubtedly lies in the fact that the boiling kills foreign germs, and
thus prevents early souring or putrefaction. The yeast must not be
added, however, until the liquid has cooled to a little more than blood
heat, as too great heat will kill the yeast cells.
The starch of the potato is thought to furnish better material for the
promotion of yeast growth than that of wheat flour; but whether the
potato be first cooked, mashed, and then combined with the other
ingredients, or grated raw and then cooked in boiling water, makes
little difference so far as results are concerned, though the latter
method may have the advantage of taking less time. If potatoes are used
for this purpose, they should be perfectly mature. New ones will not
answer.
Sugar assists in promoting the growth of the yeast plant, and a small
amount is usually employed in making yeast. Hops serve to prevent the
yeast from souring, and an infusion of them is frequently used for this
purpose.
While it is essential that the water used should be boiling, it is also
necessary that the mixture should cooled to a lukewarm temperature
before the introduction of the original yeast, as intense heat will kill
the yeast plant. Freezing cold will likewise produced the same result.
While a cool temperature is one of the requisites for keeping yeast
fresh, care must be taken, especially in winter, that it does not get
chilled.
When yeast is needed for bread, it is always the best plan to take a cup
to the cellar or refrigerator for the desired quantity, and re-cover the
jar as quickly as possible. A half hour in a hot kitchen would be quite
likely to spoiled it. Always shake or stir the whole well before
measuring out the yeast. In making yeast, used earthen bowls for mixing,
porcelain-lined or granite-ware utensils for boiling, and silver or
wooden spoons for stirring.
BITTER YEAST.--It sometimes happens that an excessive use of hops
in the making of yeast gives to it so bitter a flavor as to communicate
a disagreeable taste to the bread. To correct this bitterness, mix with
the yeast a considerable quantity of water, and let it stand for some
hours, when the thickest portion will have settled at the bottom. The
water, which will have extracted much of the bitterness, can then be
turned off and thrown away. Yeast also sometimes becomes a bitter from
long keeping. Freshly burnt charcoal thrown into the yeast is said to
absorb the odors and offensive matter and render the yeast more sweet;
however, we do not recommend the use of any yeast so stale as to need
sweetening or purifying. Yeast that is new and fresh is always best; old
and stale yeast, even though it may still possess the property of
raising the dough, will give an unpleasant taste to the bread, and is
much less wholesome.
TESTS FOR YEAST.--Liquid yeast, when good, is light in color and
looks foamy and effervescent; it has a pungent odor somewhat similar to
weak ammonia, and if tasted will have a sharp, biting flavor. Yeast is
poor when it looks dull and watery, and has a sour odor. Compressed
yeast, if good, breaks off dry and looks white; if poor, it appears
moist and stringy.
If there is any question as to the quality of yeast, it is always best
to test it before use by adding a little flour to a small quantity and
setting it in a warm place. If it begins to ferment in the course of
fifteen or twenty minutes, it is good.
STARTING THE BREAD.--Having secured good yeast, it is necessary in
some way to diffuse it through the bread material so that it will set up
an active fermentation, which, by the evolution of gas, will render the
whole mass light and porous. As fermentation is more sure, more rapid,
and requires less yeast to start it when set in action in a thin mixture
than when introduced into stiff dough, the more common method of
starting fermented bread is by "setting a sponge;" viz., preparing a
batter of flour and liquid, to which potato is sometimes added, and into
which the yeast is introduced. Some cooks, in making the batter, use
the whole amount of liquid needed for the bread, and as the sponge
rises, add flour in small quantities, beating it back, and allowing it
to rise a second, third, or even fourth time, until sufficient flour has
been added to knead; others use only half the liquid in preparing the
sponge, and when it has well risen, prepare a second one by adding the
remainder of the liquid and fresh flour, in which case the fermented
batter acts as a double portion of yeast and raises the second sponge
very quickly. The requisite amount of flour is then added, the dough
kneaded, and the whole allowed to rise a third time in the loaf. Other
cooks dispense altogether with the sponge, adding to the liquid at first
the requisite amount of flour, kneading it thoroughly and allowing it to
rise once in mass and again after molding into loaves. As to the
superiority of one method over another, much depends upon their
adaptability to the time and convenience of the user; light bread can be
produced by either method. Less yeast but more time will be required
when the bread is started with a sponge. The end to be attained by all
is a complete and equal diffusion of gas bubbles generated during
fermentation throughout the whole mass of dough.
The preferable method of combining the materials needed for the batter
is by first mingling the yeast with the water or milk. If condensed or
dry yeast is used, previously dissolve it well in a half cupful or less
of lukewarm water. Stir the flour slowly into the liquid mixture and
beat it _very thoroughly_ so that the yeast shall be evenly distributed
throughout the whole.
PROPORTION OF MATERIALS NEEDED.--The material needed for making:
the bread should all be carefully measured out beforehand and the flour
well sifted. Many housekeepers fail in producing good bread, because
they guess at the quantity of material to be used, particularly the
flour, and with the same quantity of liquid will one time use much more
flour that at another, thus making the results exceedingly variable.
With this same brand of flour, this same quantity should always be used
to produce a given amount of bread. This amount will depend upon the
quality of the material used. Good flour will absorb a larger quantity
of liquids than that of an inferior quality, and the amount of liquid a
given quantity of flour will take up determines the quantity of bread
that can be produced from it. This amount is chiefly dependent upon the
proportion of gluten contained in the flour. One hundred pounds of good
flour will absorb sufficient water to produce one hundred and fifty
pounds of bread. One reason why bread retains so much water is that
during the baking a portion of starch is converted into gum, which holds
water more strongly than starch. Again: the gluten, when wet, is not
easily dried, while the dry crust which forms around the bread in baking
is merely impervious to water, and, like the skin of a baking potato,
prevents the moisture from escaping.
Kinds of flour vary so considerably in respect to their absorbent
properties that it is not possible to state the exact proportions of
flour and liquid required; approximately, three heaping measures of
flour for one scant measure of liquid, including the yeast, will in
general be found a good proportion. Bread made from the entire wheat
will require from one half to one cupful less flour than that made of
white flour. A quart of liquid, including the yeast, is sufficient for
three ordinary-sized loaves. One half or two thirds of a cup of homemade
yeast, according to its strength, or one half a cake of compressed yeast
dissolved in a half cup of lukewarm water, will be sufficient for one
quart of liquid. It is a common mistake to use too much yeast. It
lessens the time required, but the result is less satisfactory. Bread to
be set over night requires less yeast.
Whether water or milk should be used for bread-making, depends upon
taste and convenience. Bread retains more nearly the natural flavor of
the grain if made with water, and is less apt to sour; at the same time,
bread made with milk is more tender than that made with water. Bread
made with milk requires from one half to one cupful less of flour.
Potatoes are sometimes used in conjunction with flour for bread-making.
They are by no means necessary when good flour is used, but bread made
from inferior flour is improved by their use. Only potatoes that are
fully matured should be used for this purpose, and they should be well
cooked and smoothly mashed. Neither sugar nor salt is essential for the
production of good bread, though most cook books recommend the use of
one or both. The proportion of the former should not exceed one even
tablespoonful to three pints of flour, and the very smallest amount of
salt, never more than a half teaspoonful, and better less. No butter or
other free fat is required; the tenderness of texture produced by its
use can be secured as well by the use of unskimmed milk and thorough
kneading.
UTENSILS.--For bread-making purposes, earthen or china ware is
preferable to either tin or wooden utensils: being a poor conductor, it
protects the sponge from the cold air much more effectually than tin,
and is much more easily kept clean and sweet than wood. The utensil
should be kept exclusively for the purpose of bread-making, and should
never be allowed to contain any sour substance. The bowl should be
thoroughly scalded before and after each using. Use silver or
granite-ware spoons for stirring the bread. Iron and tin discolor the
sponge. For measuring the material, particularly the liquid and the
yeast, half-pint cups, divided by marks into thirds and fourths, as
shown in the cut, are especially serviceable.
[Illustration: Measuring Cup] [Illustration: Measuring Cup]
WHEN TO SET THE SPONGE.--The time to set the sponge for
bread-making is a point each housekeeper must determine for herself. The
fact before stated, that temperature controls the activity of
fermentation, and that it is retarded or accelerated according to the
conditions of warmth, enables the housewife, by keeping the
bread-mixture at a temperature of about 50° F., to set her bread in the
evening, if desired, and find it light and ready for further attention
in the morning. In winter, the sponge will need to be prepared early in
the evening and kept during the night at as even a temperature as
possible. A good way to accomplish this is to cover the bowl with a
clean napkin and afterwards wrap it about very closely with several
folds of a woolen blanket. In extremely cold weather bottles of hot
water may be placed around the bowl outside the wrappings. In case this
plan is employed, care must be taken to have sufficient wrappings
between the bread and the bottles to prevent undue heat, and the bottles
should be covered with an additional blanket to aid in retaining the
heat as long as possible.
If the sponge is set in the evening, if in very warm weather, it should
be started as late as practicable, and left in a rather cool place.
Cover closely to exclude the air, but do not wrap in flannel as in
winter. It will be likely to need attention early in the morning.
TEMPERATURE FOR BREAD-MAKING.--Except in very warm weather, the
ferment or sponge should be started with liquid at a lukewarm
temperature.
The liquid should never be so cold as to chill the yeast. Milk, if used,
should be first sterilized by scalding, and then cooled before using.
After the sponge is prepared, the greatest care must be taken to keep it
at an equable temperature. From 70° to 90° is the best range of
temperature, 75° being considered the golden mean throughout the entire
fermentative process of bread-making.
After fermentation has well begun, it will continue, but much more
slowly if the temperature be gradually lowered to 45° or 50°. If it is
necessary to hasten the rising, the temperature can be raised to 80° or
85°, but it will necessitate careful watching, as it will be liable to
over-ferment, and become sour. Cold arrests the process of fermentation,
while too great heat carries forward the work too rapidly. Too much
stress cannot be laid upon the importance of an equable temperature. The
housewife who permits the fermentation to proceed very slowly one hour,
forces it rapidly by increased heat the next, and perhaps allows it to
subside to a chilling temperature the third, will never be sure of good
bread.
Putting the bowl containing the sponge into a dish of warm (not hot)
water, or keeping it in the warming oven, or on the back of the range,
are all methods which may bring about good results, provided the same
degree of heat can be maintained continuously; but if the fire is one
which must be increased or diminished to suit the exigencies of
household details, nothing but the closest and most careful attention
will keep the sponge at uniform temperature. The better way is to cover
the bowl with a napkin, and in cold weather wrap closely in several
thicknesses of flannel, and place on a stand behind the stove, or in
some place not exposed to draughts. A bread-raiser purposely arranged
for keeping the bread at proper temperature is a great convenience. Two
small and rather thick earthen ware crocks of the same size, serve very
well for this purpose. Scald both with hot water, and while still warm,
put the sponge in one, invert the other for a cover, and leave in a warm
room. All flour used in the bread should be warm when added.
LIGHTNESS OF THE BREAD.--The time required for bread in its
different stages to grow light will vary according to the quantity and
strength of the yeast used and the amount of warmth supplied. A thin
batter is light enough when in appearance it resembles throughout a mass
of sea foam. It will not greatly increase in bulk, but will be in the
state of constant activity, sending up little bubbles of gas and
emitting a sharp, pungent odor like fresh yeast.
When the thicker batter or second sponge is sufficiently light, it will
have risen to nearly double its original bulk and become cracked over
the top like "crazed" china. It should never be allowed to rise to the
point of sinking or caving in, and should be kneaded as soon as ready.
If for any reason it is not possible to knead the bread at once when it
has arrived at this stage, do not allow it to stand, but take a knife or
spoon and gently beat it back a little. This dissipates some of the gas
and reduces the volume somewhat. Let it rise again, which it will do in
a short time, if it has not been allowed to become too light. If dough
that has been kneaded and allowed to rise in mass, becomes sufficiently
light at some inopportune moment for shaping into loaves, it may be kept
from becoming too light and souring, by taking a knife and cutting it
away from the sides of the bowl and gradually working it over toward the
center. Re-cover and put in a warm place. It will soon assume its former
bulk. This "cutting down" may be repeated several times if necessary,
provided the bread has not been allowed to become too light at any time,
and some cook's recommend it as a uniform practice. We do not, however,
except in case of necessity; since, though it may possibly make the
bread more light, the long-continued fermentation destroys more than is
necessary of the food elements of the flour, and develops an unnecessary
amount of the products of fermentation. Lightness is not the only
requisite for bread, and should be secured with as little deterioration
of the flour as possible.
An important point in the preparation of bread is to decide when it is
sufficiently light after having been molded and placed in pans. The
length of time cannot be given, because it will vary with the
temperature, the quality of the flour, and the quantity added during the
kneading. At a temperature of 75°, an hour or an hour and a half is
about the average length of time needed. A loaf should nearly double its
size after being placed in a pan, before baking; when perfectly risen,
the bread feels light when lifted and weighed upon the hand. It is
better to begin the baking before it has perfectly risen them to wait
until it has become so light as to commence to fall, since if the
fermentation proceeds too far, the sweetness of the grain will be
destroyed, and the bread will be tasteless and innutritious, even if it
does not reach the acetous stage.
The exercise of a little judgment and careful attention to detail will
soon enable a person successfully to determine the proper degree of
lightness of bread in its various stages. Bread which passes the extreme
point of fermentation, or in common phrase gets "too light," will have a
strong acid odor, and will pull away from the bowl in a stringy mass,
having a watery appearance very different from the fine, spongy texture
of properly risen dough. The acidity of such dough may be neutralized by
the addition of an alkali, and housewives who through carelessness and
inattention have allowed their bread to become "sour," often resort to
saleratus or soda to neutralize the acid. The result of such treatment
is unwholesome bread, wholly unfit for food. It is better economy to
throw away bread material which needs to be sweetened with soda than to
run the risk of injury to health by using it.
KNEADING THE DOUGH.--As fresh flour is added during the
bread-making, it is necessary to mix it in thoroughly. As long as the
batter is thin, this can be done by thoroughly beating the mixture with
the addition of material; but when it is a thick dough, some other
method must be adopted to bring about the desired result. The usual way
is by mixing the dough to a proper consistency, and working it with the
hands. This is termed _kneading_. Much of the excellence of bread
depends upon the thoroughness of this kneading, since if the yeast is
not intimately and equally mixed with every particle of flour, the bread
will not be uniform; some portions will be heavy and compact, while
others will be full of large, open cavities, from the excessive
liberation of gas.
The length of time required for kneading depends upon the perfection
with which the yeast cells have been previously diffused throughout the
sponge, and upon the quality of the flour used in preparing the bread,
much less time being required for kneading dough made from good flour.
Some consider an hour none too long to knead bread. Such a lengthy
process may be advantageous, since one of the objects of kneading is to
render the glutinous parts of the flour so elastic that the dough may be
capable of expanding to several times its bulk without cracking or
breaking, but excellent results can be obtained from good flour with
less labor. Bread has been kneaded all that is necessary when it will
work clean of the board, and when, after a smart blow with the fist in
the center of the mass, it will spring back to its original shape like
an India rubber ball. Its elasticity is the surest test of its goodness;
and when dough has been thus perfectly kneaded, it can be molded into
any shape, rolled, twisted, or braided with ease. Chopping, cutting,
stretching, and pulling--the dough are other methods for accomplishing
the same end.
If a large mass is to be kneaded, it is better to divide it into several
portions and knead each separately. It is less laborious and more likely
to result in an equal diffusion of the yeast. Bread is often spoiled by
the addition of too much flour during kneading. Dough should always be
kneaded as soft as it can be handled, and only sufficient flour added to
prevent its sticking to the board. Stiff bread is close in texture, and
after a day or two becomes dry and hard.
HOW TO MANIPULATE THE DOUGH IN KNEADING.--Sprinkle the board well
with flour, and scrape the dough from the bowl with a knife. Dust the
hands with flour, and then draw the dough with a rolling motion from the
farthest side toward you, using the finger tips for the purpose, but
pressing firmly down upon the mass with the palm of the hands. Reach
forward again with the finger tips, and again press the ball of the
hands upon the dough. Continue this process of manipulation until the
mass is very much elongated; then turn at right angles and repeat the
process, taking care that the finger tips do not break through the light
film which will form upon the outside of soft dough when well managed.
_Keep the dough constantly in motion_ until it is smooth, elastic, and
fine-grained. The hands and the board may need a light dusting of flour
at frequent intervals. If the dough sticks, lift it quickly, and clean
the board, that it may be kept smooth. The dough will not stick if kept
in constant motion. Do not rub off little wads of dough either from the
hands or the board and keep kneading them into the loaf; they will
seriously injure the uniform texture of the bread.
HOW MANY TIMES SHALL BREAD BE KNEADED?--As the objects to be
attained in kneading dough are to render the gluten more elastic and
thoroughly to diffuse the yeast, it will be seen that there has been
sufficient kneading when all the flour necessary for the bread has been
added. Furthermore, it must be apparent that continued manipulation of
the dough at this stage will dissipate and press out the little vesicles
of gas held in place by the elastic gluten, and thus lose in part what
so much pains has been taken to secure. At whatever stage the requisite
amount of flour be added, the dough should then be thoroughly kneaded
once for all. If allowed to rise in bulk, when light it should be shaped
into loaves with the greatest care, handled lightly, and worked as
little as possible, and if at all diminished, allowed to rise again
before baking.
DRYNESS OF THE SURFACE.--Bread in all stages should be covered over
the top, since it rises much more evenly, and does not have a stiff,
dried surface, as when placed in a warm place exposed to air. It
sometimes happens that this precaution is forgotten or not sufficiently
attended to, and a dry crust forms and over the dough, which, if kneaded
into the loaves, leaves hard, dry spots in the bread. In case of such a
mishap, take the dry crust off, dissolve it in a little warm water, add
flour enough to mold, make it into a small loaf, and raise it
separately.