FOOTNOTE:

[1] Sir Thomas (or Thomas de) Littleton, the jurist, had three sons,

William, Richard and Thomas. From the first, William, was descended

Sir Thomas Lyttelton, 1st bart. of Frankley (1596-1650), whose sons

were Sir Henry, 2nd bart. (d. 1693), and Sir Charles, 3rd bart.

(1629-1716), governor of Jamaica. The latter's son was Sir Thomas,

4th bart., above mentioned, who was also the father of Charles

Lyttelton (1714-1768), bishop of Carlisle, and president of the

Society of Antiquaries. The male descendants of the second, Richard,

died out with Sir Edward Littleton, bart., of Pillaton,

Staffordshire, in 1812, but the latter's grandnephew, Edward John

Walhouse (1791-1863) of Hatherton, took the estates by will and also

the name of Littleton, and was created 1st Baron Hatherton in 1835;

he was chief secretary for Ireland (1833-1834). From Thomas, the

third son, was descended, in one line, Edward, Lord Littleton, of

Munslow (1589-1645), recorder of London, chief justice of the common

pleas, and eventually lord keeper; and in another line, the baronets

of Stoke St Milborough, Shropshire, of whom the best known and last

was Sir Thomas Littleton, 3rd bart. (1647-1710), speaker of the House

of Commons (1698-1700), and treasurer of the navy.

LYTTELTON, a borough of New Zealand, the port of Christchurch (q.v.) on

the E. coast of South Island, on an inlet on the north-western side of

Banks Peninsula. Pop. (1906) 3941. It is surrounded by abrupt hills

rising to 1600 ft., through which a railway communicates with

Christchurch (7 m. N.W.) by a tunnel 1¾ m. long. Great breakwaters

protect the harbour, which has an area of 110 acres, with a low-tide

depth of 20 to 27 ft. There is a graving dock accessible for vessels of

6000 tons. The produce of the rich agricultural district of Canterbury

is exported, frozen or preserved. Lyttelton, formerly called Port Cooper

and Port Victoria, was the original settlement in this district (1850).

LYTTON, EDWARD GEORGE EARLE LYTTON, BULWER-LYTTON, 1ST BARON

(1803-1873), English novelist and politician, the youngest son of

General William Earle Bulwer of Heydon Hall and Wood Dalling, Norfolk,

was born in London on the 25th of May 1803. He had two brothers, William

(1790-1877) and Henry (1801-1872), afterwards Lord Dalling (q.v.).

Bulwer's father died when the boy was four years old. His mother,

Elizabeth Barbara, daughter of Richard Warburton Lytton of Knebworth,

Hertfordshire, after her husband's death settled in London. Bulwer, who

was delicate and neurotic, gave evidence of precocious talent and was

sent to various boarding schools, where he was always discontented,

until in the establishment of a Mr Wallington at Ealing he found in his

master a sympathetic and admiring listener. Mr Wallington induced him to

publish, at the age of fifteen, an immature volume entitled _Ishmael and

other Poems_. About this time Bulwer fell in love, and became extremely

morbid under enforced separation from the young lady, who was induced by

her father to marry another man. She died about the time that Bulwer

went to Cambridge, and he declared that her loss affected all his

after-life. In 1822 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, but removed

shortly afterwards to Trinity Hall, and in 1825 won the Chancellor's

medal for English verse with a poem on "Sculpture." In the following

year he took his B.A. degree and printed for private circulation a small

volume of poems, _Weeds and Wild Flowers_, in which the influence of

Byron was easily traceable. In 1827 he published _O'Neill, or the

Rebel_, a romance, in heroic couplets, of patriotic struggle in Ireland,

and in 1831 a metrical satire, _The Siamese Twins_. These juvenilia he

afterwards ignored.

Meanwhile he had begun to take his place in society, being already known

as a dandy of considerable pretensions, who had acted as second in a

duel and experienced the fashionable round of flirtation and intrigue.

He purchased a commission in the army, only to sell it again without

undergoing any service, and in August 1827 married, in opposition to his

mother's wishes, Rosina Doyle Wheeler (1802-1882), an Irish beauty,

niece and adopted daughter of General Sir John Doyle. She was a

brilliant but passionate girl, and upon his marriage with her, Bulwer's

mother withdrew the allowance she had hitherto made him. He had £200 a

year from his father, and less than £100 a year with his wife, and found

it necessary to set to work in earnest. In the year of his marriage he

published _Falkland_, a novel which was only a moderate success, but in

1828 he attracted general attention with _Pelham_, a novel for which he

had gathered material during a visit to Paris in 1825. This story, with

its intimate study of the dandyism of the age, was immediately popular,

and gossip was busy in identifying the characters of the romance with

the leading men of the time. In the same year he published _The

Disowned_, following it up with _Devereux_ (1829), _Paul Clifford_

(1830), _Eugène Aram_ (1832) and _Godolphin_ (1833). All these novels

were designed with a didactic purpose, somewhat upon the German model.

To embody the leading features of a period, to show how a criminal may

be reformed by the development of his own character, to explain the

secrets of failure and success in life, these were the avowed objects of

his art, and there were not wanting critics ready to call in question

his sincerity and his morality. Magazine controversy followed, in which

Bulwer was induced to take a part, and about the same time he began to

make a mark in politics. He became a follower of Bentham, and in 1831

was elected member for St Ives in Huntingdon. During this period of

feverish activity his relations with his wife grew less and less

satisfactory. At first she had cause to complain that he neglected her

in the pursuit of literary reputation; later on his disregard became

rather active than passive. After a series of distressing differences

they decided to live apart, and were legally separated in 1836. Three

years later his wife published a novel called _Cheveley, or the Man of

Honour_, in which Bulwer was bitterly caricatured, and in June 1858,

when her husband was standing as parliamentary candidate for

Hertfordshire, she appeared at the hustings and indignantly denounced

him. She was consequently placed under restraint as insane, but

liberated a few weeks later. For years she continued her attacks upon

her husband's character, and outlived him by nine years, dying at Upper

Sydenham in March 1882. There is little doubt that her passionate

imagination gravely exaggerated the tale of her wrongs, though Bulwer

was certainly no model for husbands. It was a case of two undisciplined

natures in domestic bondage, and the consequences of their union were as

inevitable as they were unfortunate.

Bulwer, meanwhile, was full of activity, both literary and political.

After representing St Ives, he was returned for Lincoln in 1832, and sat

in parliament for that city for nine years. He spoke in favour of the

Reform Bill, and took the leading part in securing the reduction, after

vainly essaying the repeal, of the newspaper stamp duties. His pamphlet,

issued when the Whigs were dismissed from office in 1834, and entitled

"A Letter to a Late Cabinet Minister on the Crisis," was immensely

influential, and Lord Melbourne offered him a lordship of the admiralty,

which he declined as likely to interfere with his activity as an author.

At this time, indeed, his pen was indefatigable. _Godolphin_ was

followed by _The Pilgrims of the Rhine_ (1834), a graceful fantasy, too

German in sentiment to be quite successful in England, and then in _The

Last Days of Pompeii_ (1834) and Rienzi (1835) he reached the height of

his popularity. He took great pains with these stories, and despite

their lurid colouring and mannered over-emphasis, they undoubtedly

indicate the highwater mark of his talent. Their reception was

enthusiastic, and _Ernest Maltravers_ (1837) and _Alice, or the

Mysteries_ (1838) were hardly less successful. At the same time he had

been plunging into journalism. In 1831 he undertook the editorship of

the _New Monthly_, which, however, he resigned in the following year,

but in 1841, the year in which he published _Night and Morning_, he

started the _Monthly Chronicle_, a semi-scientific magazine, for which

he wrote _Zicci_, an unfinished first draft afterwards expanded into

_Zanoni_ (1842). As though this multifarious fecundity were not

sufficient, he had also been busy in the field of dramatic literature.

In 1838 he produced _The Lady of Lyons_, a play which Macready made a

great success at Covent Garden: in 1839 _Richelieu_ and _The Sea

Captain_, and in 1840 _Money_. All, except _The Sea Captain_, were

successful, and this solitary failure he revived in 1869 under the title

of _The Rightful Heir_. Of the others it may be said that, though they

abound in examples of strained sentiment and false taste, they have

nevertheless a certain theatrical _flair_, which has enabled them to

survive a whole library of stage literature of greater sincerity and

truer feeling. _The Lady of Lyons_ and _Money_ have long held the stage,

and to the last-named, at least, some of the most talented of modern

comedians have given new life and probability.

In 1838 Bulwer, then at the height of his popularity, was created a

baronet, and on succeeding to the Knebworth estate in 1843 added Lytton

to his surname, under the terms of his mother's will. From 1841 to 1852

he had no seat in parliament, and spent much of his time in continental

travel. His literary activity waned somewhat, but was still remarkably

alert for a man who had already done so much. In 1843 he issued _The

Last of the Barons_, which many critics have considered the most

historically sound and generally effective of all his romances; in 1847

_Lucretia, or the Children of the Night_, and in 1848 _Harold, the last

of the Saxon Kings_. In the intervals between these heavier productions

he had thrown off a volume of poems in 1842, another of translations

from Schiller in 1844, and a satire called _The New Timon_ in 1846, in

which Tennyson, who had just received a Civil List pension, was bitterly

lampooned as "school miss Alfred," with other unedifying amenities;

Tennyson retorted with some verses in which he addressed Bulwer-Lytton

as "you band-box." These poetic excursions were followed by his most

ambitious work in metre, a romantic epic entitled _King Arthur_, of

which he expected much, and he was greatly disappointed by its apathetic

reception. Having experienced some rather acid criticism, questioning

the morality of his novels, he next essayed a form of fiction which he

was determined should leave no loophole to suspicion, and in _The

Caxtons_ (1849), published at first anonymously, gave further proof of

his versatility and resource. _My Novel_ (1853) and _What will he do

with it?_ were designed to prolong the same strain.

In 1852 he entered the political field anew, and in the conservative

interest. He had differed from the policy of Lord John Russell over the

corn laws, and now separated finally from the liberals. He stood for

Hertfordshire and was elected, holding the seat till 1866, when he was

raised to the peerage as Baron Lytton of Knebworth. His eloquence gave

him the ear of the House of Commons, and he often spoke with influence

and authority. In 1858 he was appointed secretary for the colonies. In

the House of Lords he was comparatively inactive. His last novels were

_A Strange Story_ (1862), a mystical romance with spiritualistic

tendencies; _The Coming Race_ (1871), _The Parisians_ (1873)--both

unacknowledged at the time of his death; and _Kenelm Chillingly_, which

was in course of publication in _Blackwood's Magazine_ when Lytton died

at Torquay on the 18th of January 1873. The last three of his stories

were classed by his son, the 2nd Lord Lytton, as a trilogy, animated by

a common purpose, to exhibit the influence of modern ideas upon

character and conduct.

Bulwer-Lytton's attitude towards life was theatrical, the language of

his sentiments was artificial and over-decorated, and the tone of his

work was often so flamboyant as to give an impression of false taste and

judgment. Nevertheless, he built up each of his stories upon a

deliberate and careful framework: he was assiduous according to his

lights in historical research; and conscientious in the details of

workmanship. As the fashion of his day has become obsolete the immediate

appeal of his work has diminished. It will always, however, retain its

interest, not only for the merits of certain individual novels, but as a

mirror of the prevailing intellectual movement of the first half of the

19th century.

See T. H. S. Escott, _Edward Bulwer, 1st Baron Lytton of Knebworth_

(1910). (A. Wa.)

LYTTON, EDWARD ROBERT BULWER-LYTTON, 1ST EARL OF (1831-1891), English

diplomatist and poet, was the only son of the 1st Baron Lytton. He was

born in Hertford Street, Mayfair, on the 8th of November 1831. Robert

Lytton and his sister were brought up as children principally by a Miss

Green. In 1840 the boy was sent to a school at Twickenham, in 1842 to

another at Brighton, and in 1845 to Harrow. From his earliest childhood

Lytton read voraciously and wrote copiously, quickly developing a

genuine and intense love of literature and a remarkable facility of

expression. In 1849 he left Harrow and studied for a year at Bonn with

an English tutor, and on his return with another tutor in England. In

1850 he entered the diplomatic service as unpaid _attaché_ to his uncle,

Sir Henry Bulwer, who was then minister at Washington. His advance in

the diplomatic service was continuous, his successive appointments

being: as second secretary--1852, Florence; 1854, Paris; 1857, The

Hague; 1859, Vienna; as first secretary or secretary of legation--1863,

Copenhagen; 1864, Athens; 1865, Lisbon; 1868, Madrid; 1868, Vienna;

1873, Paris; as minister--1875, Lisbon. In 1887 he was appointed to

succeed Lord Lyons as ambassador at Paris, and held that office until

his death in 1891. This rapid promotion from one European court to

another indicates the esteem in which Lytton was held by successive

foreign secretaries. In 1864, immediately before taking up his

appointment at Athens, he married Edith, daughter of Edward Villiers,

brother of the earl of Clarendon, and in 1873, upon the death of his

father, he succeeded to the peerage and the estate of Knebworth in

Hertfordshire.

Early in 1875 Lord Lytton declined an offer of appointment as governor

of Madras, and in November of that year he was nominated

governor-general of India by Disraeli. The moment was critical in the

history of India. In Central Asia the advance of Russia had continued so

steadily and so rapidly that Shere Ali, the amir of Afghanistan, had

determined to seek safety as the vassal of the tsar. Lytton went out to

India with express instructions from the British government to recover

the friendship of the amir if possible, and if not so to arrange matters

on the north-west frontier as to be able to be indifferent to his

hostility. For eighteen months Lytton and his council made every effort

to conciliate the friendship of the amir, but when a Russian agent was

established at Kabul, while the mission of Sir Neville Chamberlain was

forcibly denied entrance into the amir's dominions, no choice was left

between acknowledging the right of a subsidized ally of Great Britain to

place himself within Russian control and depriving him of the office

which he owed to British patronage and assistance. The inevitable war

began in November 1878, and by the close of that year the forces

prepared by Lytton for that purpose had achieved their task with

extraordinary accuracy and economy. Shere Ali fled from Kabul, and

shortly afterwards died, and once more it fell to the Indian government

to make provision for the future of Afghanistan. By the treaty of

Gandamak in May 1879 Yakub Khan, a son of Shere Ali, was recognized as

amir, the main conditions agreed upon being that the districts of Kuram,

Pishin and Sibi should be "assigned" to British administration, and the

Khyber and other passes be under British control; that there should be a

permanent British Resident at Kabul, and that the amir should be

subsidized in an amount to be afterwards determined upon. The endeavour

of the Indian government was to leave the internal administration of

Afghanistan as little affected as possible, but considerable risk was

run in trusting so much, and especially the safety of a British envoy,

to the power and the goodwill of Yakub Khan. Sir Louis Cavagnari, the

British envoy entered Kabul at the end of July, and was, with his staff,

massacred in the rising which took place on the 3rd of September. The

war of 1879-80 immediately began, with the occupation of Kandahar by

Stewart and the advance upon Kabul by Roberts, and the military

operations which followed were not concluded when Lytton resigned his

office in April 1880.

A complete account of Lytton's viceroyalty, and a lucid exposition of

the principles of his government and the main outlines of his policy,

may be found in _Lord Lytton's Indian Administration_, by his daughter,

Lady Betty Balfour (London, 1899). The frontier policy which he adopted,

after the method of a friendly and united Afghanistan under Yakub Khan

had been tried and had failed, was that the Afghan kingdom should be

destroyed. The province of Kandahar was to be occupied by Great Britain,

and administered by a vassal chief, Shere Ali Khan, who was appointed

"Wali" with a solemn guarantee of British support (unconditionally

withdrawn by the government succeeding Lytton's). The other points of

the Indian frontier were to be made as secure as possible, and the

provinces of Kabul and Herat were to be left absolutely to their own

devices. In consequence of what had been said of Lytton by the leaders

of the parliamentary opposition in England, it was impossible for him to

retain his office under a government formed by them, and he accordingly

resigned at the same time as the Beaconsfield ministry. This part of his

policy was thereupon revoked. Abdur Rahman, proving himself the

strongest of the claimants to the throne left vacant by Yakub Khan's

deposition, became amir as the subsidized ally of the Indian government.

The two most considerable events of Lytton's viceroyalty, besides the

Afghan wars, were the assumption by Queen Victoria of the title of

empress of India on the 1st of January 1877, and the famine which

prevailed in various parts of India in 1876-78. He satisfied himself

that periodical famines must be expected in Indian history, and that

constant preparation during years of comparative prosperity was the only

condition whereby their destructiveness could be modified. Accordingly

he obtained the appointment of the famine commission of 1878, to

inquire, upon lines laid down by him, into available means of

mitigation. Their report, made in 1880, is the foundation of the later

system of irrigation, development of communications, and "famine

insurance." The equalization and reduction of the salt duty were

effected, and the abolition of the cotton duty commenced, during

Lytton's term of office, and the system of Indian finance profoundly

modified by decentralization and the regulation of provincial

responsibility, in all which matters Lytton enthusiastically supported

Sir John Strachey, the financial member of his council.

Upon Lytton's resignation in 1880 an earldom was conferred upon him in

recognition of his services as viceroy. He lived at Knebworth until

1887, in which year he was appointed to succeed Lord Lyons as ambassador

at Paris. He died at Paris on the 24th of November 1891, of a clot of

blood in the heart, when apparently recovering from a serious illness.

He was succeeded by his son (b. 1876) as 2nd earl.

Lytton is probably better known as a poet--under the pen-name of "Owen

Meredith"--than as a statesman. The list of his published works is as

follows: _Clytemnestra, and other Poems_, 1855; _The Wanderer_, 1858;

_Lucile_, 1860; _Serbski Pesme, or National Songs of Servia_, 1861,

_Tannhäuser_ (in collaboration with Mr Julian Fane), 1861; _Chronicles

and Characters_, 1867; _Orval, or The Fool of Time_, 1868; _Fables in

Song_ (2 vols.), 1874; _Glenaveril, or The Metamorphoses_, 1885; _After

Paradise, or the Legends of Exile, and other Poems_, 1887; _Marah_,

1892; _King Poppy_, 1892. The two last-mentioned volumes were published

posthumously. A few previously unpublished pieces are included in a

volume of _Selections_ published, with an introduction by Lady Betty

Balfour, in 1894. His metrical style was easy and copious, but not

precise. It often gives the impression of having been produced with

facility, because the flow of his thought carried him along, and of not

having undergone prolonged or minute polish. It was frequently

suggestive of the work of other poets, especially in his earlier

productions. The friend who wrote the inscription for the monument to be

erected to him at St Paul's described him as "a poet of many styles,

each the expression of his habitual thoughts." _Lucile_, a novel in

verse, presents a romantic style and considerable wit; and _Glenaveril_,

which also contains many passages of great beauty and much poetic

thought, has much of the same narrative character. Besides his volumes

of poetry, Lytton published in 1883 two volumes of a biography of his

father. The second of these contains the beginning of the elder Lytton's

unfinished novel, _Greville_, and his life is brought down only to the

year 1832, when he was twenty-six years of age, so that the completion

of the book upon the same scale would have required at least four more

volumes. The executrix of Lytton's mother chose to consider that the

publication was injurious to that lady's memory, and issued a volume

purporting to contain Bulwer-Lytton's letters to his wife. This Lytton

suppressed by injunction, thereby procuring a fresh exposition of the

law that the copyright in letters remains in the writer or his

representatives, though the property in them belongs to the recipient.

Lytton's appointment to the Parisian embassy caused the biography of his

father to be finally laid aside.

The _Personal and Literary Letters of Robert, 1st Earl of Lytton_,

have been edited by Lady Betty Balfour (1906). (H. S*.)

M The thirteenth letter of the Phoenician and Greek alphabets, the

twelfth of the Latin, and the thirteenth of the languages of western

Europe. Written originally from right to left, it took the form [symbol]

which survives in its earliest representations in Greek. The greater

length of the first limb of _m_ is characteristic of the earliest forms.

From this form, written from left to right, the Latin abbreviation M'

for the praenomen Manius is supposed to have developed, the apostrophe

representing the fifth stroke of the original letter. In the early Greek

alphabets the four-stroke M with legs of equal length represents not _m_

but _s_; _m_ when written with four strokes is [symbol]. The five-stroke

forms, however, are confined practically to Crete, Melos and Cumae; from

the last named the Romans received it along with the rest of their

alphabet. The Phoenician name of the symbol was _mem_, the Greek name

[Greek: mu] is formed on the analogy of the name for _n_. M represents

the bilabial nasal sound, which was generally voiced. It is commonly a

stable sound, but many languages, e.g. Greek, Germanic and Celtic,

change it when final into -_n_, its dental correlative. It appears more

frequently as an initial sound in Greek and Latin than in the other

languages of the same stock, because in these _s_ before _m_ (as also

before _l_ and _n_) disappeared at the beginning of words. The sounds

_m_ and _b_ are closely related, the only difference being that, in

pronouncing _m_, the nasal passage is not closed, thus allowing the

sound to be prolonged, while _b_ is an instantaneous or explosive sound.

In various languages _b_ is inserted between m and a following

consonant, as in the Gr. [Greek: mesembria] "mid-day," or the English

"number," Fr. _nombre_ from Lat. _numerus_. The sound _m_ can in

unaccented syllables form a syllable by itself without an audible vowel,

e.g. the English word _fathom_ comes from an Anglo-Saxon _fathm_, where

the _m_ was so used. (For more details as to this phonetic principle,

which has important results in the history of language, see under N.)

(P. Gi.)

MAAS, JOSEPH (1847-1886), English tenor singer, was born at Dartford,

and became a chorister in Rochester Cathedral. He went to study singing

in Milan in 1869; in February 1871 he made his first success by taking

Sims Reeves's place at a concert in London. In 1878 he became principal

tenor in Carl Rosa's company, his beautiful voice and finished style

more than compensating for his poor acting. He died in London on the

16th of January 1886.

MAASIN, a town on the S.W. coast of the island of Leyte, Philippine

Islands, at the mouth of the Maasin River. Pop. (1903), 21,638. Maasin

is an important port for hemp and copra. The well-built town occupies a

narrow coastal plain. The river valleys in the vicinity produce cotton,

pepper, tobacco, rice, Indian corn and fruit. Native cloths and pottery

are manufactured. Maasin is the only place on the west coast of Leyte

where a court of justice is held. The language is Visayan.

MAASSLUIS, a river port of Holland, in the province of South Holland, on

the New Waterway, 10 m. by rail W. of Rotterdam. Pop. (1903), 8011. It

rose into importance as a fishing harbour towards the end of the 16th

century, and its prosperity rapidly increased after the opening of the

New Waterway (the Maas ship canal) from Rotterdam to the sea. The fort

erected here in 1572 by Philip of Marnix, lord of St Aldegonde, was

captured by the Spanish in 1573.

MAASTRICHT, or MAESTRICHT, a frontier town and the capital of the

province of Limburg, Holland, on the left bank of the Maas at the influx

of the river Geer, 19 m. by rail N.N.E. of Liége in Belgium. Pop.

(1904), 36,146. A small portion of the town, known as Wyk, lies on the

right bank. A stone bridge connecting the two replaced a wooden

structure as early as 1280, and was rebuilt in 1683. Formerly a strong

fortress, Maastricht is still a considerable garrison town, but its

ramparts were dismantled in 1871-1878. The town-hall, built by Pieter

Post and completed in 1683, contains some interesting pictures and

tapestry. The old town-hall (Oud Stadhuis), a Gothic building of the

15th century, is now used as a museum of antiquities. The church of St

Servatius is said to have been founded by Bishop Monulphus in the 6th

century, thus being the oldest church in Holland; according to one

account it was rebuilt and enlarged as early as the time of Charlemagne.

The crypt with the tomb of the patron saint dates from the original

building. The varied character of its late Romanesque and later Gothic

architecture bears evidence of the frequency with which the church has

been restored and altered. Over the porch is the fine emperor's hall,

and the church has a marble statue of Charlemagne. The church of Our

Lady, a late Romanesque building, has two ancient crypts and a

13th-century choir of exceptional beauty, but the nave suffered severely

from a restoration in 1764. The present Gothic building of St Martin (in

Wyk) was erected in 1859; the original church is said by tradition to

have occupied the site of an old heathen temple. The Protestant St

Janskerk, a Gothic building of the 13th and 15th centuries, with a fine

tower, was formerly the baptistery of the cathedral. The various

hospitals, the poor-house, the orphanage and most of the other

charitable foundations are Roman Catholic institutions. Maastricht

contains the provincial archives, a library and geological collections.

Though mainly indebted for its commercial prosperity to its position on

the river, the town did not begin to reap the full advantages of its

situation till the opening of the railways between 1853 and 1865. At

first a trade was carried on in wine, colonial wares, alcoholic liquors

and salt; there are now manufactures of earthenware, glass and crystal,

arms, paper, woollens, tools, lead, copper and zinc work, as well as

breweries, and tobacco and cigar factories, and a trade in corn and

butter.

A short distance south of Maastricht are the great sandstone quarries of

Pietersberg, which were worked from the time of the Romans to near the

end of the 19th century; the result is one of the most extraordinary

subterranean labyrinths in the world, estimated to cover an area 15 m.

by 9 m. In the time of the Spanish wars these underground passages

served to hide the peasants and their cattle.

Maastricht was originally the _trajectus superior_ (upper ford) of the

Romans, and was the seat of a bishop from 382 to 721. Having formed part

of the Frankish realm, it was ruled after 1204 jointly by the dukes of

Brabant and the prince-bishops of Liége. In 1579 it was besieged by the

Spaniards under the duke of Parma, being captured and plundered after a

heroic resistance. It was taken by the French in 1673, 1748 and 1794.

MABILLON, JOHN (1632-1707), Benedictine monk of the Congregation of St

Maur (see MAURISTS), was the son of a peasant near Reims. In 1653 he

became a monk in the abbey of St Remi at Reims. In 1664 he was placed at

St Germain-des-Prés in Paris, the great literary workshop of the

Maurists, where he lived and worked for twenty years, at first under

d'Achery, with whom he edited the nine folio volumes of Acta of the

Benedictine Saints. In Mabillon's Prefaces (reprinted separately) these

lives were for the first time made to illustrate the ecclesiastical and

civil history of the early middle ages. Mabillon's masterpiece was the

_De re diplomatica_ (1681; and a supplement, 1704) in which were first

laid down the principles for determining the authenticity and date of

medieval charters and manuscripts. It practically created the science of

Latin palaeography, and is still the standard work on the subject. In

1685-1686 Mabillon visited the libraries of Italy, to purchase MSS. and

books for the King's Library. On his return to Paris he was called upon

to defend against de Rancé, the abbot of La Trappe, the legitimacy for

monks of the kind of studies to which the Maurists devoted themselves:

this called forth Mabillon's _Traité des études monastiques_ and his

_Réflexions sur la réponse de M. l'abbé de la_ _Trappe_ (1691-1692),

works embodying the ideas and programme of the Maurists for

ecclesiastical studies. Mabillon produced in all some twenty folio

volumes and as many of lesser size, nearly all works of monumental

erudition (the chief are named in the article MAURISTS). A very

competent judge declared that, "he knew well the 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th and

11th centuries, but nothing earlier or later." Mabillon never allowed

his studies to interfere with his life as a monk; he was noted for his

regular attendance at the choral recitation of the office and the other

duties of the monastic life, and for his deep personal religion, as well

as for a special charm of character. He died on the 26th of December

1707, in the midst of the production of the colossal Benedictine Annals.

The chief authority for his life is the _Abrégé de la vie de D. J. M._

(also in Latin), by his disciple and friend Ruinart (1709). See also,

for a full summary of his works, Tassin, _Hist. littéraire de la

congr. de St Maur_ (1770), pp. 205-269. Of modern biographies the best

are those of de Broglie (2 vols., 1888) and Bäumer (1892)--the former

to be especially recommended. A brief sketch by E. C. Butler may be

found in the _Downside Review_ (1893). (E. C. B.)

MABINOGION (plural of Welsh _mabinogi_, from _mabinog_, a bard's

apprentice), the title given to the collection of eleven Welsh prose

tales (from the Red Book of Hergest) published (1838) by Lady Charlotte

Guest, but applied in the Red Book to four only. (See CELT: _Welsh

Literature_.)

MABUSE, JAN (d. 1532), the name adopted (from his birthplace, Maubeuge)

by the Flemish painter JENNI GOSART, or JENNYN VAN HENNEGOUWE

(Hainault), as he called himself when he matriculated in the gild of St

Luke, at Antwerp, in 1503. We know nothing of his early life, but his

works tell us that he stood in his first period under the influence of

artists to whom plastic models were familiar; and this leads to the

belief that he spent his youth on the French border rather than on the

banks of the Scheldt. Without the subtlety or power of Van der Weyden,

he had this much in common with the great master of Tournai and

Brussels, that his compositions were usually framed in architectural

backgrounds. But whilst Mabuse thus early betrays his dependence on the

masters of the French frontier, he also confesses admiration for the

great painters who first gave lustre to Antwerp; and in the large

altar-pieces of Castle Howard and Scawby he combines in a quaint and not

unskilful medley the sentiment of Memling, the bright and decided

contrasts of pigment peculiar to coloured reliefs, the cornered and

packed drapery familiar to Van der Weyden, and the bold but Socratic

cast of face remarkable in the works of Quentin Matsys. At Scawby he

illustrates the legend of the count of Toulouse, who parted with his

worldly goods to assume the frock of a hermit. At Castle Howard he

represents the Adoration of the Kings, and throws together some thirty

figures on an architectural background, varied in detail, massive in

shape and fanciful in ornament. He surprises us by pompous costume and

flaring contrasts of tone. His figures, like pieces on a chess-board,

are often rigid and conventional. The landscape which shows through the

colonnades is adorned with towers and steeples in the minute fashion of

Van der Weyden. After a residence of a few years at Antwerp, Mabuse took

service with Philip, bastard of Philip the Good, at that time lord of

Somerdyk and admiral of Zeeland. One of his pictures had already become

celebrated--a Descent from the Cross (50 figures), on the high altar of

the monastery of St Michael of Tongerloo. Philip of Burgundy ordered

Mabuse to execute a replica for the church of Middelburg; and the value

which was then set on the picture is apparent from the fact that Dürer

came expressly to Middelburg (1521) to see it. In 1568 the altar-piece

perished by fire. In 1508 Mabuse accompanied Philip of Burgundy on his

Italian mission; and by this accident an important revolution was

effected in the art of the Netherlands. Mabuse appears to have chiefly

studied in Italy the cold and polished works of the Leonardesques. He

not only brought home a new style, but he also introduced the fashion of

travelling to Italy; and from that time till the age of Rubens and Van

Dyck it was considered proper that all Flemish painters should visit the

peninsula. The Flemings grafted Italian mannerisms on their own stock;

and the cross turned out so unfortunately that for a century Flemish

art lost all trace of originality.

In the summer of 1509 Philip returned to the Netherlands, and, retiring

to his seat of Suytburg in Zeeland, surrendered himself to the pleasures

of planning decorations for his castle and ordering pictures of Mabuse

and Jacob of Barbari. Being in constant communication with the court of

Margaret of Austria at Malines, he gave the artists in his employ fair

chances of promotion. Barbari was made court painter to the regent,

whilst Mabuse received less important commissions. Records prove that

Mabuse painted a portrait of Leonora of Portugal, and other small

pieces, for Charles V. in 1516. But his only signed pictures of this

period are the Neptune and Amphitrite of 1516 at Berlin, and the

Madonna, with a portrait of Jean Carondelet of 1517, at the Louvre, in

both of which we clearly discern that Vasari only spoke by hearsay of

the progress made by Mabuse in "the true method of producing pictures

full of nude figures and poesies." It is difficult to find anything more

coarse or misshapen than the Amphitrite, unless we except the grotesque

and ungainly drayman who figures for Neptune. In later forms of the same

subject--the Adam and Eve at Hampton Court, or its feebler replica at

Berlin--we observe more nudity, combined with realism of the commonest

type. Happily, Mabuse was capable of higher efforts. His St Luke

painting the portrait of the Virgin in Sanct Veit at Prague, a variety

of the same subject in the Belvedere at Vienna, the Madonna of the

Baring collection in London, or the numerous repetitions of Christ and

the scoffers (Ghent and Antwerp), all prove that travel had left many of

Mabuse's fundamental peculiarities unaltered. His figures still retain

the character of stone; his architecture is as rich and varied, his

tones are as strong as ever. But bright contrasts of gaudy tints are

replaced by soberer greys; and a cold haze, the _sfumato_ of the

Milanese, pervades the surfaces. It is but seldom that these features

fail to obtrude. When they least show, the master displays a brilliant

palette combined with smooth surface and incisive outlines. In this form

the Madonnas of Munich and Vienna (1527), the likeness of a girl

weighing gold pieces (Berlin), and the portraits of the children of the

king of Denmark at Hampton Court, are fair specimens of his skill. As

early as 1523, when Christian II. of Denmark came to Belgium, he asked

Mabuse to paint the likenesses of his dwarfs. In 1528 he requested the

artist to furnish to Jean de Hare the design for his queen Isabella's

tomb in the abbey of St Pierre near Ghent. It was no doubt at this time

that Mabuse completed the portraits of John, Dorothy and Christine,

children of Christian II., which came into the collection of Henry VIII.

No doubt, also, these portraits are identical with those of three

children at Hampton Court, which were long known and often copied as

likenesses of Prince Arthur, Prince Henry and Princess Margaret of

England. One of the copies at Wilton, inscribed with the forged name of

"Hans Holbein, ye father," and the false date of 1495, has often been

cited as a proof that Mabuse came to England in the reign of Henry VII.;

but the statement rests on no foundation whatever. At the period when

these portraits were executed Mabuse lived at Middelburg. But he dwelt

at intervals elsewhere. When Philip of Burgundy became bishop of

Utrecht, and settled at Duerstede, near Wyck, in 1517, he was

accompanied by Mabuse, who helped to decorate the new palace of his

master. At Philip's death, in 1524, Mabuse designed and erected his tomb

in the church of Wyck. He finally retired to Middelburg, where he took

service with Philip's brother, Adolph, lord of Veeren. Van Mander's

biography accuses Mabuse of habitual drunkenness; yet it describes the

splendid appearance of the artist as, dressed in gold brocade, he

accompanied Lucas of Leyden on a pleasure trip to Ghent, Malines and

Antwerp in 1527. The works of Mabuse are those of a hardworking and

patient artist; the number of his still extant pictures practically

demonstrates that he was not a debauchee. The marriage of his daughter

with the painter Henry Van der Heyden of Louvain proves that he had a

home, and did not live habitually in taverns, as Van Mander suggests.

His death at Antwerp, on the 1st of October 1532, is recorded in the

portrait engraved by Jerome Cock. (J. A. C.)

MACABEBE, a town of the province of Pampanga, island of Luzon,

Philippine Islands, on the Pampanga Grande river, about 10 m. above its

mouth and about 25 m. N.W. of Manila. Pop. (1903), after the annexation

of San Miguel, 21,481. The language is Pampango. Many of the male

inhabitants serve in the U.S. Army as scouts. Macabebe's principal

industries are the cultivation of rice and sugar cane, the distilling of

nipa alcohol, and the weaving of hemp and cotton fabrics.

MACABRE, a term applied to a certain type of artistic or literary

composition, characterized by a grim and ghastly humour, with an

insistence on the details and trappings of death. Such a quality,

deliberately adopted, is hardly to be found in ancient Greek and Latin

writers, though there are traces of it in Apuleius and the author of the

_Satyricon_. The outstanding instances in English literature are John

Webster and Cyril Tourneur, with E. A. Poe and R. L. Stevenson. The word

has gained its significance from its use in French, _la danse macabre_,

for that allegorical representation, in painting, sculpture and

tapestry, of the ever-present and universal power of death, known in

English as the "Dance of Death," and in German as _Totentanz_. The

typical form which the allegory takes is that of a series of pictures,

sculptured or painted, in which Death appears, either as a dancing

skeleton or as a shrunken corpse wrapped in grave-clothes to persons

representing every age and condition of life, and leads them all in a

dance to the grave. Of the numerous examples painted or sculptured on

the walls of cloisters or churchyards through medieval Europe few remain

except in woodcuts and engravings. Thus the famous series at Basel,

originally at the Klingenthal, a nunnery in Little Basel, dated from the

beginning of the 14th century. In the middle of the 15th century this

was moved to the churchyard of the Predigerkloster at Basel, and was

restored, probably by Hans Kluber, in 1568; the fall of the wall in 1805

reduced it to fragments, and only drawings of it remain. A Dance of

Death in its simplest form still survives in the Marienkirche at Lubeck

in a 15th-century painting on the walls of a chapel. Here there are

twenty-four figures in couples, between each is a dancing Death linking

the groups by outstretched hands, the whole ring being led by a Death

playing on a pipe. At Dresden there is a sculptured life-size series in

the old Neustädter Kirchhoff, removed here from the palace of Duke

George in 1701 after a fire. At Rouen in the _aitre_ (atrium) or

cloister of St Maclou there also remains a sculptured _danse macabre_.

There was a celebrated fresco of the subject in the cloister of Old St

Paul's in London, and another in the now destroyed Hungerford Chapel at

Salisbury, of which a single woodcut, "Death and the Gallant," alone

remains. Of the many engraved reproductions, the most celebrated is the

series drawn by Holbein. Here the long ring of connected dancing couples

is necessarily abandoned, and the Dance of Death becomes rather a series

of _imagines mortis_.

Concerning the origin of this allegory in painting and sculpture there

has been much dispute. It certainly seems to be as early as the 14th

century, and has often been attributed to the overpowering consciousness

of the presence of death due to the Black Death and the miseries of the

Hundred Years' War. It has also been attributed to a form of the

Morality, a dramatic dialogue between Death and his victims in every

station of life, ending in a dance off the stage (see Du Cange,

_Gloss._, s.v. "Machabaeorum chora"). The origin of the peculiar form

the allegory has taken has also been found, somewhat needlessly and

remotely, in the dancing skeletons on late Roman sarcophagi and mural

paintings at Cumae or Pompeii, and a false connexion has been traced

with the "Triumph of Death," attributed to Orcagna, in the Campo Santo

at Pisa.

The etymology of the word _macabre_ is itself most obscure. According to

Gaston Paris (_Romania_, xxiv., 131; 1895) it first occurs in the form

_macabre_ in Jean le Févre's _Respit de la mort_ (1376), "Je lis de

Macabré la danse," and he takes this accented form to be the true one,

and traces it in the name of the first painter of the subject. The more

usual explanation is based on the Latin name, _Machabaeorum chora_. The

seven tortured brothers, with their mother and Eleazar (2 Macc. vi.,

vii.) were prominent figures on this hypothesis in the supposed

dramatic dialogues. Other connexions have been suggested, as for example

with St Macarius, or Macaire, the hermit, who, according to Vasari, is

to be identified with the figure pointing to the decaying corpses in the

Pisan "Triumph of Death," or with an Arabic word _magbarah_, "cemetery."

See Peignot, _Recherches sur les danses des morts_ (1826); Douce,

_Dissertation on the Dance of Death_ (1833); Massmann, _Litteratur der

Totentänze_ (1840); J. Charlier de Gerson, _La Danse macabre des Stes

Innocents de Paris_ (1874); Seelmann, _Die Totentänze des

Mittelalters_ (1893).

McADAM, JOHN LOUDON (1756-1836), Scottish inventor, who gave his name to

the system of road-making known as "macadamizing," was born at Ayr,

Scotland, on the 21st of September 1756, being descended on his father's

side from the clan of the McGregors. While at school he constructed a

model road-section. In 1770 he went to New York, entering the

counting-house of a merchant uncle. He returned to Scotland with a

considerable fortune in 1783, and purchased an estate at Sauhrie,

Ayrshire. Among other public offices he held that of road trustee. The

highways of Great Britain were at this time in a very bad condition, and

McAdam at once began to consider how to effect reforms. At his own

expense he began at Sauhrie, despite much opposition, a series of

experiments in road-making. In 1798 he removed to Falmouth, where he had

received a government appointment, and continued his experiments there.

His general conclusion was that roads should be constructed of broken

stone (see ROADS). In 1815, having been appointed surveyor-general of

the Bristol roads, he was able to put his theories into practice. In

1819 he published a _Practical Essay on the Scientific Repair and

Preservation of Roads_, followed, in 1820, by the _Present State of

Road-making_. As the result of a parliamentary inquiry in 1823 into the

whole question of road-making, his views were adopted by the public

authorities, and in 1827 he was appointed general surveyor of roads. In

pursuing his investigations he had travelled over thirty thousand miles

of road and expended over £5000. Parliament recouped him for his

expenses and gave him a handsome gratuity, but he declined a proffered

knighthood. He died at Moffat, Dumfriesshire, on the 26th of November

1836.

MACAIRE, a French _chanson de geste_. _Macaire_ (12th century) and _La

reine Sibille_ (14th century) are two versions of the story of the false

accusation brought against the queen of Charlemagne, called Blanchefleur

in _Macaire_ and Sibille in the later poem. _Macaire_ is only preserved

in the Franco-Venetian _geste_ of Charlemagne (Bibl. St Mark MS. fr.

xiii.). _La Reine Sibille_ only exists in fragments, but the tale is

given in the chronicle of Alberic Trium Fontium and in a prose version.

_Macaire_ is the product of the fusion of two legends: that of the

unjustly repudiated wife and that of the dog who detects the murderer of

his master. For the former motive see GENEVIEVE OF BRABANT. The second

is found in Plutarch, _Script. moral._, ed. Didot ii. (1186), where a

dog, like Aubri's hound, stayed three days without food by the body of

its master, and subsequently attacked the murderers, thus leading to

their discovery. The duel between Macaire and the dog is paralleled by

an interpolation by Giraldus Cambrensis in a MS. of the _Hexameron_ of

Saint Ambrose. Aubri's hound received the name of the "dog of

Montargis," because a representation of the story was painted on a

chimney-piece in the château of Montargis in the 15th century. The tale

was early divorced from Carolingian tradition, and Jean de la Taille, in

his _Discours notable des duels_ (Paris, 1607), places the incident

under Charles V.

See _Macaire_ (Paris, 1866), ed. Guessard in the series of _Anc.

poètes de la France_; P. Paris in _Hist. litt. de la France_, vol.

xxiii. (1873); L. Gautier, _Épopées françaises_, vol. iii. (2nd ed.,

1880); G. Paris, _Hist. poet. de Charlemagne_ (1865); M. J. G. Isola,

_Storie nerbonesi_, vol. i. (Bologna, 1877); F. Wolf, _Über die beiden

... Volksbücher von der K. Sibille u. Huon de Bordeaux_ (Vienna, 1857)

and _Über die neuesten Leistungen der Franzosen_ (Vienna, 1833). _The

Dog of Montargis_; or, _The Forest of Bondy_, imitated from the play

of G. de Pixerecourt, was played at Covent Garden (Sept. 30, 1814).

"Robert Macaire" was the name given to the modern villain in the

_Auberge des Adrets_ (1823), a melodrama in which Frédérick Lemaître

made his reputation. The type was sensibly modified in _Robert

Macaire_ (1834), a sequel written by Lemaître in collaboration with

Benjamin Antier, and well-known on the English stage as _Macaire_. R.

L. Stevenson and W. E. Henley used the same type in their play

_Macaire_.

McALESTER, a city and the county-seat of Pittsburg county, Oklahoma,

about 110 m. E.S.E. of Guthrie. Pop. (1900), 3479; (1907) 8144 (1681

negroes and 105 Indians); (1910) 12,954. McAlester is served by the

Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways

and is an important railway junction; it is connected with the

neighbouring mining district by an electric line. There are undeveloped

iron deposits and rich coal-mines in the surrounding country, and

coke-making is the principal manufacturing industry of the city. There

is a fine Scottish Rite Masons' consistory and temple in McAlester. The

city owns its waterworks. The vicinity was first settled in 1885. The

city of South McAlester was incorporated in 1899, and in 1906 it annexed

the town of McAlester and adopted its name.

MACALPINE (or MACCABEUS), JOHN (d. 1557), Protestant theologian, was

born in Scotland about the beginning of the 16th century, and graduated

at some Scottish university. From 1532 to 1534 he was prior of the

Dominican convent of Perth; but having in the latter year been summoned

with Alexander Ales (q.v.) and others to answer for heresy before the

bishop of Ross, he fled to England, where he was granted letters of

denization on the 7th of April 1537, and married Agnes Macheson, a

fellow-exile for religion; her sister Elizabeth became the wife of Miles

Coverdale. The reaction of 1539 made England a doubtful refuge, and on

the 25th of November 1540 Macalpine matriculated at the university of

Wittenberg. He had already graduated B.A. at Cologne, and in 1542

proceeded to his doctorate at Wittenberg. In that year, being now known

as Maccabeus, he accepted Christian III.'s offer of the chair of

theology at the university of Copenhagen, which had been endowed out of

the spoils of the Church. Melanchthon spoke well of Macalpine, and with

Peter Plade (Palladius), who had also studied at Wittenberg, Macalpine

took a prominent part in building up the Lutheran Church of Denmark. A

joint exposure by Plade and Macalpine of Osiander's errors was published

in 1552 and reprinted at Leipzig and Copenhagen in 1768; and Macalpine

was one of the four translators of Luther's German Bible into Danish. He

also encouraged Sir David Lindsay, who visited him in 1548, to publish

his _Monarchie_, and persuaded Christian III. to intercede with Queen

Mary Tudor on behalf of Coverdale and invite him to Denmark. Macalpine

died at Copenhagen on the 6th of December 1557.

See _Dict. Nat. Biog._ and authorities there cited; _Corpus

reformatorum_, iii. (1066), iv. 771, 793; Foerstemann, _Album

academiae vitebergensis_ (1841), p. 186, and _Liber decanorum_ (1838),

p. 32; Rockwell, _Die Doppelehe des Landgrafen Philipp_ (1904), pp.

114-116; _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._ (1537), i. 1103 (12);

(1542), pp. 46,218. (A. F. P.)

MACAO (A-Ma-ngao, "Harbour of the goddess A-Ma"; Port. _Macau_), a

Portuguese settlement on the coast of China, in 22° N., 132° E. Pop.

(1896), Chinese, 74,568; Portuguese, 3898; other nationalities,

161--total, 78,627. It consists of a tongue of land 2½ m. in length and

less than 1 m. in breadth, running S.S.W. from the island of Hiang Shang

(Port. _Ançam_) on the western side of the estuary of the Canton River.

Bold and rocky hills about 300 ft. high occupy both extremities of the

peninsula, the picturesque city, with its flat-roofed houses painted

blue, green and red, lying in the undulating ground between. The forts

are effective additions to the general view, but do not add much to the

strength of the place. Along the east side of the peninsula runs the

Praya Grande, or Great Quay, the chief promenade in Macao, on which

stand the governor's palace, the administrative offices, the consulates

and the leading commercial establishments. The church of St Paul

(1594-1602), the seat of the Jesuit college in the 17th century, was

destroyed by fire in 1835. The Hospital da Misericordia (1569) was

rebuilt in 1640. The Camoens grotto, where the exiled poet found leisure

to celebrate the achievements of his ungrateful country, lies in a

secluded spot to the north of the town, which has been partly left in

its native wildness strewn with huge granite boulders and partly

transformed into a fine botanical garden. During the south-west (summer)

monsoon great quantities (67 in.) of rain fall, especially in July and

August. The mean temperature is 74.3° F.; in July, the hottest month,

the temperature is 84.2°; in February, the coldest, it is 59 deg. On the

whole the climate is moist. Hurricanes are frequent. Of the Portuguese

inhabitants more than three-fourths are natives of Macao--a race very

inferior in point of physique to their European ancestors. Macao is

connected with Hong-Kong by a daily steamer. Being open to the

south-west sea breezes, it is a favourite place of resort from the

oppressive heat of Hong-Kong. It is ruled by a governor, and, along with

Timor (East Indies), constitutes a bishopric, to which belong also the

Portuguese Christians in Malacca and Singapore. Though most of the land

is under garden cultivation, the mass of the people is dependent more or

less directly on mercantile pursuits; for, while the exclusive policy

both of Chinese and Portuguese which prevented Macao becoming a free

port till 1845-1846 allowed what was once the great emporium of European

commerce in eastern Asia to be outstripped by its younger and more

liberal rivals, the local, though not the foreign, trade of the place is

still of very considerable extent. Since the middle of the 19th century,

indeed, much of it has run in the most questionable channels; the

nefarious coolie traffic gradually increased in extent and in cruelty

from about 1848 till it was prohibited in 1874, and much of the actual

trade is more or less of the nature of smuggling. The commodities

otherwise mostly dealt in are opium, tea, rice, oil, raw cotton, fish

and silk. The total value of exports and imports was in 1876-1877

upwards of £1,536,000. In 1880 it had increased to £2,259,250, and in

1898 to £3,771,615. Commercial intercourse is most intimate with

Hong-Kong, Canton, Batavia and Goa. The preparation and packing of tea

is the principal industry in the town. In fishing a large number of

boats and men are employed.

In 1557 the Portuguese were permitted to erect factories on the

peninsula, and in 1573 the Chinese built across the isthmus the wall

which still cuts off the barbarian from the rest of the island. Jesuit

missionaries established themselves on the spot; and in 1580 Gregory

XIII. constituted a bishopric of Macao. A senate was organized in 1583,

and in 1628 Jeronimo de Silveira became first royal governor of Macao.

Still the Portuguese remained largely under the control of the Chinese,

who had never surrendered their territorial rights and maintained their

authority by means of mandarins--these insisting that even European

criminals should be placed in their hands. Ferreira do Amaral, the

Portuguese governor, put an end to this state of things in 1849, and

left the Chinese officials no more authority in the peninsula than the

representatives of other foreign nations; and, though his antagonists

procured his assassination (Aug. 22), his successors succeeded in

carrying out his policy.

Although Macao is de facto a colonial possession of Portugal, the

Chinese government persistently refused to recognize the claim of the

Portuguese to territorial rights, alleging that they were merely lessees

or tenants at will, and until 1849 the Portuguese paid to the Chinese an

annual rent of £71 per annum. This diplomatic difficulty prevented the

conclusion of a commercial treaty between China and Portugal for a long

time, but an arrangement for a treaty was come to in 1887 on the

following basis: (1) China confirmed perpetual occupation and government

of Macao and its dependencies by Portugal; (2) Portugal engaged never to

alienate Macao and its dependencies without the consent of China; (3)

Portugal engaged to co-operate in opium revenue work at Macao in the

same way as Great Britain at Hong-Kong. The formal treaty was signed in

the same year, and arrangements were made whereby the Chinese imperial

customs were able to collect duties on vessels trading with Macao in the

same way as they had already arranged for their collection at the

British colony of Hong-Kong. For a short time in 1802, and again in

1808, Macao was occupied by the English as a precaution against seizure

by the French.

MACAQUE, a name of French origin denoting the monkeys of the mainly

Asiatic genus _Macacus_, of which one species, the Barbary ape, inhabits

North Africa and the rock of Gibraltar. Displaying great variability in

the length of the tail, which is reduced to a mere tubercle in the

Barbary ape, alone representing the subgenus _Inuus_, macaques are

heavily-built monkeys, with longer muzzles than their compatriots the

langurs (see PRIMATES), and large naked callosities on the buttocks.

They range all over India and Ceylon, thence northward to Tibet, and

eastwards to China, Japan, Formosa, Borneo, Sumatra and Java; while by

some naturalists the black ape of Celebes (_Cynopithecus niger_) is

included in the same genus. Mention of some of the more important

species, typifying distinct sub-generic groups, is made in the article

PRIMATES. Like most other monkeys, macaques go about in large troops,

each headed by an old male. They feed on seeds, fruits, insects,

lizards, &c.; and while some of the species are largely terrestrial, the

Barbary ape is wholly so. Docile and easily tamed when young, old males

of many of the species become exceedingly morose and savage in

captivity. (R. L.*)

MACARONI (from dialectic Ital. _maccare_, to bruise or crush), a

preparation of a glutinous wheat originally peculiar to Italy, where it

is an article of food of national importance. The same substance in

different forms is also known as _vermicelli_, _pasta_ or Italian

pastes, _spaghetti_, _taglioni_, _fanti_, &c. These substances are

prepared from the hard, semi-translucent varieties of wheat which are

largely cultivated in the south of Europe, Algeria and other warm

regions, and distinguished by the Italians as _grano duro_ or _grano da

semolino_. These wheats are much richer in gluten and other nitrogenous

compounds than the soft or tender wheats of more northern regions, and

their preparations are more easily preserved. The various preparations

are met with as fine thin threads (vermicelli), thin sticks and pipes

(spaghetti, macaroni), small lozenges, stars, disks, ellipses, &c.

(pastes). These various forms are prepared in a uniform manner from a

granular product of hard wheat, which, under the name of semolina or

middlings, is a commercial article. The semolina is thoroughly mixed

with boiling water and incorporated in a kneading machine, such as is

used in bakeries, into a stiff paste or dough. It is then further

kneaded by passing frequently between rollers or under edge runners,

till a homogeneous mass has been produced which is placed in a strong

steam-jacketed cylinder, the lower end of which is closed with a thick

disk pierced with openings corresponding with the diameter or section of

the article to be made. Into this cylinder an accurately fitting plunger

or piston is introduced and subjected to very great pressure, which

causes the stiff dough to squeeze out through the openings in the disk

in continuous threads, sticks or pipes, as the case may be. Vermicelli

is cut off in short bundles and laid on trays to dry, while macaroni is

dried by hanging it in longer lengths over wooden rods in stoves or

heated apartments through which currents of air are driven. It is only

genuine macaroni, rich in gluten, which can be dried in this manner;

spurious fabrications will not bear their own weight, and must,

therefore, be laid out flat to be dried. In making pastes the cylinder

is closed with a disk pierced with holes having the sectional form of

the pastes, and a set of knives revolving close against the external

surface of the disk cut off the paste in thin sections as it exudes from

each opening. True macaroni can be distinguished by observing the

flattened mark of the rod over which it has been dried within the bend

of the tubes; it has a soft yellowish colour, is rough in texture,

elastic and hard, and breaks with a smooth glassy fracture. In boiling

it swells up to double its original size without becoming pasty or

adhesive. It can be kept any length of time without alteration or

deterioration; and it is on that account, in many circumstances, a most

convenient as well as a highly nutritious and healthful article of food.

MACARONICS, a species of burlesque poetry, in which words from a modern

vernacular, with Latin endings, are introduced into Latin verse, so as

to produce a ridiculous effect. Sometimes Greek is used instead of

Latin. Tisi degli Odassi issued a _Carmen macaronicum de Patavinis_ in

1490. The real founder of the practice, however, was Teofilo Folengo

(1491-1544), whose mock-heroic _Liber Macaronices_ appeared in 1517.

Folengo (q.v.) was a Benedictine monk, who escaped from his monastery

and wandered through Italy, living a dissolute life, and supporting

himself by his absurd verses, which he described as an attempt to

produce in literature something like macaroni, a gross, rude and rustic

mixture of flour, cheese and butter. He wrote under the pseudonym of

Merlinus Coccaius, and his poem is an elaborate burlesque epic, in

twenty-five books, or _macaronea_; it is an extraordinary medley of

chivalrous feats, ridiculous and squalid adventures, and satirical

allegory. Its effect upon the mind of Rabelais was so extraordinary that

no examination of _Pantagruel_ can be complete without a reference to it

(cf. _Gargantua_, i. 19). It was immediately imitated in Italy by a

number of minor poets; and in France a writer whose real name was

Antoine de la Sable, but who called himself Antonius de Arena (d. 1544),

published at Avignon in 1573 a _Meygra entrepriza_, which was a

burlesque account of Charles V.'s disastrous campaign in Provence.

Folengo in Italy and Arena in France are considered as the macaronic

classics. In the 17th century, Joannes Caecilius Frey (1580-1631)

published a _Recitus veritabilis_, on a skirmish between the

vine-growers of Rueil and the bowmen of Paris. Great popularity was

achieved later still by an anonymous macaronic, entitled _Funestissimus

trepassus Micheli Morini_, who died by falling off the branch of an

elm-tree:--

De branche in brancham degringolat, et faciens pouf

Ex ormo cadit, et clunes obvertit Olympo.

Molière employed macaronic verse in the ceremonial scene with the

doctors in _Le Malade imaginaire_. Works in macaronic prose are rarer.

An _Anti-Clopinus_ by Antony Hotman may be mentioned and the amusing

_Epistolae obscurorum virorum_ (1515). Macaronic prose was not unknown

as an artifice of serious oratory, and abounds (e.g.) in the sermons of

Michel Menot (1440-1518), who says of the prodigal son, _Emit sibi

pulcheras caligas d'écarlate, bien tirées_.

The use of true macaronics has never been frequent in Great Britain,

where the only prominent example of it is the _Polemo-Middinia_ ascribed

to William Drummond of Hawthornden. This short epic was probably

composed early in the 17th century, but was not published until 1684.

The _Polemo-Middinia_ follows the example set by Arena, and describes

with burlesque solemnity a quarrel between two villages on the Firth of

Forth. Drummond shows great ingenuity in the tacking on of Latin

terminations to his Lowland Scots vernacular:--

Lifeguardamque sibi saevas vocat improba lassas,

Maggaeam, magis doctam milkare cowaeas,

Et doctam sweepare flooras, et sternere beddas,

Quaeque novit spinnare, et longas ducere threedas.

There is a certain macaronic character about many poems of Skelton and

Dunbar, as well as the famous _Barnabae itinerarium_ (1638) of Richard

Brathwait (1588-1673), but these cannot be considered legitimate

specimens of the type as laid down by Folengo.

See Ch. Nodier, _Du Langage factice appelé macaronique_ (1834);

Genthe, _Histoire de la poesie macaronique_ (1831). (E. G.)

MACARSCA (Serbo-Croatian, _Makarska_), the chief town of an

administrative district in Dalmatia, Austria; situated opposite to the

island of Brazza, about 32 m. S.E. of Spalato. Pop. (1900), of town

1805; of commune, 11,016, chiefly Serbo-Croatian. Macarsca is a port of

call for the Austrian Lloyd steamers, and has a brisk trade in wine,

grain and fruit. Under the name of _Mocrum_, Macarsca was a thriving

Roman city, and a bishopric until 639, when it was destroyed by the

Avars. In the 10th century it is mentioned by Constantine

Porphyrogenitus as a city of the pagan Narentines. Its bishopric was

revived in 1320, but the bishops resided at Almissa. In 1481 the city

was purchased from the duke of Herzegovina by Venice; in 1499 it was

conquered by the Turks; and in 1646, after a successful revolt, it again

welcomed the sovereignty of Venice. The see of Macarsca was merged in

that of Spalato in 1830.

MACARTNEY, GEORGE MACARTNEY, EARL (1737-1806), was descended from an old

Scottish family, the Macartneys of Auchinleck, who had settled in 1649

at Lissanoure, Antrim, Ireland, where he was born on the 14th of May

1737. After graduating at Trinity College, Dublin, in 1759, he became a

student of the Temple, London. Through Stephen Fox, elder brother of C.

J. Fox, he was taken up by Lord Holland. Appointed envoy extraordinary

to Russia in 1764, he succeeded in negotiating an alliance between

England and that country. After occupying a seat in the English

parliament, he was in 1769 returned for Antrim in the Irish parliament,

in order to discharge the duties of chief secretary for Ireland. On

resigning this office he was knighted. In 1775 he became governor of the

Caribbee Islands (being created an Irish baron in 1776), and in 1780

governor of Madras, but he declined the governor-generalship of India,

and returned to England in 1786. After being created Earl Macartney in

the Irish peerage (1792), he was appointed the first envoy of Britain to

China. On his return from a confidential mission to Italy (1795) he was

raised to the English peerage as a baron in 1796, and in the end of the

same year was appointed governor of the newly acquired territory of the

Cape of Good Hope, where he remained till ill health compelled him to

resign in November 1798. He died at Chiswick, Middlesex, on the 31st of

May 1806, the title becoming extinct, and his property, after the death

of his widow (daughter of the 3rd earl of Bute), going to his niece,

whose son took the name.

An account of Macartney's embassy to China, by Sir George Staunton,

was published in 1797, and has been frequently reprinted. The _Life

and Writings of Lord Macartney_, by Sir John Barrow, appeared in 1807.

See Mrs Helen Macartney Robbins's biography, _The First English

Ambassador to China_ (1908), based on previously unpublished materials

in possession of the family.

MACASSAR (MAKASSAR, MANGKASAR), the capital of a district of the same

name in the island of Celebes, Dutch East Indies, and the chief town of

the Dutch government of Celebes. Pop. 17,925 (940 Europeans, 2618

Chinese, 168 Arabs). It stands on the west coast of the southern

peninsula of the island, near the southern extremity of the Macassar

Strait, which separates Celebes from Borneo. Macassar consists of the

Dutch town and port, known as Vlaardingen, and the Malay town which lies

inland. Macassar's trade amounts to about £1,250,000 annually, and

consists mainly of coffee, trepang, copra, gums, spices and valuable

timber.

For the Macassar people and for the Strait, see CELEBES. "Macassar

oil" is a trade name, not geographical: see ANTIMACASSAR.

MACAULAY, THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY, BARON (1800-1859), English

historian, essayist and politician, was born at Rothley Temple,

Leicestershire, on the 25th of October 1800. His father, Zachary

Macaulay (1768-1838), had been governor of Sierra Leone, and was in 1800

secretary to the chartered company which had founded that colony; an

ardent philanthropist, he did much to secure the abolition of the slave

trade, and he edited the abolitionist organ, the _Christian Observer_,

for many years. Happy in his home, the son at a very early age gave

proof of a determined bent towards literature. Before he was eight years

of age he had written a _Compendium of Universal History_, which gave a

tolerably connected view of the leading events from the creation to

1800, and a romance in the style of Scott, in three cantos, called _The

Battle of Cheviot_. A little later he composed a long poem on the

history of Olaus Magnus, and a vast pile of blank verse entitled

_Fingal, a Poem in Twelve Books_. After being at a private school, in

October 1818 young Macaulay went to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he

afterwards became a fellow. He gained in 1824 a college prize for an

essay on the character of William III. He also won a prize for Latin

declamation and a Craven scholarship, and wrote the prize poems of 1819

and 1821.

In 1826 Macaulay was called to the bar and joined the northern circuit.

But he soon gave up even the pretence of reading law, and spent many

more hours under the gallery of the house of commons than in the court.

His first attempt at a public speech, made at an anti-slavery meeting in

1824, was described by the _Edinburgh Review_ as "a display of eloquence

of rare and matured excellence." His first considerable appearance in

print was in No. 1 of Knight's _Quarterly Magazine_, a periodical which

enjoyed a short but brilliant existence, and which was largely supported

by Eton and Cambridge. In August 1825 began Macaulay's connexion with

the periodical which was to prove the field of his literary reputation.

The _Edinburgh Review_ was at this time at the height of its power, not

only as an organ of the growing opinion which, leant towards reform, but

as a literary tribunal from which there was no appeal. His essay on

Milton (Aug. 1825), so crude that the author afterwards said that "it

contained scarcely a paragraph such as his matured judgment approved,"

created for him at once a literary reputation which suffered no

diminution to the last, a reputation which he established and confirmed,

but which it would have been hardly possible to make more conspicuous.

The publisher John Murray declared that it would be worth the copyright

of _Childe Harold_ to have Macaulay on the staff of the _Quarterly

Review_, and Robert Hall, the orator, writhing with pain, and well-nigh

worn out with disease, was discovered lying on the floor employed in

learning by aid of grammar and dictionary enough Italian to enable him

to verify the parallel between Milton and Dante.

This sudden blaze of popularity, kindled by a single essay, is partly to

be explained by the dearth of literary criticism in England at that

epoch. For, though a higher note had already been sounded by Hazlitt and

Coleridge, it had not yet taken hold of the public mind, which was still

satisfied with the feeble appreciations of the _Retrospective Review_,

or the dashing and damnatory improvisation of Wilson in _Blackwood_ or

Jeffrey in the _Edinburgh_. Still, allowance being made for the

barbarous partisanship of the established critical tribunals of the

period, it seems surprising that a social success so signal should have

been the consequence of a single article. The explanation is that the

writer of the article on Milton was, unlike most authors, also a

brilliant conversationalist. There has never been a period when an

amusing talker has not been in great demand at London tables; but when

Macaulay made his debut witty conversation was studied and cultivated as

it has ceased to be in the more busy age which has succeeded. At the

university Macaulay had been recognized as pre-eminent for inexhaustible

talk and genial companionship among a circle of such brilliant young men

as Charles Austin, Romilly, Praed and Villiers. He now displayed these

gifts on a wider theatre. Launched on the best that London had to give

in the way of society, Macaulay accepted and enjoyed with all the zest

of youth and a vigorous nature the opportunities opened for him. He was

courted and admired by the most distinguished personages of the day. He

was admitted at Holland House, where Lady Holland listened to him with

deference, and scolded him with a circumspection which was in itself a

compliment. Samuel Rogers spoke of him with friendliness and to him with

affection. He was treated with almost fatherly kindness by

"Conversation" Sharp.

Thus distinguished, and justifiably conscious of his great powers,

Macaulay began to aspire to a political career. But the shadow of

pecuniary trouble early began to fall upon his path. When he went to

college his father believed himself to be worth £100,000. But commercial

disaster overtook the house of Babington & Macaulay, and the son now saw

himself compelled to work for his livelihood. His Trinity fellowship of

£300 a year became of great consequence to him, but it expired in 1831;

he could make at most £200 a year by writing; and a commissionership of

bankruptcy, which was given him by Lord Lyndhurst in 1828, and which

brought him in about £400 a year, was swept away, without compensation,

by the ministry which came into power in 1830. Macaulay was reduced to

such straits that he had to sell his Cambridge gold medal.

In February 1830 the doors of the House of Commons were opened to him

through what was then called a "pocket borough." Lord Lansdowne, who had

been struck by two articles on James Mill and the Utilitarians, which

appeared in the _Edinburgh Review_ in 1829, offered the author the seat

at Calne. The offer was accompanied by the express assurance that the

patron had no wish to interfere with Macaulay's freedom of voting. He

thus entered parliament at one of the most exciting moments of English

domestic history, when the compact phalanx of reactionary administration

which for nearly fifty years had commanded a crushing majority in the

Commons was on the point of being broken by the growing strength of the

party of reform. Macaulay made his maiden speech on the 5th of April

1830, on the second reading of the Bill for the Removal of Jewish

Disabilities. In July the king died and parliament was dissolved; the

revolution took place in Paris. Macaulay, who was again returned for

Calne, visited Paris, eagerly enjoying a first taste of foreign travel.

On the 1st of March 1831 the Reform Bill was introduced, and on the

second night of the debate Macaulay made the first of his reform

speeches. It was, like all his speeches, a success. Sir Robert Peel said

of it that "portions were as beautiful as anything I have ever heard or

read."

Encouraged by this first success, Macaulay now threw himself with ardour

into the life of the House of Commons, while at the same time he

continued to enjoy to the full the social opportunities which his

literary and political celebrity had placed within his reach. He dined

out almost nightly, and spent many of his Sundays at the suburban villas

of the Whig leaders, while he continued to supply the _Edinburgh Review_

with articles. On the triumph of Earl Grey's cabinet, and the passing of

the Reform Act in June 1832, Macaulay, whose eloquence had signalized

every stage of the conflict, became one of the commissioners of the

board of control, and applied himself to the study of Indian affairs.

Giving his days to India and his nights to the House of Commons, he

could only devote a few hours to literary composition by rising at five

when the business of the house had allowed of his getting to bed in time

on the previous evening. Between September 1831 and December 1833 he

furnished the _Review_ with eight important articles, besides writing

his ballad on the Armada.

In the first Reform Parliament, January 1833, Macaulay took his seat as

one of the two members for Leeds, which up to that date had been

unrepresented in the House of Commons. He replied to O'Connell in the

debate on the address, meeting the great agitator face to face, with

high, but not intemperate, defiance. In July he defended the Government

of India Bill in a speech of great power, and he was instrumental in

getting the bill through committee without unnecessary friction. When

the abolition of slavery came before the house as a practical question,

Macaulay had the prospect of having to surrender office or to vote for a

modified abolition, viz. twelve years' apprenticeship, which was

proposed by the ministry, but condemned by the abolitionists. He was

prepared to make the sacrifice of place rather than be unfaithful to the

cause to which his father had devoted his life. He placed his

resignation in Lord Althorp's hands, and spoke against the ministerial

proposal. But the sense of the house was so strongly expressed as

unfavourable that, finding they would be beaten if they persisted, the

ministry gave way, and reduced apprenticeship to seven years, a

compromise which the abolition party accepted; and Macaulay remained at

the board of control.

While he was thus growing in reputation, and advancing his public

credit, the fortunes of the family were sinking, and it became evident

that his sisters would have no provision except such as their brother

might be enabled to make for them. Macaulay had but two sources of

income, both of them precarious--office and his pen. As to office, the

Whigs could not have expected at that time to retain power for a whole

generation; and, even while they did so, Macaulay's resolution that he

would always give an independent vote made it possible that he might at

any moment find himself in disagreement with his colleagues, and have to

quit his place. As to literature, he wrote to Lord Lansdowne (1833), "it

has been hitherto merely my relaxation; I have never considered it as

the means of support. I have chosen my own topics, taken my own time,

and dictated my own terms. The thought of becoming a bookseller's hack,

of spurring a jaded fancy to reluctant exertion, of filling sheets with

trash merely that sheets may be filled, of bearing from publishers and

editors what Dryden bore from Tonson and what Mackintosh bore from

Lardner, is horrible to me." Macaulay was thus prepared to accept the

offer of a seat in the supreme council of India, created by the new

India Act. The salary of the office was fixed at £10,000, out of which

he calculated to be able to save £30,000 in five years. His sister

Hannah accepted his proposal to accompany him, and in February 1834 the

brother and sister sailed for Calcutta.

Macaulay's appointment to India occurred at the critical moment when the

government of the company was being superseded by government by the

Crown. His knowledge of India was, when he landed, but superficial. But

at this juncture there was more need of statesmanship directed by

general liberal principles than of a practical knowledge of the details

of Indian administration. Macaulay's presence in the council was of

great value; his minutes are models of good judgment and practical

sagacity. The part he took in India has been described as "the

application of sound liberal principles to a government which had till

then been jealous, close and repressive." He vindicated the liberty of

the press; he maintained the equality of Europeans and natives before

the law; and as president of the committee of public instruction he

inaugurated the system of national education.

A clause in the India Act 1833 occasioned the appointment of a

commission to inquire into the jurisprudence of the Eastern dependency.

Macaulay was appointed president of that commission. The draft of a

penal code which he submitted became, after a revision of many years,

and by the labour of many experienced lawyers, the Indian criminal code.

Of this code Sir James Stephen said that "it reproduces in a concise and

even beautiful form the spirit of the law of England, in a compass which

by comparison with the original may be regarded as almost absurdly

small. The Indian penal code is to the English criminal law what a

manufactured article ready for use is to the materials out of which it

is made. It is to the French code pénal, and to the German code of 1871,

what a finished picture is to a sketch. It is simpler and better

expressed than Livingston's code for Louisiana; and its practical

success has been complete."

Macaulay's enlightened views and measures drew down on him, however, the

abuse and ill-will of Anglo-Indian society. Fortunately for himself he

was enabled to maintain a tranquil indifference to political detraction

by withdrawing his thoughts into a sphere remote from the opposition and

enmity by which he was surrounded. Even amid the excitement of his early

parliamentary successes literature had balanced politics in his thoughts

and interests. Now in his exile he began to feel more strongly each year

the attraction of European letters and European history. He wrote to his

friend Ellis: "I have gone back to Greek literature with a passion

astonishing to myself. I have never felt anything like it. I was

enraptured with Italian during the six months which I gave up to it; and

I was little less pleased with Spanish. But when I went back to the

Greek I felt as if I had never known before what intellectual enjoyment

was." In thirteen months he read through, some of them twice, a large

part of the Greek and Latin classics. The fascination of these studies

produced their inevitable effect upon his view of political life. He

began to wonder what strange infatuation leads men who can do something

better to squander their intellect, their health and energy, on such

subjects as those which most statesmen are engaged in pursuing. He was

already, he says, "more than half determined to abandon politics and

give myself wholly to letters, to undertake some great historical work,

which may be at once the business and the amusement of my life, and to

leave the pleasures of pestiferous rooms, sleepless nights, and diseased

stomachs to Roebuck and to Praed."

In 1838 Macaulay and his sister Hannah, who had married Charles

Trevelyan in 1834, returned to England. He at once entered parliament as

member for Edinburgh. In 1839 he became secretary at war, with a seat in

the cabinet in Lord Melbourne's ministry. His acceptance of office

diverted him for a time from prosecuting the plan he had already formed

of a great historical work. But in less than two years the Melbourne

ministry fell. In 1842 appeared his _Lays of Ancient Rome_, and in the

next year he collected and published his _Essays_. He returned to office

in 1846, in Lord John Russell's administration, as paymaster-general.

His duties were very light, and the contact with official life and the

obligations of parliamentary attendance were even of benefit to him

while he was engaged upon his _History_. In the sessions of 1846-1847 he

spoke only five times, and at the general election of July 1847 he lost

his seat for Edinburgh. The balance of Macaulay's faculties had now

passed to the side of literature. At an earlier date he had relished

crowds and the excitement of ever new faces; as years went forward, and

absorption in the work of composition took off the edge of his spirits,

he recoiled from publicity. He began to regard the prospect of business

as worry, and had no longer the nerve to brace himself to the social

efforts required of one who represents a large constituency.

Macaulay retired into private life, not only without regret, but with a

sense of relief. He gradually withdrew from general society, feeling the

bore of big dinners and country-house visits, but he still enjoyed close

and constant intercourse with a circle of the most eminent men that

London then contained. At that time social breakfasts were in vogue.

Macaulay himself preferred this to any other form of entertainment. Of

these brilliant reunions nothing has been preserved beyond the names of

the men who formed them--Rogers, Hallam, Sydney Smith, Lord Carlisle,

Lord Stanhope, Nassau Senior, Charles Greville, Milman, Panizzi, G. C.

Lewis, Van de Weyer. His biographer thus describes Macaulay's appearance

and bearing in conversation: "Sitting bolt upright, his hands resting on

the arms of his chair, or folded over the handle of his walking-stick,

knitting his eyebrows if the subject was one which had to be thought out

as he went along, or brightening from the forehead downwards when a

burst of humour was coming, his massive features and honest glance

suited well with the manly sagacious sentiments which he set forth in

his sonorous voice and in his racy and intelligible language. To get at

his meaning people had never the need to think twice, and they certainly

had seldom the time."

But, great as was his enjoyment of literary society and books, they only

formed his recreation. In these years he was working with unflagging

industry at the composition of his _History_. His composition was slow,

his corrections both of matter and style endless; he spared no pains to

ascertain the facts. He sacrificed to the prosecution of his task a

political career, House of Commons fame, the allurements of society. The

first two volumes of the _History of England_ appeared in December 1848.

The success was in every way complete beyond expectation. The sale of

edition after edition, both in England and the United States, was

enormous.

In 1852, when his party returned to office, he refused a seat in the

cabinet, but he could not bring himself to decline the compliment of a

voluntary amende which the city of Edinburgh paid him in returning him

at the head of the poll at the general election in July of that year. He

had hardly accepted the summons to return to parliamentary life before

fatal weakness betrayed itself in deranged action of the heart; from

this time forward till his death his strength continued steadily to

sink. The process carried with it dejection of spirits as its inevitable

attendant. The thought oppressed him that the great work to which he had

devoted himself would remain a fragment. Once again, in June 1853, he

spoke in parliament, and with effect, against the exclusion of the

master of the rolls from the House of Commons, and at a later date in

defence of competition for the Indian civil service. But he was aware

that it was a grievous waste of his small stock of force, and that he

made these efforts at the cost of more valuable work.

In November 1855 vols. iii. and iv. of the _History_ appeared and

obtained a vast circulation. Within a generation of its first appearance

upwards of 140,000 copies of the _History_ were printed and sold in the

United Kingdom alone; and in the United States the sales were on a

correspondingly large scale. The _History_ was translated into German,

Polish, Danish, Swedish, Hungarian, Russian, Bohemian, Italian, French,

Dutch and Spanish. Flattering marks of respect were heaped upon the

author by foreign academies. His pecuniary profits were (for that time)

on a scale commensurate with the reputation of the book: the cheque he

received for £20,000 has become a landmark in literary history.

In May 1856 he quitted the Albany, in which he had passed fifteen happy

years, and went to live at Holly Lodge, Campden Hill, then, before it

was enlarged, a tiny bachelor's dwelling, but with a lawn whose unbroken

slope of verdure gave it the air of a considerable country house. In the

following year (1857) he was raised to the peerage by the title of Baron

Macaulay of Rothley. "It was," says Lady Trevelyan, "one of the few

things that everybody approved; he enjoyed it himself, as he did

everything, simply and cordially." It was a novelty in English life to

see eminence which was neither that of territorial opulence nor of

political or military services recognized and rewarded by elevation to

the peerage.

But Macaulay's health, which had begun to give way in 1852, was every

year visibly failing. In May 1858 he went to Cambridge for the purpose

of being sworn in as high steward of the borough, to which office he had

been elected on the death of Earl Fitzwilliam. When his health was given

at a public breakfast in the town-hall he was obliged to excuse himself

from speaking. In the upper house he never spoke. Absorbed in the

prosecution of his historical work, he had grown indifferent to the

party politics of his own day. Gradually he had to acquiesce in the

conviction that, though his intellectual powers remained unimpaired, his

physical energies would not carry him through the reign of Anne; and,

though he brought down the narrative to the death of William III., the

last half-volume wants the finish and completeness of the earlier

portions. The winter of 1859 told on him, and he died on the 28th of

December. On the 9th of January 1860 he was buried in Westminster Abbey,

in Poets' Corner, near the statue of Addison.

Lord Macaulay never married. A man of warm domestic affections, he found

their satisfaction in the attachment and close sympathy of his sister

Hannah, the wife of Sir Charles Trevelyan. Her children were to him as

his own. Macaulay was a steadfast friend, and no act inconsistent with

the strictest honour and integrity was ever imputed to him. When a poor

man, and when salary was of consequence to him, he twice resigned office

rather than make compliances for which he would not have been severely

blamed. In 1847, when his seat in parliament was at stake, he would not

be persuaded to humour, to temporize, even to conciliate. He had a keen

relish for the good things of life, and desired fortune as the means of

obtaining them; but there was nothing mercenary or selfish in his

nature. When he had raised himself to opulence, he gave away with an

open hand, not seldom rashly. His very last act was to write a letter to

a poor curate enclosing a cheque for £25. The purity of his morals was

not associated with any tendency to cant.

The lives of men of letters are often records of sorrow or suffering.

The life of Macaulay was eminently happy. Till the closing years

(1857-1859), he enjoyed life with the full zest of healthy faculty,

happy in social intercourse, happy in the solitude of his study, and

equally divided between the two. For the last fifteen years of his life

he lived for literature. His writings were remunerative to him far

beyond the ordinary measure, yet he never wrote for money. He lived in

his historical researches; his whole heart and interest were

unreservedly given to the men and the times of whom he read and wrote.

His command of literature was imperial. Beginning with a good classical

foundation, be made himself familiar with the imaginative, and then with

the historical, remains of Greece and Rome. He went on to add the

literature of his own country, of France, of Italy, of Spain. He learnt

Dutch enough for the purposes of his history. He read German, but for

the literature of the northern nations he had no taste, and of the

erudite labours of the Germans he had little knowledge and formed an

inadequate estimate. The range of his survey of human things had other

limitations more considerable still. All philosophical speculation was

alien to his mind; nor did he seem aware of the degree in which such

speculation had influenced the progress of humanity. A large--the

largest--part of ecclesiastical history lay outside his historical view.

Of art he confessed himself ignorant, and even refused a request to

furnish a critique on Swift's poetry to the _Edinburgh Review_.

Lessing's _Laocoon_, or Goethe's criticism on Hamlet, "filled" him "with

wonder and despair."

Of the marvellous discoveries of science which were succeeding each

other day by day he took no note; his pages contain no reference to

them. It has been told already how he recoiled from the mathematical

studies of his university. These deductions made, the circuit of his

knowledge still remains very wide--as extensive perhaps as any human

brain is competent to embrace. His literary outfit was as complete as

has ever been possessed by any English writer; and, if it wants the

illumination of philosophy, it has an equivalent resource in a practical

acquaintance with affairs, with administration, with the interior of

cabinets, and the humour of popular assemblies. Nor was the knowledge

merely stored in his memory; it was always at his command. Whatever his

subject, he pours over it his stream of illustration, drawn from the

records of all ages and countries. His _Essays_ are not merely

instructive as history; they are, like Milton's blank verse, freighted

with the spoils of all the ages. As an historian Macaulay has not

escaped the charge of partisanship. He was a Whig; and in writing the

history of the rise and triumph of Whig principles in the latter half of

the 17th century he identified himself with the cause. But the charge of

partiality, as urged against Macaulay, means more than that he wrote the

history of the Whig revolution from the point of view of those who made

it. When he is describing the merits of friends and the faults of

enemies his pen knows no moderation. He has a constant tendency to

glaring colours, to strong effects, and will always be striking violent

blows. He is not merely exuberant but excessive. There is an overweening

confidence about his tone; he expresses himself in trenchant phrases,

which are like challenges to an opponent to stand up and deny them. His

propositions have no qualifications. Uninstructed readers like this

assurance, as they like a physician who has no doubt about their case.

But a sense of distrust grows upon the more circumspect reader as he

follows page after page of Macaulay's categorical affirmations about

matters which our own experience of life teaches us to be of a

contingent nature. We inevitably think of a saying attributed to Lord

Melbourne: "I wish I were as cocksure of any one thing as Macaulay is of

everything." Macaulay's was the mind of the advocate, not of the

philosopher; it was the mind of Bossuet, which admits no doubts or

reserves itself and tolerates none in others, and as such was

disqualified from that equitable balancing of evidence which is the

primary function of the historian.

Macaulay, the historian no less than the politician, is, however, always

on the side of justice, fairness for the weak against the strong, the

oppressed against the oppressor. But though a Liberal in practical

politics, he had not the reformer's temperament. The world as it is was

good enough for him. The glories of wealth, rank, honours, literary

fame, the elements of vulgar happiness, made up his ideal of life. A

successful man himself, every personage and every cause is judged by its

success. "The brilliant Macaulay," says Emerson, "who expresses the tone

of the English governing classes of the day, explicitly teaches that

'good' means good to eat, good to wear, material commodity." Macaulay is

in accord with the average sentiment of orthodox and stereotyped

humanity on the relative values of the objects and motives of human

endeavour. And this commonplace materialism is one of the secrets of his

popularity, and one of the qualities which guarantee that that

popularity will be enduring. (M. P.)

Macaulay's whole works were collected in 1866 by his sister, Lady

Trevelyan, in 8 vols. The first four volumes are occupied by the

_History_; the next three contain the _Essays_, and the _Lives_ which

he contributed to the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. In vol. viii. are

collected his _Speeches_, the _Lays of Ancient Rome_, and some

miscellaneous pieces. The "life" by Dean Milman, printed in vol. viii.

of the edition of 1858-1862, is prefixed to the "People's Edition" (4

vols., 1863-1864). Messrs. Longmans, Green & Co. published a complete

edition, the "Albany," in 12 vols., in 1898. There are numerous

editions of the _Critical and Historical Essays_, separately and

collectively; they were edited in 1903 by F. C. Montagu.

The _Life and Letters of Lord Macaulay_ (2 vols., 1876), by his

nephew, Sir George Otto Trevelyan, is one of the best biographies in

the English language. The life (1882) in the "English Men of Letters"

series was written by J. Cotter Morison. Far further criticism, see

Hepworth Dixon, in his _Life of Penn_ (1841); John Paget, _The New

Examen: Inquiry into Macaulay's History_ (1861) and _Paradoxes and

Puzzles_ (1874); Walter Bagehot, in the _National Review_ (Jan. 1856),

reprinted in his _Literary Studies_ (1879); James Spedding, _Evenings

with a Reviewer_ (1881), discussing his essay on Bacon; Sir L.

Stephen, _Hours in a Library_, vol. ii. (1892); Lord Morley, _Critical

Miscellanies_ (1877), vol. ii.; Lord Avebury, _Essays and Addresses_

(1903); Thum, _Anmerkungen zu Macaulay's History of England_

(Heilbronn, 1882). A bibliography of German criticism of Macaulay is

given in G. Körting's _Grd. der engl. Literatur_ (4th ed., Munster,

1905).

MACAW, or, as formerly spelt, MACCAW, the name given to some fifteen or

more species of large, long-tailed birds of the parrot-family, natives

of the neotropical region, and forming a very well-known and easily

recognized genus _Ara_, and to the four species of Brazilian Hyacinthine

macaws of the genera _Anodorhynchus_ and _Cyanopsittacus_. Most of the

macaws are remarkable for their gaudy plumage, which exhibits the

brightest scarlet, yellow, blue and green in varying proportion and

often in violent contrast, while a white visage often adds a very

peculiar and expressive character.[1] With one exception the known

species of _Ara_ inhabit the mainland of America from Paraguay to

Mexico, being especially abundant in Bolivia, where no fewer than seven

of them (or nearly one half) have been found (_Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1879,

p. 634). The single extra-continental species, _A. tricolor,_ is one of

the most brilliantly coloured, and is peculiar to Cuba, where, according

to Gundlach (_Ornitologia Cubana_, p. 126), its numbers are rapidly

decreasing so that there is every chance of its becoming extinct.[2]

Of the best known species of the group, the blue-and-yellow macaw, _A.

ararauna_, has an extensive range in South America from Guiana in the

east to Colombia in the west, and southwards to Paraguay. Of large size,

it is to be seen in almost every zoological garden, and it is very

frequently kept alive in private houses, for its temper is pretty good,

and it will become strongly attached to those who tend it. Its richly

coloured plumage, sufficiently indicated by its common English name,

supplies feathers eagerly sought by salmon-fishers for the making of

artificial flies. The red-and-blue macaw, _A. macao_, is even larger and

more gorgeously clothed, for, besides the colours expressed in its

ordinary appellation, yellow and green enter into its adornment. It

inhabits Central as well as South America as far as Bolivia, and is also

a common bird in captivity, though perhaps less often seen than the

foregoing. The red-and-yellow species, _A. chloroptera_, ranging from

Panama to Brazil, is smaller, or at least has a shorter tail, and is not

quite so usually met with in menageries. The red-and-green, _A.

militaris_, smaller again than the last, is not unfrequent in

confinement, and presents the colours of the name it bears. This has the

most northerly extension of habitat, occurring in Mexico and thence

southwards to Bolivia. In _A. manilata_ and _A. nobilis_ the prevailing

colour is green and blue. The Hyacinthine macaws _A. hyacinthinus_, _A.

leari_, _A. glaucus_ and _Cyanopsittacus spixi_ are almost entirely

blue.

The macaws live well in captivity, either chained to a perch or kept in

large aviaries in which their strong flight is noticeable. The note of

these birds is harsh and screaming. The sexes are alike; the lustreless

white eggs are laid in hollow trees, usually two at a time. The birds

are gregarious but apparently monogamous. (A. N.)