Several lynxes are found in North America; the most northerly has been
described as the Canadian lynx (_L. canadensis_); the bay lynx (_L.
rufus_), with a rufous coat in summer, ranges south to Mexico, with
spotted and streaked varieties--_L. maculatus_ in Texas and southern
California, and _L. fasciatus_ in Washington and Oregon. The first three
were regarded by St George Mivart as local races of the northern lynx. A
fifth form, the plateau lynx (_L. baileyi_), was described by Dr C. H.
Merriam in 1890, but the differences between it and the bay lynx are
slight and unimportant.
LYON, MARY MASON (1797-1849), American educationalist, was born on the
28th of February 1797 on a farm near Buckland, Franklin county,
Massachusetts. She began to teach when she was seventeen, and in 1817,
with the earnings from her spinning and weaving, she went to Sanderson
Academy, Ashfield. She supported herself there, at Amherst Academy,
where she spent one term, and at the girls' school in Byfield,
established in 1819 by Joseph Emerson (1777-1833), where she went in
1821, by teaching in district schools and by conducting informal normal
schools. In 1822-1824 she was assistant principal of Sanderson Academy,
and then taught in Miss Zilpah P. Grant's Adams Female Academy, in
Londonderry (now Derry), N.H. This school had only summer sessions, and
Miss Lyon spent her winters in teaching, especially at Buckland and at
Ashfield, and in studying chemistry and natural science with Edward
Hitchcock, the geologist. In 1828-1834 she taught in Miss Grant's
school, which in 1828 had been removed to Ipswich, and for two years
managed the school in Miss Grant's absence. In 1828-1830 she had kept up
her winter "normal" school at Buckland, and this was the beginning of
her greater plan, "a permanent institution consecrated to the training
of young women for usefulness ... designed to furnish every advantage
which the state of education in this country will allow ... to put
within reach of students of moderate means such opportunities that none
can find better." She was assisted by Dr Hitchcock, and her own mystical
enthusiasm and practical common sense secured for her plan ready
financial support. In 1835 a site was selected near the village of South
Hadley and Mount Holyoke; in 1836 the school was incorporated as Mount
Holyoke Female Seminary; and on the 8th of November 1837 it opened with
Mary Lyon as principal, and, as assistant, Miss Eunice Caldwell,
afterwards well known as Mrs J. P. Cowles of Ipswich Academy. Miss Lyon
died at Mount Holyoke on the 5th of March 1849, having served nearly
twelve years as principal of the seminary, on a salary of $200 a year.
From her work at Holyoke sprang modern higher education for women in
America.
See Edward Hitchcock, _Life and Labors of Mary Lyon_ (1851); B. B.
Gilchrist, _Life of Mary Lyon_ (Boston, 1910).
LYON, NATHANIEL (1818-1861), American soldier, was born in Ashford,
Connecticut, on the 14th of July 1818, and graduated at West Point in
1841. He was engaged in the Seminole War and the war with Mexico, won
the brevet of captain for his gallantry at Contreras and Churubusco, and
was wounded in the assault on the city of Mexico. In 1850, while serving
in California, he conducted a successful expedition against the Indians.
He was promoted captain in 1851, and two years later was ordered to the
East, when he became an ardent opponent of "States' Rights" and slavery.
He was stationed in Kansas and in Missouri on the eve of the Civil War.
In Missouri not only was sentiment divided, but the two factions were
eager to resort to force long before they were in the other border
states. Lyon took an active part in organizing the Union party in
Missouri, though greatly hampered, at first by the Federal government
which feared to provoke hostilities, and afterwards by the military
commander of the department, General W. S. Harney. On Harney's removal
in April 1861, Lyon promptly assumed the command, called upon Illinois
to send him troops, and mustered the Missouri contingent into the United
States' service. He broke up the militia camp at St Louis established by
the secessionist governor of Missouri, Claiborne F. Jackson, and but for
the express prohibition of Harney, who had resumed the command, would
have proceeded at once to active hostilities. In all this Lyon had
co-operated closely with Francis P. Blair, Jr., who now obtained from
President Lincoln the definitive removal of Harney and the assignment of
Lyon to command the Department of the West, with the rank of
brigadier-general. On Lyon's refusal to accede to the Secessionists'
proposal that the state should be neutral, hostilities opened in
earnest, and Lyon, having cleared Missouri of small hostile bands in the
central part of the state, turned to the southern districts, where a
Confederate army was advancing from the Arkansas border. The two forces
came to action at Wilson's Creek on the 10th of August 1861. The Union
forces, heavily outnumbered, were defeated, and Lyon himself was killed
while striving to rally his troops. He bequeathed almost all he
possessed, some $30,000, to the war funds of the national government.
See A. Woodward, _Memoir of General Nathaniel Lyon_ (Hartford, 1862);
James Peckham, _Life of Lyon_ (New York, 1866); and T. L. Snead, _The
Fight for Missouri_ (New York, 1886). Also _Last Political Writings of
General Nathaniel Lyon_ (New York, 1862).
LYONNESSE, LYONESSE, LEONNOYS or LEONAIS, a legendary country off the
south coast of Cornwall, England. Lyonnesse is the scene of many
incidents in the Arthurian romances, and especially in the romances of
Tristram and Iseult. It also plays an important part in purely Cornish
tradition and folk-lore. Early English chronicles, such as the
_Chronicon e chronicis_ of Florence of Worcester, who died in 1118,
described minutely and without a suggestion of disbelief the flourishing
state of Lyonnesse, and its sudden disappearance beneath the sea. The
legend may be a greatly exaggerated version of some actual subsidence of
inhabited land. There is also a very ancient local tradition, apparently
independent of the story of Lyonnesse, that the Scilly Islands formed
part of the Cornish mainland within historical times.
See _Florentii Wigorniensis monachi Chronicon ex chronicis_, &c., ed.
B. Thorpe (London, 1848-1849).
LYONS, EDMUND LYONS, BARON (1790-1858), British admiral, was born at
Burton, near Christchurch, Hampshire, on the 21st of November 1790. He
entered the navy, and served in the Mediterranean, and afterwards in the
East Indies, where in 1810 he won promotion by distinguished bravery. He
became post-captain in 1814, and in 1826 commanded the "Blonde" frigate
at the blockade of Navarino, and took part with the French in the
capture of Kasteo Morea. Shortly before his ship was paid off in 1835 he
was knighted. From 1840 till 1853 Lyons was employed on the diplomatic
service, being successively minister to Greece, Switzerland and Sweden.
On the outbreak of the war with Russia he was appointed second in
command of the British fleet in the Black Sea under Admiral Dundas, whom
he succeeded in the chief command in 1854. As admiral of the inshore
squadron he had the direction of the landing of the troops in the
Crimea, which he conducted with marvellous energy and despatch.
According to Kinglake, Lyons shared the "intimate counsels" of Lord
Raglan in regard to the most momentous questions of the war, and toiled,
with a "painful consuming passion," to achieve the object of the
campaign. His principal actual achievements in battle were two--the
support he rendered with his guns to the French at the Alma in attacking
the left flank of the Russians, and the bold and brilliant part he took
with his ship the "Agamemnon" in the first bombardment of the forts of
Sebastopol; but his constant vigilance, his multifarious activity, and
his suggestions and counsels were much more advantageous to the allied
cause than his specific exploits. In 1855 he was created vice-admiral;
in June 1856 he was raised to the peerage with the title of Baron Lyons
of Christchurch. He died on the 23rd of November 1858.
See Adam S. Eardley-Wilmot, R.N., _Life of Lord Lyons_ (1898).
LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON PEMELL LYONS, 1ST EARL (1817-1887), British
diplomatist, son of the preceding, was born at Lymington on the 26th of
April 1817. He entered the diplomatic service, and in 1859-1864 was
British minister at Washington, where, after the outbreak of the Civil
War, the extremely important negotiations connected with the arrest of
the Confederate envoys on board the British mail-steamer "Trent"
devolved upon him. After a brief service at Constantinople, he succeeded
Lord Cowley at the Paris embassy in 1867. In the war of 1870 he used his
best efforts as a mediator, and accompanied the provisional government
to Tours. He continued to hold his post with universal acceptance until
November 1887. He died on the 5th of December 1887, when the title
became extinct.
LYONS (Fr. _Lyon_), a city of eastern France, capital of the department
of Rhône, 315 m. S.S.E. of Paris and 218 m. N. by W. of Marseilles on
the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) town, 430,186; commune, 472,114.
Lyons, which in France is second only to Paris in commercial and
military importance, is situated at the confluence of the Rhône and the
Saône at an altitude of 540 to 1000 ft. above sea-level. The rivers,
both flowing south, are separated on the north by the hill on which lies
the populous working quarter of Croix-Rousse, then by the narrow tongue
of land ending in the Perrache Quarter. The peninsula thus formed is
over 3 m. long and from 650 to 1000 yds. broad. It is traversed
lengthwise by the finest streets of the city, the rue de la République,
the rue de l'Hôtel de Ville, and the rue Victor Hugo. Where it enters
Lyons the Saône has on its right the faubourg of Vaise and on its left
that of Serin, whence the ascent is made to the top of the hill of
Croix-Rousse. Farther on, its right bank is bordered by the scarped
heights of Fourvière, St Irénée, Ste Foy, and St Just, leaving room only
for the quays and one or two narrow streets; this is the oldest part of
the city. The river sweeps in a semicircle around this eminence (410 ft.
above it), which is occupied by convents, hospitals and seminaries, and
has at its summit the famous church of Nôtre-Dame de Fourvière, the
resort of many thousands of pilgrims annually.
On the peninsula between the rivers, at the foot of the hill of
Croix-Rousse, are the principal quarters of the town: the Terreaux,
containing the hotel de ville, and the chief commercial establishments;
the wealthy residential quarter, centring round the Place Bellecour, one
of the finest squares in France; and the Perrache. The Rhône and Saône
formerly met on the site of this quarter, till, in the 18th century, the
sculptor Perrache reclaimed it; on the peninsula thus formed stands the
principal railway station, the Gare de Perrache with the Cours du Midi,
the most extensive promenade in Lyons, stretching in front of it. Here,
too, are the docks of the Saône, factories, the arsenal, gas-works and
prisons. The Rhône, less confined than the Saône, flows swiftly in a
wide channel, broken when the water is low in spring by pebbly islets.
On the right hand it skirts first St Clair, sloping upwards to
Croix-Rousse, and then the districts of Terreaux, Bellecour and
Perrache; on the left it has a low-lying plain, occupied by the Parc de
la Tête d'Or and the quarters of Brotteaux and Guillotière. The park,
together with its lake, comprises some 285 acres, and contains a
zoological collection, botanical and pharmaceutical gardens, and the
finest greenhouses in France, with unique collections of orchids,
palm-trees and _Cycadaceae_. It is defended from the Rhône by the Quai
de la Tête d'Or, while on the east the railway line to Geneva separates
it from the race-course. Brotteaux is a modern residential quarter.
Guillotière to the south consists largely of workmen's dwellings,
bordering wide, airy thoroughfares. To the east extend the manufacturing
suburbs of Villeurbanne and Montchat. The population, displaced by the
demolition of the lofty old houses and the widening of the streets on
the peninsula, migrates to the left bank of the Rhône, the extension of
the city into the plain of Dauphiné being unhindered.
The Rhône and the Saône are bordered by fine quays and crossed by 24
bridges--11 over the Rhône, 12 over the Saône, and 1 at the confluence.
Of these the Pont du Change over the Saône and the Pont de la
Guillotière over the Rhône have replaced medieval bridges, the latter of
the two preserving a portion of the old structure.
Public Buildings.
Of the ancient buildings Nôtre-Dame de Fourvière is the most celebrated.
The name originally applied to a small chapel built in the 9th century
on the site of the old forum (_forum vetus_) from which it takes its
name. It has been often rebuilt, the chief feature being a modern
Romanesque tower surmounted by a cupola and statue of the Virgin. In
1872 a basilica was begun at its side in token of the gratitude of the
city for having escaped occupation by the German troops. The building,
finished in 1894, consists of a nave without aisles flanked at each
exterior corner by a turret and terminating in an apse. The façade, the
lower half of which is a lofty portico supported on four granite
columns, is richly decorated on its upper half with statuary and
sculpture. Marble and mosaic have been lavishly used in the
ornamentation of the interior and of the crypt. Round the apse runs a
gallery from which, according to an old custom, a benediction is
pronounced upon the town annually on the 8th of September. From this
gallery a magnificent view of the city and the surrounding country can
be obtained. At the foot of the hill of Fourvière rises the cathedral of
St Jean, one of the finest examples of early Gothic architecture in
France. Begun in the 12th century, to the end of which the transept and
choir belong, it was not finished till the 15th century, the gable and
flanking towers of the west front being completed in 1480. A triple
portal surmounted by a line of arcades and a rose window gives entrance
to the church. Two additional towers, that to the north containing one
of the largest bells in France, rise at the extremities of the transept.
The nave and choir contain fine stained glass of the 13th and 14th
centuries as well as good modern glass. The chapel of St Louis or of
Bourbon, to the right of the nave, is a masterpiece of Flamboyant
Gothic. To the right and left of the altar stand two crosses preserved
since the council of 1274 as a symbol of the union then agreed upon
between the Greek and Latin churches. Adjoining St Jean is the ancient
Manecanterie or singers' house, much mutilated and frequently restored,
but still preserving graceful Romanesque arcades along its front. St
Martin d'Ainay, on the peninsula, is the oldest church in Lyons, dating
from the beginning of the 6th century and subsequently attached to a
Benedictine abbey. It was rebuilt in the 10th and 11th centuries and
restored in modern times, and is composed of a nave with four aisles, a
transept and choir terminating in three semicircular apses ornamented
with paintings by Hippolyte Flandrin, a native of Lyons. The church is
surmounted by two towers, one in the middle of the west front, the other
at the crossing; the four columns supporting the latter are said to have
come from an altar to Augustus. A mosaic of the 12th century, a high
altar decorated with mosaic work and a beautifully carved confessional
are among the works of art in the interior. St Nizier, in the heart of
the city, was the first cathedral of Lyons; and the crypt in which St
Pothinus officiated still exists. The present church is a Gothic edifice
of the 15th century, with the exception of the porch, constructed by
Philibert Delorme, a native of Lyons, in the 16th century. The Church of
St Paul (12th and 15th centuries), situated on the right bank of the
Saône, preserves an octagonal central tower and other portions of
Romanesque architecture; that of St Bonaventure, originally a chapel of
the Cordeliers, was rebuilt in the 15th and 19th centuries. With the
exception of the imposing prefecture, the vast buildings of the
faculties, which are in the Guillotière quarter, and the law court, the
colonnade of which overlooks the Saône from its right bank, the chief
civil buildings are in the vicinity of the Place des Terreaux. The east
side of this square (so called from the _terreaux_ or earth with which
the canal formerly connecting the Rhône and the Saône hereabouts was
filled) is formed by the hotel de ville (17th century), the east façade
of which, towards the Grand Theatre, is the more pleasing. The south
side of the square is occupied by the Palais des Arts, built in the 17th
century as a Benedictine convent and now accommodating the school of
fine arts, the museums of painting and sculpture, archaeology and
natural history, and the library of science, arts and industry. The
museums are second in importance only to those of Paris. The collection
of antiquities, rich in Gallo-Roman inscriptions, contains the bronze
tablets discovered in 1528, on which is engraved a portion of a speech
delivered in A.D. 48, by the emperor Claudius, advocating the admission
of citizens of Gallia Comata to the Roman senate. The "Ascension," a
masterpiece of Perugino, is the chief treasure of the art collection, in
which are works by nearly all the great masters. A special gallery
contains the works of artists of Lyons, among whom are numbered Antoine
Berjon, Meissonier, Paul Chenavard, Puvis de Chavannes. In the Rue de la
République, between the Place de la Bourse and the Place des Cordeliers,
each of which contains one of its highly ornamented fronts, stands the
Palais du Commerce et de la Bourse, the finest of the modern buildings
of Lyons. The Bourse (exchange) has its offices on the ground floor
round the central glass-roofed hall; the upper storeys accommodate the
commercial tribunal, the council of trade arbitration, the chamber of
commerce and the _Musée historique des Tissus_, in which the history of
the weaving industry is illustrated by nearly 400,000 examples. In the
buildings of the lycée on the right bank of the Rhône are the municipal
library and a collection of globes, among them the great terrestrial
globe made at Lyons in 1701, indicating the great African lakes.
The Hôtel Dieu, instituted according to tradition in the beginning of
the 6th century by King Childebert, is still one of the chief charitable
establishments in the city. The present building dates from the 18th
century; its façade, fronting the west quay of the Rhône for over 1000
ft., was begun according to the designs of Soufflot, architect of the
Pantheon at Paris. The Hospice de la Charité and the military hospital
are on the same bank slightly farther down stream. The Hospice de
l'Antiquaille, at Fourvière, occupies the site of the palace of the
praetorian prefects, in which Germanicus, Claudius and Caracalla were
born. Each of these hospitals contains more than 1000 beds. Lyons has
many other benevolent institutions, and is also the centre of the
operations of the Société de la Propagation de la Foi. The chief
monuments are the equestrian statue of Louis XIV. in the Place
Bellecour, the monuments of President Carnot, Marshal Suchet, the
physicist André-Marie Ampère, and those in honour of the Republic and in
memory of the citizens of the department who fell in the war of 1870-71.
The most noteworthy fountain is that in the Place des Terreaux with the
leaden group by Bartholdi representing the rivers on their way to the
ocean.
There are Roman remains--baths, tombs and the relics of a theatre--in
the St Just quarter on the right bank of the Saône. Three ancient
aqueducts on the Fourvière level, from Montromant, Mont d'Or and Mont
Pilat, can still be traced. Magnificent remains of the latter work may
be seen at St Irénée and Chaponost. Traces also exist along the Rhône of
a subterranean canal conveying the water of the river to a _naumachia_
(lake for mimic sea-fights). Agrippa made Lyons the starting-point of
the principal Roman roads throughout Gaul; and it remains an important
centre in the general system of communication owing to its position on
the natural highway from north to south-eastern France. The Saône above
the town and the Rhône below have large barge and steamboat traffic. The
main line of the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway runs first through the
station at Vaise, on the right bank of the Saône, and thence to that of
Perrache, the chief station in the city. The line next in importance,
that to Geneva, has its station in the Brotteaux quarter, and the line
of the eastern Lyonnais to St Genix d'Aoste has a terminus at
Guillotière; both these lines link up with the Paris-Lyon main line. The
railway to Montbrison starts from the terminus of St Paul in Fourvière
and that to Bourg, Trevoux and the Dombes region from the station of
Croix-Rousse. A less important line to Vaugneray and Mornant has a
terminus at St Just. Besides the extensive system of street tramways,
cable tramways (_ficelles_) run to the summits of the eminences cf
Croix-Rousse, Fourvière and St Just.
Defence.
Lyons is, next to Paris, the principal fortress of the interior of
France, and, like the capital, possesses a military governor. The
immediate protection of the city is provided for on the east side by a
modern enceinte, of simple trace, in the plain (subsidiary to this is
a group of fairly modern detached forts forming an advanced position
at the village of Bron), and on the west by a line of detached forts,
not of recent design, along the high ground on the right bank of the
Saône. Some older forts and a portion of the old enceinte are still
kept up in the city itself, and two of these forts, Montessuy and
Caluire, situated on the peninsula, serve with their annexes to
connect the northern extremities of the two lines above mentioned. The
main line of defence is as usual the outer fort-ring, the perimeter of
which is more than 40 m., and the mean distance from the centre of the
city 6½ m. This naturally divides into four sections. In the eastern
plain, well in advance of the enceinte, eight principal sites have
been fortified, Feyzin, Corbas, St Priest, Genas, Azieu, Meyzieux,
Decines and Chaurant. These form a semicircle from the lower to the
upper reaches of the Rhône. The northern (or north eastern) section,
between the Rhône and the Saône, has forts Neyron and Vancia as its
principal defences; these and their subsidiary batteries derive some
additional support from the forts Montessuy and Caluire mentioned
above. On the north-west side there is a strong group of works
disposed like a redan, of which the salient, fort Verdun and annexes,
is on the high plateau of Mont d'Or pointing northward, and the faces,
represented by forts Freta and Paillet, are lower down on the spurs of
the ridge, facing north-east and north-west respectively. The
south-western section comprises three principal groups, Bruisson,
Côte-Lorette and Montcorin-Champvillard, the last-named crossing its
fire over the Lower Rhône with Fort Feyzin. Lastly a connecting
battery was built near Chapoly in 1895 to close the gap between the
north-western and south-western sections and to command the westward
approaches by the valley of Charbonnieres.
Lyons is the headquarters of the XIV. army-corps, the seat of an
archbishop who holds the title of primate of the Gauls and also that
of archbishop of Vienne, and of a prefect, a court of appeal, a court
of assizes, tribunals of commerce and of first instance, and of two
boards of trade arbitration (_conseils de prud'hommes_). It is the
centre of an _academie_ (educational division) and has a university
with faculties of law, letters, science and medicine and pharmacy.
There are also Catholic faculties (_facultés libres_) of law,
theology, science and letters, three _lycées_, training collèges for
teachers and numerous minor educational establishments. There are
besides many special schools at Lyons, the more important being the
school of fine arts which was founded in the 18th century to train
competent designers for the textile manufactures, but has also done
much for painting and sculpture; an army medical school, schools of
drawing, agriculture, music, commerce (_école supérieure de
commerce_), weaving, tanning, watch-making and applied chemistry, and
the écoles La Martiniere for free instruction in science and art as
applied to industry. The veterinary school, instituted in 1761, was
the first of its kind in Europe; its laboratory for the study of
comparative physiology is admirably equipped. Besides the _Académie
des Sciences, Belles Lettres et Arts_ (founded in 1700), Lyons
possesses societies of agriculture, natural history, geography,
horticulture, &c.
Industry and trade.
Its trade in silk and silk goods has formed the basis of the
prosperity of Lyons for several centuries. Derived from Italy, this
industry rapidly developed, thanks to the monopoly granted to the city
in 1450 by Charles VII. and to the patronage of Francis I., Henry II.
and Henry IV. From time to time new kinds of fabrics were
invented--silk stuffs woofed with wool or with gold and silver
threads, shawls, watered silks, poplins, velvets, satinades, moires,
&c. In the beginning of the 19th century J. M. Jacquard introduced his
famous loom by which a single workman was enabled to produce elaborate
fabrics as easily as the plainest web, and by changing the "cartoons"
to make the most different textures on the same looms. In the 17th
century the silk manufacture employed at Lyons, 9000 to 12,000 looms.
After the revocation of the edict of Nantes the number sank to 3000 or
4000; but after the Reign of Terror was past it rose again about 1801
to 12,000. Towards the middle of the 19th century the weaving branch
of the industry began to desert Lyons for the surrounding districts.
The city remains the business centre for the trade and carries on
dyeing, printing and other accessory processes. Lyons disputes with
Milan the position of the leading silk market of Europe. In 1905 the
special office (_la Condition des soies_) which determines the weight
of the silk examined over 4700 tons of silk. France furnished barely
one-tenth of this quantity, two-thirds came from China and Japan, the
rest from Italy and the Levant. The traders of Lyons re-export
seven-twelfths of these silks, the industries of the town employing
the remainder. An almost equal quantity of cotton, wool and waste-silk
threads is mixed with the silk. A few thousand hand-looms are still
worked in the town, more especially producing the richest materials,
50,000 or 55,000 in the surrounding districts, and some 33,000 machine
looms in the suburbs and neighbouring departments. Allied industries
such as dyeing, finishing and printing, employ 12,000 workers.
Altogether 300,000 workpeople depend upon the silk industry. In 1905
the total value of the manufacture was £15,710,000, the chief items
being pure silk textures (plain) £3,336,000; textures of silk mixed
with other materials £3,180,000; silk and foulards £1,152,000; muslins
£3,800,000, this product having increased from £100,000 in 1894.
Speaking roughly the raw material represents half the value, and the
value of the labour the remaining half. About 30% of the silk goods of
Lyons finds a market in France. Great Britain imported them to the
value of over £6,000,000, and the United States to the value of over
£1,600,000, notwithstanding the heavy duty. The dyeing industry and
the manufacture of chemicals have both developed considerably to meet
the requirements of the silk trade. Large quantities of mineral and
vegetable colouring matters are produced and there is besides a large
output of glue, gelatine, superphosphates and phosphorus, all made
from bones and hides, of picric, tartaric, sulphuric and hydrochloric
acids, sulphates of iron and copper, and pharmaceutical and other
chemical products.
Lyons does a large trade in metals, iron, steel and copper, and
utilizes them in the manufacture of iron buildings, framework,
bridges, machinery, railway material, scales, metal cables, pins and
needles, copper-founding and the making of clocks and bronzes. Gold
and silver-working is of importance, especially for embroidery and
articles used in religious ceremonies. Other industries are those of
printing, the manufacture of glass goods, of tobacco (by the state),
the preparation of hides and skins (occupying 20,000 workmen), those
connected with the miller's trade, the manufacture of various forms of
dried flour-paste (macaroni, vermicelli, &c.), brewing, hat-making,
the manufacture of chocolate, and the pork-butcher's industry. Apart
from the dealings in silk and silk goods, trade is in cloth, coal and
charcoal, metals and metal goods, wine and spirits, cheese and
chestnuts. Four miles south-west of Lyons is Oullins (pop. 9859) which
has the important works of the Paris-Lyon railway.
Lyons is the seat of important financial companies; of the Credit
Lyonnais, which does business to the amount of £200,000,000 annually
in Lyons alone; also of coal and metallurgical companies and gas
companies, the former extending their operations as far as Russia, the
latter lighting numerous towns in France and foreign countries.
_History._--The earliest Gallic occupants of the territory at the
confluence of the Rhône and the Saône were the Segusians. In 59 B.C.
some Greek refugees from the banks of the Hérault, having obtained
permission of the natives to establish themselves beside the
Croix-Rousse, called their new town by the Gallic name Lugudunum (q.v.)
or Lugdunum; and in 43 B.C. Lucius Munatius Plancus brought a Roman
colony to Fourvières from Vienne. This settlement soon acquired
importance, and was made by Agrippa the starting-point of four great
roads. Augustus, besides building aqueducts, temples and a theatre, gave
it a senate and made it the seat of an annual assembly of deputies from
the sixty cities of Gallia Comata. At the same time the place became the
Gallic centre for the worship of Rome and the emperor. Under the
emperors the colony of Forum Vetus and the municipium of Lugdunum were
united, receiving the _jus senatus_. The town was burnt in A.D. 59 and
afterwards rebuilt in a much finer style with money given by Nero; it
was also adorned by Trajan, Adrian and Antoninus. The martyrdom of
Pothinus and Blandina occurred under Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 177), and
some years later a still more savage persecution of the Christians took
place under Septimius Severus, in which Irenaeus, according to some
authors, perished.
After having been ravaged by the barbarians and abandoned by the empire,
Lyons in 478 became capital of the kingdom of the Burgundians. It
afterwards fell into the hands of the Franks, and suffered severely from
the Saracens, but revived under Charlemagne, and after the death of
Charles the Bald became part of the kingdom of Provence. From 1032 it
was a fief of the emperor of Germany. Subsequently the authority over
the town was a subject of dispute between the archbishops of Lyons and
the counts of Forez; but the supremacy of the French kings was
established under Philip the Fair in 1312. The citizens were constituted
into a commune ruled by freely elected consuls (1320). In the 13th
century two ecclesiastical councils were held at Lyons--one in 1245,
presided over by Innocent IV., at which the emperor Frederick II. was
deposed; the second, the oecumenical, under the presidency of Gregory
X., in 1274, at which five hundred bishops met. Pope Clement V. was
crowned here in 1305, and his successor, John XXII., elected in 1316.
The Protestants obtained possession of the place in 1562; their acts of
violence were fiercely avenged in 1572 after the St Bartholomew
massacre. Under Henry III. Lyons sided with the League; but it
pronounced in favour of Henry IV. The executions of Henri d'Effiat,
marquis of Cinq-Mars, and of François de Thou, who had plotted to
overthrow Richelieu, took place on the Place des Terreaux in 1642. In
1793 the Royalists and Girondists, powerful in the city, rose against
the Convention, but were compelled to yield to the army of the republic
under General Kellermann after enduring a siege of seven weeks (October
10). Terrible chastisement ensued: the name of Lyons was changed to that
of Ville-affranchie; the demolition of its buildings was set about on a
wholesale scale; and vast numbers of the proscribed, whom the scaffold
had spared, were butchered with grape shot. The town resumed its old
name after the fall of Robespierre, and the terrorists in their turn
were drowned in large numbers in the Rhône. Napoleon rebuilt the Place
Bellecour, reopened the churches, and made the bridge of Tilsit over the
Saône between Bellecour and the cathedral. In 1814 and 1815 Lyons was
occupied by the Austrians. In 1831, 1834, 1849, 1870 and 1871 it was the
scene of violent industrial or political disturbances. In 1840 and 1856
disastrous floods laid waste portions of the city. International
exhibitions were held here in 1872 and 1894, the latter occasion being
marked by the assassination of President Carnot.
See S. Charléty, _Histoire de Lyon_ (Lyon, 1903); J. Godart,
_L'Ouvrier en soie. Monographie du tisseur lyonnais_ (Lyon, 1899); A.
Vachet, _A travers les rues de Lyon_ (Lyon, 1902); A. Steyert,
_Nouvelle Histoire de Lyon et des provinces de Lyonnais Forez,
Beaujolais_ (3 vols., Lyon, 1895-1899).
LYONS, COUNCILS OF. The first Council of Lyons (the thirteenth general
council) met at the summons of Pope Innocent IV. in June and July of
1245, to deliberate on the conflict between Church and emperor, on the
assistance to be granted to the Holy Land and the Eastern empire, on
measures of protection against the Tatars, and on the suppression of
heresy. Among the tasks of the council mentioned in the writs of
convocation, the most important, in the eyes of the pope, was that it
should lend him effectual aid in his labours to overthrow the emperor
Frederick II.; and, with this object in view, he had described the synod
as a general council. Since its numbers were not far in excess of 150
bishops and archbishops, and the great majority of these came from
France, Italy and Spain; while the schismatic Greeks and the other
countries--especially Germany, whose interests were so deeply
involved--were but weakly represented; the ambassador of Frederick,
Thaddaeus of Suessa, contested its oecumenicity in the assembly itself.
The condemnation of the emperor was a foregone conclusion. The articles
of indictment described him as the "prince of tyranny, the destroyer of
ecclesiastical dogma, the annihilator of the faith, the master of
cruelty," and so forth; while the grossest calumnies were treated as
approved facts. The objections of the ambassador, that the accused had
not been regularly cited, that the pope was plaintiff and judge in one,
and that therefore the whole process was anomalous, achieved as little
success as his appeal to the future pontiff and to a truly oecumenical
council. The representatives of the kings of England and France were
equally unfortunate in their claim for a prorogation of the decision. On
the 17th of July the verdict was pronounced by Innocent IV.,
excommunicating Frederick and dethroning him on the grounds of perjury,
sacrilege, heresy and felony. All oaths of fealty sworn to him were
pronounced null and void, and the German princes were commanded to
proceed with the election of a new sovereign. In addition the council
enacted decrees against the growing irregularities in the Church, and
passed resolutions designed to support the Crusaders and revive the
struggle for the Holy Land.
See Mansi, _Collectio conciliorum_, tom, xxiii.; Huillard-Breholles,
_Historia diplomatica Frederici II_., 6 tom. (Paris, 1852-1861);
Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_, ed. 2, vol. v. (1886), pp. 1105-1126;
Fr. W. Schirrmacher, _Kaiser Friederich der Zweite_ (4 vols.,
Göttingen, 1859-1865); H. Schulz, in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_,
ed. 3, vol. ix. (1901), p. 122 sqq., s.v. "Innocenz IV."; A. Folz,
_Kaiser Friedrich II. u. Papst Innocenz IV_. (Strassburg, 1905).
The second Council of Lyons (the fourteenth general council) met from
the 7th of May to the 17th of July 1274, under the presidency of Pope
Gregory X., and was designed to resolve three problems: to terminate the
Greek schism, to decree a new Crusade, and to counteract the moral
corruption among clerics and laity. The council entered on its third
task at a very late period, with the result that the requisite time for
an adequate deliberation was not available. Nevertheless, on the 1st of
November, Gregory was enabled to publish thirty-one constitutions, which
may be taken to represent the fruits of the synod and its labours. The
most important of the enactments passed is that regulating the papal
election. It prescribed that the new election conducted by the college
of cardinals should be held in conclave (q.v.), and its duration
abridged by progressive simplification of the cardinal's diet. The
motive for this decision, which has maintained its ground in
ecclesiastical law, was given by the circumstances which followed the
death of Clement IV. (1268). The pope felt a peculiar interest in the
Holy Land, from which he was recalled by his elevation to the pontifical
throne. He succeeded in bringing influential interests to work in the
cause; but his scheme of a great enterprise backed by the whole force of
the West came to nothing, for the day of the Crusades was past. His
projected Crusade was interwoven with his endeavours to end the schism;
and the political straits of the emperor Michael Palaeologus in
Constantinople came to the aid of these aspirations. To ensure his
safety against the attacks of King Charles of Sicily, who had pledged
himself to assist the ex-emperor Baldwin in his reconquest of the Latin
empire, Michael was required to own the supremacy of the pope in the
spiritual domain; while Gregory, in return, would restrain the Sicilian
monarch from his bellicose policy with regard to the Eastern empire.
The ambassadors of the emperor appeared at the council with letters
acknowledging the Roman pontiff and the confession of faith previously
dispatched from the eternal city, and submitted similarly-worded
declarations from the heads of the Byzantine Church. One member of the
embassy, the Logothete Georgius Acropolites, was authorized by the
emperor to take an oath in his name, renouncing the schism. In short,
the subjection of the East to the Roman see was completed in the most
binding forms, and the long-desired union seemed at last assured.
Gregory himself did not live to discover its illusory character. The
Council of Lyons was, moreover, of importance for the German dynastic
struggle: for Gregory took the first public step in favour of Count
Rudolph of Habsburg, the king-elect, by receiving his deputy and denying
an audience to the delegate of the rival claimant, King Alphonso of
Castile.
See Mansi, _Collectio conciliorum_, tom. xxiv.; Hefele,
_Conciliengeschichte_, vol. vi. ed. 2 (1890), p. 119 sqq. Also C.
Mirbt, in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklop. f. protestantische Theologie_,
vol. vii. (1899), p. 122, s.v. "Gregor X." (C. M.)
LYRA ("The Harp"), in astronomy, a constellation in the northern
hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd
century B.C.). Ptolemy catalogued 10 stars in this constellation; Tycho
Brahe 11 and Hevelius 17. [alpha] _Lyrae_ or Vega, is the second
brightest star in the northern hemisphere, and notable for the whiteness
of its light, which is about 100 times that of the sun. The name "vega"
is a remnant of an Arabic phrase meaning "falling eagle," "Altair," or
[alpha] _Aquilae_, is the similar remnant of "flying eagle." [epsilon]
_Lyrae_ is a multiple star, separated by the naked eye or by a small
telescope into two stars; these are each resolved into two stars by a
3" telescope, while a more powerful instrument (4") reveals three
smaller stars between the two pairs, [beta] _Lyrae_ and _R. Lyrae_ are
short period variables. There is the famous ring or annular nebula, _M.
57 Lyrae_, in the middle of which is a very faint star, which is readily
revealed by photography; and also the meteoric swarm named the _Lyrids_,
which appear in April and have their radiant in this constellation (see
METEOR).
LYRE (Gr. [Greek: lyra]), an ancient stringed musical instrument. The
recitations of the Greeks were accompanied by it. Yet the lyre was not
of Greek origin; no root in the language has been discovered for [Greek:
lyra], although the special names bestowed upon varieties of the
instrument are Hellenic. We have to seek in Asia the birthplace of the
genus, and to infer its introduction into Greece through Thrace or
Lydia. The historic heroes and improvers of the lyre were of the Aeolian
or Ionian colonies, or the adjacent coast bordering on the Lydian
empire, while the mythic masters, Orpheus, Musaeus and Thamyris, were
Thracians. Notwithstanding the Hermes tradition of the invention of the
lyre in Egypt, the Egyptians seem to have adopted it from Assyria or
Babylonia.
To define the lyre, it is necessary clearly to separate it from the
allied harp and guitar. In its primal form the lyre differs from the
harp, of which the earliest, simplest notion is found in the bow and
bowstring. While the guitar (and lute) can be traced back to the typical
"nefer" of the fourth Egyptian dynasty, the fretted finger-board of
which, permitting the production of different notes by the shortening of
the string, is as different in conception from the lyre and harp as the
flute with holes to shorten the column of air is from the syrinx or
Pandean pipes. The frame of a lyre consists of a hollow body or
sound-chest ([Greek: echeion]). From this sound-chest are raised two
arms ([Greek: pecheis]), which are sometimes hollow, and are bent both
outward and forward. They are connected near the top by a crossbar or
yoke ([Greek: zygon, zygoma], or, from its having once been a reed,
[Greek: kalamos]). Another crossbar ([Greek: malas, hypolyrion]), fixed
on the sound-chest, forms the bridge which transmits the vibrations of
the strings. The deepest note was the farthest from the player; but, as
the strings did not differ much in length, more weight may have been
gained for the deeper notes by thicker strings, as in the violin and
similar modern instruments, or they were turned with slacker tension.
The strings were of gut ([Greek: chorde], whence chord). They were
stretched between the yoke and bridge, or to a tailpiece below the
bridge. There were two ways of tuning: one was to fasten the strings to
pegs which might be turned ([Greek: kollaboi, kollopes]); the other was
to change the place of the string upon the crossbar; probably both
expedients were simultaneously employed. It is doubtful whether [Greek:
he chordotonos] meant the tuning key or the part of the instrument where
the pegs were inserted. The extensions of the arms above the yoke were
known as [Greek: kerata], horns.
The number of strings varied at different epochs, and possibly in
different localities--four, seven and ten having been favourite numbers.
They were used without a finger-board, no Greek description or
representation having ever been met with that can be construed as
referring to one. Nor was a bow possible, the flat sound-board being an
insuperable impediment. The plectrum, however ([Greek: plektron]), was
in constant use. It was held in the right hand to set the upper strings
in vibration ([Greek: krekein, krouein to plektro]); at other times it
hung from the lyre by a ribbon. The fingers of the left hand touched the
lower strings ([Greek: psallein]).
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Chelys or Lyre from a vase in the British
Museum, where also are fragments of such an instrument, the back of
which is of shell.]
[Illustration: Gerhard, _Auserl. griech. Vasenbilder._