[1] It should be noticed, however, that the Salic law is subordinate
to the Nassau family law, which provides for the succession in the
case of the _complete extinction_ of males. Thus Article xlii. of the
Nassau Pact of the 30th of June 1783 provides "that in the event of
the extinction of males, the rights of succession pass to the
daughter or nearest heiress of the last male."
LUXEMBURG, or LUTZELBURG (i.e. the little fortress or town), the capital
of the grand-duchy of the same name (see above), situated on the
Alzette, a tributary of the Sûre. Pop. (1905) 20,984. The situation is
romantic, steep cliffs overhanging the winding river, and the principal
portion of the town with the palace and public buildings covering a
central plateau. The more densely populated parishes of Clausen,
Pfaffenthal and Grund lie in the valley. As a fortress Luxemburg was
considered the strongest in Europe after Gibraltar, which it was
supposed to resemble because many of its casemates were cut into the
rock. It was dismantled in 1867. Two colossal viaducts carry the railway
and the approach from the railway station to the town. Since the place
ceased to be a fortress the population has more than doubled, and the
Alzette is lined with tanneries, breweries and distilleries. The Hôtel
de Ville dates from 1844 and contains a collection of antiquities. The
church of Nôtre Dame was built in 1613, and that of St Michael, with
parts dating from 1320, contains the tomb of blind John of Luxemburg,
king of Bohemia, slain at Crécy. There are two annual fête days, one in
honour of Our Lady of Luxemburg, patroness of the city, held on the
Sunday before Ascension Day, and the other the annual fair or
_Schobermesse_ (tent fair), instituted in 1340 and held each year on the
24th of August.
LUXEUIL-LES-BAINS, a town of eastern France, in the department of
Haute-Saône, 18 m. N.E. of Vesoul. Pop. (1906) 5195. It is situated in a
region of forests on the right bank of the Breuchin. It has an
abbey-church dating from the 13th and 14th centuries, containing a
curious 17th-century organ loft in the form of an immense bracket
supported by a colossal figure of Hercules. The abbot's palace (16th and
18th centuries) serves as presbytery and town hall. A cloister of the
15th century and other buildings of the 17th century also remain. There
are several mansions and houses dating from various periods from the
14th to the 16th century. The Maison Carrée, once the town hall, an
interesting specimen of 15th-century architecture, was built by Perrin
Jouffroy, father of Cardinal Jouffroy. The cardinal, who was born at
Luxeuil in 1412, built the house with a graceful balcony and turret
which faces the Maison Carrée. The Maison de la Baille and the Maison
François I. are of the Renaissance period. The fine modern Grammont
Hospital is in the style of Louis XIII. Luxeuil is renowned for its
mineral springs, of which there are seventeen, two being ferruginous,
and the rest charged with chloride of sodium; their temperatures range
from 70° to 158° F. The water is employed for drinking and for baths.
The bathing establishment contains a museum of Gallo-Roman antiquities
and there are also remains of Roman baths and aqueducts to be seen in or
near it. Luxeuil has a communal college. Copper-founding, the spinning
and weaving of cotton, lace-making, dyeing and the distilling of kirsch
are carried on.
Luxeuil was the Roman _Lixovium_ and contained many fine buildings at
the time of its destruction by the Huns under Attila in 451. In 590 St
Columban here founded a monastery, afterwards one of the most famous in
Franche Comté. In the 8th century it was destroyed by the Saracens;
afterwards rebuilt, monastery and town were devastated by the Normans in
the 9th century and plllaged on several occasions afterwards. The abbey
schools were celebrated in the middle ages and the abbots had great
influence; but their power was curtailed by the emperor Charles V. and
the abbey was suppressed at the Revolution.
See H. Beaumont, _Etude hist. sur l'abbaye de Luxeuil, 590-1790_ (Lux.
1895); Grandmongin and A. Garnier, _Hist. de la ville et des thermes
de Luxeuil_ (Paris, 1866), with 16 plates.
LUXOR, more properly El-Aksur, "The Castles" (plur. of kasr), a town of
Upper Egypt, on the east bank of the Nile 450 m. above Cairo by river
and 418 by rail. Pop. (1907 census) 12,644. It is the centre for
visitors to the ruins of and about Thebes, and is frequented by
travellers and invalids in the winter season, several fine hotels having
been built for their accommodation. There are Anglican and Roman
Catholic churches, and a hospital for natives, opened in 1891. The
district is the seat of an extensive manufacture of forged antiques.
The temple of Luxor is one of the greatest of the monuments of Thebes
(q.v.). It stands near the river bank on the S.W. side of the town and
measures nearly 300 yds. from back to front. There may have been an
earlier temple here, but the present structure, dedicated to the Theban
triad of Ammon, Mut and Khons, was erected by Amenophis III. The great
colonnade, which is its most striking feature, was apparently intended
for the nave of a hypostyle hall like that of Karnak, but had to be
hastily finished without the aisles. After the heresy of Amenophis IV.
(Akhenaton), the decoration of this incomplete work was taken in hand by
Tutenkhamun and Haremhib. The axis of the temple ran from S.W. to N.E.;
a long paved road bordered by recumbent rams led from the façade to the
temples of Karnak (q.v.) in a somewhat more easterly direction, and
Rameses II. adopted the line of this avenue in adding an extensive court
to the work of Amenophis, producing a curious change of axis. He
embellished the walls and pylons of his court with scenes from his
victories over Hittites and Syrians, and placed a number of colossal
statues within it. In front of the pylon Rameses set up colossi and a
pair of obelisks (one of which was taken to Paris in 1831 and re-erected
in the Place de la Concorde). A few scenes and inscriptions were added
by later kings, but the above is practically the history of the temple
until Alexander the Great rebuilt the sanctuary itself. The chief
religious festival of Thebes was that of "Southern Opi," the ancient
name of Luxor. The sacred barks of the divinities preserved in the
sanctuary of Karnak were then conveyed in procession by water to Luxor
and back again; a representation of the festal scenes is given on the
walls of the great colonnade. The Christians built churches within the
temple. The greater part of the old village of Luxor lay inside the
courts: it was known also as Abu 'l Haggag from a Moslem saint of the
7th century, whose tomb-mosque, mentioned by Ibn Batuta, stands on a
high heap of débris in the court of Rameses. This is the last of the
buildings and rubbish which encumbered the temple before the
expropriation and clearances by the Service des Antiquités began in
1885. The principal street of Luxor follows the line of the ancient
avenue.
See G. Daressy, _Notice explicative des ruines du temple de Louxor_
(Cairo, 1803); Baedeker's _Egypt_. (F. Ll. G.)
LUXORIUS, Roman writer of epigrams, lived in Africa during the reigns of
the Vandal kings Thrasamund, Hilderic and Gelimer (A.D. 496-534). He
speaks of his poor circumstances, but from the superscription
_clarissimus_ and _spectabilis_ in one MS., he seems to have held a high
official position. About a hundred epigrams by him in various metres
(the elegiac predominating) have been preserved. They are after the
manner of Martial, and many of them are coarse. They deal chiefly with
the games of the circus and works of art, and the language shows the
author to have been well acquainted with the legends and antiquities of
the classical period of Rome.
Luxorius also wrote on grammatical subjects (see R. Ellis in _Journal
of Philology_, viii., 1879). The epigrams are contained in the
_Anthologia Latina_, edited by F. Bücheler and A. Riese (1894).
LUYNES, a territorial name belonging to a noble French house. The family
of Albert, which sprang from Thomas Alberti (d. 1455), seigneur de
Boussargues, _bailli_ of Viviers and Valence, and _viguier_ of Bagnols
and Pont St Esprit in Languedoc, acquired the estate of Luynes (dep. of
Indre-et-Loire) in the 16th century. Honoré d'Albert (d. 1592), seigneur
de Luynes, was in the service of the three last Valois kings and of
Henry IV., and became colonel of the French bands, commissary of
artillery in Languedoc and governor of Beaucaire. He had three sons:
Charles (1578-1621), first duke of Luynes, and favourite of Louis XIII.;
Honoré (1581-1649), seigneur de Cadenet, who married Charlotte Eugénie
d'Ailly, countess of Chaulnes, in 1619, and was created duke of Chaulnes
in 1621; and Léon, seigneur de Brantes, who became duke of
Luxemburg-Piney by his marriage in 1620 with Margaret Charlotte of
Luxemburg.
By her marriage with Claude of Lorraine, duke of Chevreuse, Marie de
Rohan, the widow of the first duke of Luynes, acquired in 1655 the duchy
of Chevreuse, which she gave in 1663 to Louis Charles d'Albert, her son
by her first husband; and from that time the title of duke of Chevreuse
and duke of Luynes was borne by the eldest sons of the family of Luynes,
which also inherited the title of duke of Chaulnes on the extinction of
the descendants of Honoré d'Albert in 1698. The branch of the dukes of
Luxemburg-Piney became extinct in 1697.
Charles (1578-1621), the first duke of Luynes, was brought up at court
and attended the dauphin, who later became Louis XIII. The king shared
his fondness for hunting and rapidly advanced him in favour. In 1615 he
was appointed commander of the Louvre and counsellor, and the following
year grand falconer of France. He used his influence over the king in
the court intrigues against the queen-mother Marie de Medici and her
favourite Concini. It was Luynes who, with Vitry, captain of the guard,
arranged the plot that ended in Concini's assassination (1617) and
secured all the latter's possessions in Italy and France. In the same
year he was appointed captain of the Bastille and lieutenant-general of
Normandy, and married Marie de Rohan, daughter of the duke of Montbazon.
He employed extreme measures against the pamphleteers of the time, but
sought peace in Italy and with the Protestants. In 1619 he negotiated
the treaty of Angoulême by which Marie de Medici was accorded complete
liberty. He was made governor of Picardy in 1619; suppressed an uprising
of nobles in 1620; and in 1621, with slight military ability or
achievement, was appointed constable of France. His rapid rise to power
made him a host of enemies, who looked upon him as but a second Concini.
In order to justify his newly-won laurels, Luynes undertook an
expedition against the Protestants, but died of a fever in the midst of
the campaign, at Longueville in Guienne, on the 15th of December 1621.
His brother Honoré (1581-1649), first duke of Chaulnes, was governor of
Picardy and marshal of France (1619), and defended his province
successfully in 1625 and 1635. Louis Auguste d'Albert d'Ailly
(1676-1744), duke of Chaulnes, also became marshal of France (1741).
Louis Joseph d'Albert de Luynes (1670-1750), prince of Grimberghen, was
in the service of the emperor Charles VII., and became field-marshal and
ambassador in France.
Several members of the family of Albert were distinguished in letters
and science. Louis Charles d'Albert (1620-1690), duke of Luynes, son of
the constable, was an ascetic writer and friend of the Jansenists; Paul
d'Albert de Luynes (1703-1788), cardinal and archbishop of Sens, an
astronomer; Michel Ferdinand d'Albert d'Ailly (1714-1769), duke of
Chaulnes, a writer on mathematical instruments, and his son Marie Joseph
Louis (1741-1793), a chemist; and Honoré Théodore Paul Joseph
(1802-1867), duke of Luynes, a writer on archaeology.
For the first duke see _Recueil des pièces les plus curieuses qui ont
esté faites pendant le règne du connestable M. de Luynes_ (2nd ed.,
1624); Le Vassor, _Histoire de Louis XIII._ (Paris, 1757); Griffet,
_Histoire du règne de Louis XIII., roi de France et de Navarre_
(Paris, 1758); V. Cousin, "Le Duc et connétable de Luynes," in
_Journal des savants_ (1861-1863); B. Zeller, _Études critiques sur le
règne de Louis XIII.: le connétable de Luynes, Montauban et la
Valteline_ (Paris, 1879); E. Pavie, _La Guerre entre Louis XIII. et
Marie de Medicis_ (Paris, 1899); Lavisse, _Histoire de France_, vi.^2,
141-216 (Paris, 1905).
LUZÁN CLARAMUNT DE SUELVES Y GURREA, IGNACIO (1702-1754), Spanish critic
and poet, was born at Saragossa on the 28th of March 1702. His youth was
passed under the care of his uncle, and, after studying at Milan, he
graduated in philosophy at the university of Catania. In 1723 he took
minor orders, but abandoned his intention of entering the church and
took up his residence at Naples, where he read assiduously. Business
took him to Spain in 1733, and he became known in Madrid as a scholar
with a tendency towards innovations in literature. _La Poética, ó Reglas
de la poesía en general y de sus principales especies_ (1737) proved
that this impression was correct. He at once took rank as the leader of
the literary reformers, and his courteous determination earned him the
respect of his opponents. In 1747 he was appointed secretary to the
Spanish embassy in Paris and, on returning to Madrid in 1750, was
elected to the "Academia Poética del Buen Gusto," where, on account of
his travels, he was known by the sobriquet of _El Peregrino_. He became
master of the mint and treasurer of the royal library. He died at
Madrid, after a short illness, on the 19th of May 1754. Luzán was not
the pioneer of Franco-Italian theories in Spain, but he was their most
powerful exponent, and his _Poética_ is an admirable example of
destructive criticism. The defects of Lope de Vega and Calderon are
indicated with vigilant severity, but on the constructive side Luzán is
notably weak, for he merely proposes to substitute one exhausted
convention for another. The doctrine of the dramatic unities had not the
saving virtues which he ascribed to it, and, though he succeeded in
banishing the older dramatists from the boards, he and his school failed
to produce a single piece of more than mediocre merit. His theories,
derived chiefly from Muratori, were ineffective in practice; but their
ingenuity cannot be denied, and they acted as a stimulus to the
partisans of the national tradition.
LUZ-SAINT-SAUVEUR, a town of south-western France in the department of
Hautes-Pyrénées, 21 m. S. of Lourdes by rail. Pop. (1906) 1069. Luz is
beautifully situated at a height of 2240 ft. on the Bastan. It has a
remarkable church, built by the Templars in the 12th and 13th centuries
and fortified later. The crenelated ramparts with which it is
surrounded, and the tower to the north of the apse resembling a keep,
give it the aspect of a fortress; other interesting features are the
Romanesque north door and a chapel of the 16th century. The village of
St Sauveur lies a little above Luz on the left bank of the gorge of the
Gave de Pau, which is crossed higher up by the imposing Pont Napoleon
(1860). It is a pleasant summer resort, and is visited for its warm
sulphurous springs. Discovered in the 16th century, the waters came into
vogue after 1820, in which year they were visited by the duchesses of
Angoulême and Berry. There is much picturesque mountain scenery in the
vicinity; 12 m. to the south is the village of Gavarnie, above which is
the magnificent rock amphitheatre or _cirque_ of Gavarnie, with its
cascade, one of the highest in Europe.
LUZZATTI, LUIGI (1841- ), Italian economist and financier, was born of
Jewish parents at Venice on the 11th of March 1841. After completing his
studies in law at the university of Padua, he attracted the attention of
the Austrian police by his lectures on political economy, and was
obliged to emigrate. In 1863 he obtained a professorship at the Milan
Technical Institute; in 1867 he was appointed professor of
constitutional law at Padua, whence he was transferred to the university
of Rome. Gifted with eloquence and energy, he popularized in Italy the
economic ideas of Schultze-Delitzsch, worked for the establishment of a
commercial college at Venice, and contributed to the spread of people's
banks on a basis of limited liability throughout the country. In 1869 he
was appointed by Minghetti under secretary of state to the ministry of
agriculture and commerce, in which capacity he abolished government
control over commercial companies and promoted a state inquiry into the
conditions of industry. Though theoretically a free trader, he was
largely instrumental in creating the Italian protective system. In 1877
he participated in the commercial negotiations with France, in 1878
compiled the Italian customs tariff, and subsequently took a leading
part in the negotiations of all the commercial treaties between Italy
and other countries. Appointed minister of the treasury in the first Di
Rudini cabinet of 1891, he imprudently abolished the system of frequent
clearings of bank-notes between the state banks, a measure which
facilitated the duplication of part of the paper currency and hastened
the bank crisis of 1893. In 1896 he entered the second Di Rudini cabinet
as minister of the treasury, and by timely legislation helped to save
the bank of Naples from failure. After his fall from office in June
1898, his principal achievement was the negotiation of the
Franco-Italian commercial treaty, though, as deputy, journalist and
professor, he continued to take an active part in all political and
economic manifestations. He was again minister of the treasury from
November 1903 to March 1905 in Giolitti's second administration, and for
the third time from February to May 1906, under Sonnino's premiership.
During the latter term of office he achieved the conversion of the
Italian 5% debt (reduced to 4% by the tax) to 3¾% to be eventually
lowered to 3½%, an operation which other ministers had attempted without
success; although the actual conversion was not completed until after
the fall of the cabinet of which he formed part the merit is entirely
his. In 1907 he was president of the co-operative congress at Cremona.
See L. Carpi's _Risorgimento Italiano_, vol. ii. (Milan, 1886), which
contains a biographical sketch of Luzzatti.
LUZZATTO, MOSES HAYIM (1707-1747), Hebrew dramatist and mystic, was born
in Padua 1707, and died at Acre 1747. He was influenced by Isaac Luria
(q.v.) on the mystical side, and on the poetical side by Italian drama
of the school of Guarini (q.v.). He attacked Léon of Modena's
anti-Kabbalistic treatises, and as a result of his conflict with the
Venetian Rabbinate left Italy for Amsterdam, where, like Spinoza, he
maintained himself by grinding lenses. Here, in 1740, he wrote his
popular religious manual the _Path of the Upright_ (_Messilath
Yesharim_) and other ethical works. He visited London, but finally
settled in Palestine, where he died. Luzzatto's most lasting work is in
the realm of Hebrew drama. His best-known compositions are: the _Tower
of Victory_ (_Migdal 'Oz_) and _Glory to the Upright_ (_Layesharim
Tehillah_). Both of these dramas, which were not printed at the time but
were widely circulated in manuscript, are of the type which preceded the
Shakespearean age--they are allegorical and all the characters are
types. The beautiful Hebrew style created a new school of Hebrew poetry,
and the Hebrew renaissance which resulted from the career of Moses
Mendelssohn owed much to Luzzatto.
See Grätz, _History of the Jews_, v. ch. vii.; I. Abrahams, _Jewish
Life in the Middle Ages_, pp. 190, 268; N. Slouschz, _The Renascence
of Hebrew Literature_, ch. i. (I. A.)
LUZZATTO, SAMUEL DAVID (1800-1865), Jewish scholar, was born at Trieste
in 1800, and died at Padua in 1865. He was the most distinguished of the
Italian Jewish scholars of the 19th century. The first Jew to suggest
emendations to the text of the Hebrew Bible, he edited Isaiah
(1856-1867), and wrote a commentary on the Pentateuch (1871). His
grammatical works were mostly written in Italian. He also contributed to
the history of the Synagogue liturgy, and enjoys with Geiger (q.v.) and
Zunz (q.v.) the honour of reviving interest in the medieval Hebrew
hymnology and secular verse.
See Grätz, _History of the Jews_ (Eng. trans.), v. 622 seq.; N.
Slouschz, _The Renascence of Hebrew Literature_, pp. 84-92; the
_Jewish Encyclopedia_, viii. 225-226, with list of works. (I. A.)
LYALL, SIR ALFRED COMYN (1835- ), Anglo-Indian civil servant and man of
letters, son of the Rev. Alfred Lyall, was born in 1835, and educated at
Eton and Haileybury. He entered the Bengal civil service in 1855, saw
service during the Mutiny in the Bulandshahr district, at Meerut, and
with the Khaki Risala of volunteers. He was commissioner in Berar
(1867), secretary to the government of India in the Home and Foreign
departments, lieutenant-governor of the North-western Provinces
(1882-1887), and member of the Council of India (1888-1903). Among his
writings, his _Verses Written in India_ (1889) attained considerable
popularity, and in his _Asiatic Studies_ (1882 and 1899) he displays a
deep insight into Indian life and character. He wrote the _Life_ of Lord
Dufferin (1905), and made numerous contributions to periodical
literature.
LYALL, EDNA, the pen-name of ADA ELLEN BAYLY (1857-1903), English
novelist. She was born at Brighton in 1857, the daughter of a barrister.
Her parents died while she was a child, and she was brought up at
Caterham, Surrey. At Eastbourne, where most of her life was spent, she
was well known for her philanthropic activity. She died on the 8th of
February 1903. Edna Lyall's vogue as a novelist was the result of a
combination of the story-teller's gift with a sincere ethical and
religious spirit of Christian tolerance, which at the time was new to
many readers. Though her _Won by Waiting_ (1879) had some success, it
was with _Donovan_ (1882) and _We Two_ (1884), in which the persecuted
atheist was inevitably identified with Charles Bradlaugh, that she
became widely popular. Other novels were _In the Golden Days_ (1885), a
story of the Great Rebellion; _Knight Errant_ (1887); _Autobiography of
a Slander_ (1887); _A Hardy Norseman_ (1889); _Derrick Vaughan_, _The
Story of a Novelist_ (1889); _To Right the Wrong_ (1892); _Doreen_
(1894), a statement of the case for Irish Home Rule; _The Autobiography
of a Truth_ (1896), the proceeds of which were devoted to the Armenian
Relief Fund; _In Spite of All_ (1901), which had originally been
produced by Mr Ben Greet as a play; and _The Bruges Letters_ (1902), a
book for children.
A _Life_ by J. N. Escreet appeared in 1904, and a shorter account of
her by the Rev. G. A. Payne was printed at Manchester in 1903.
LYALLPUR, a district of India, in the Multan division of the Punjab. It
was constituted in 1904 to comprise the "Chenab Colony," being the waste
portion of the former Jhang district that is now irrigated by the Lower
Chenab canal. Area, 3075 sq. m.; pop. (1906) 654,666. It is traversed by
a section of the North-western railway. The headquarters are at Lyallpur
town (pop. in 1906, 13,483), named after Sir James Lyall, a
lieutenant-governor. It contains several factories for ginning and
pressing cotton.
See _Chenab Colony Gazetteer_ (Lahore, 1904).
LYCAEUS (Mons Lycaeus, [Greek: Lychaion oros]: mod. _Diaphorti_), a
mountain in Arcadia, sacred to Zeus Lycaeus, who was said to have been
born and brought up on it, and the home of Pelasgus and his son Lycaon,
who is said to have founded the ritual of Zeus practised on its summit.
This seems to have involved a human sacrifice, and a feast in which the
man who received the portion of a human victim was changed to a wolf, as
Lycaon had been after sacrificing a child. The altar of Zeus consists of
a great mound of ashes with a retaining wall. It was said that no
shadows fell within the precincts; and that any who entered it died
within the year.
LYCANTHROPY (Gr. [Greek: lykos], wolf, [Greek: anthropos], man), a name
employed (1) in folk-lore for the liability or power of a human being to
undergo transformation into an animal; (2) in pathology for a form of
insanity in which the patient believes that he is transformed into an
animal and behaves accordingly.
I. Although the term lycanthropy properly speaking refers to
metamorphosis into a wolf (see WERWOLF), it is in practice used of
transformation into any animal. The Greeks also spoke of kynanthropy
([Greek: kyon], dog); in India and the Asiatic islands the tiger is the
commonest form, in North Europe the bear, in Japan the fox, in Africa
the leopard or hyena, sometimes also the lion, in South America the
jaguar; but though there is a tendency for the most important
carnivorous animal of the area to take the first place in stories and
beliefs as to transformation, the less important beasts of prey and even
harmless animals like the deer also figure among the wer-animals.
Lycanthropy is often confused with transmigration; but the essential
feature of the wer-animal is that it is the alternative form or the
double of a living human being, while the soul-animal is the vehicle,
temporary or permanent, of the spirit of a dead human being. The vampire
is sometimes regarded as an example of lycanthropy; but it is in human
form, sometimes only a head, sometimes a whole body, sometimes that of a
living person, at others of a dead man who issues nightly from the grave
to prey upon the living.
Even if the denotation of lycanthropy be limited to the
animal-metamorphosis of living human beings, the beliefs classed
together under this head are far from uniform, and the term is somewhat
capriciously applied. The transformation may be voluntary or
involuntary, temporary or permanent; the wer-animal may be the man
himself metamorphosed, it may be his double whose activity leaves the
real man to all appearance unchanged, it may be his soul, which goes
forth seeking whom it may devour and leaving its body in a state of
trance; or it may be no more than the messenger of the human being, a
real animal or a familiar spirit, whose intimate connexion with its
owner is shown by the fact that any injury to it is believed, by a
phenomenon known as repercussion, to cause a corresponding injury to the
human being.
The phenomenon of repercussion, the power of animal metamorphosis, or of
sending out a familiar, real or spiritual, as a messenger, and the
supernormal powers conferred by association with such a familiar, are
also attributed to the magician, male and female, all the world over;
and witch superstitions are closely parallel to, if not identical with,
lycanthropic beliefs, the occasional involuntary character of
lycanthropy being almost the sole distinguishing feature. In another
direction the phenomenon of repercussion is asserted to manifest itself
in connexion with the bush-soul of the West African and the _nagual_ of
Central America; but though there is no line of demarcation to be drawn
on logical grounds, the assumed power of the magician and the intimate
association of the bush-soul or the _nagual_ with a human being are not
termed lycanthropy. Nevertheless it will be well to touch on both these
beliefs here.
In North and Central America, and to some extent in West Africa,
Australia and other parts of the world, every male acquires at puberty a
tutelary spirit (see DEMONOLOGY); in some tribes of Indians the youth
kills the animal of which he dreams in his initiation fast; its claw,
skin or feathers are put into a little bag and become his "medicine" and
must be carefully retained, for a "medicine" once lost can never be
replaced. In West Africa this relation is said to be entered into by
means of the blood bond, and it is so close that the death of the animal
causes the man to die and vice versa. Elsewhere the possession of a
tutelary spirit in animal form is the privilege of the magician. In
Alaska the candidate for magical powers has to leave the abodes of men;
the chief of the gods sends an otter to meet him, which he kills by
saying "O" four times; he then cuts out its tongue and thereby secures
the powers which he seeks. The Malays believe that the office of
_pawang_ (priest) is only hereditary if the soul of the dead priest, in
the form of a tiger, passes into the body of his son. While the familiar
is often regarded as the alternative form of the magician, the _nagual_
or bush-soul is commonly regarded as wholly distinct from the human
being. Transitional beliefs, however, are found, especially in Africa,
in which the power of transformation is attributed to the whole of the
population of certain areas. The people of Banana are said to change
themselves by magical means, composed of human embryos and other
ingredients, but in their leopard form they may do no hurt to mankind
under pain of retaining for ever the beast shape. In other cases the
change is supposed to be made for the purposes of evil magic and human
victims are not prohibited. We can, therefore, draw no line of
demarcation, and this makes it probable that lycanthropy is connected
with nagualism and the belief in familiar spirits, rather than with
metempsychosis, as Dr Tylor argues, or with totemism, as suggested by J.
F. M'Lennan. A further link is supplied by the Zulu belief that the
magician's familiar is really a transformed human being; when he finds a
dead body on which he can work his spells without fear of discovery, the
wizard breathes a sort of life into it, which enables it to move and
speak, it being thought that some dead wizard has taken possession of
it. He then burns a hole in the head and through the aperture extracts
the tongue. Further spells have the effect of changing the revivified
body into the form of some animal, hyena, owl or wild cat, the latter
being most in favour. This creature then becomes the wizard's servant
and obeys him in all things; its chief use is, however, to inflict
sickness and death upon persons who are disliked by its master.
_Lycanthropy in Europe._--The wolf is the commonest form of the
wer-animal (see WERWOLF), though in the north the bear disputes its
pre-eminence. In ancient Greece the dog was also associated with the
belief. Marcellus of Sida, who wrote under the Antonines, gives an
account of a disease which befell people in February; but a
pathological state seems to be meant.
_Lycanthropy in Africa._--In Abyssinia the power of transformation is
attributed to the Boudas, and at the same time we have records of
pathological lycanthropy (see below). Blacksmiths are credited with
magical powers in many parts of the world, and it is significant that
the Boudas are workers in iron and clay; in the _Life of N. Pearce_
(i. 287) a European observer tells a story of a supposed
transformation which took place in his presence and almost before his
eyes; but it does not appear how far hallucination rather than
coincidence must be invoked to explain the experience.
_The Wer-tiger of the East Indies._--The Poso-Alfures of central
Celebes believe that man has three souls, the _inosa_, the _angga_ and
the _tanoana_. The _inosa_ is the vital principle; it can be detected
in the veins and arteries; it is given to man by one of the great
natural phenomena, more especially the wind. The _angga_ is the
intellectual part of man; its seat is unknown; after death it goes to
the under-world, and, unlike the _inosa_, which is believed to be
dissolved into its original elements, takes possession of an
immaterial body. The _tanoana_ is the divine in man and after death
returns to its lord, Poewempala boeroe. It goes forth during sleep,
and all that it sees it whispers into the sleeper's ear and then he
dreams. According to another account, the _tanoana_ is the substance
by which man lives, thinks and acts; the _tanoana_ of man, plants and
animals is of the same nature. A man's _tanoana_ can be strengthened
by those of others; when the _tanoana_ is long away or destroyed the
man dies. The _tanoana_ seems to be the soul of which lycanthropic
feats are asserted.
Among the Toradjas of central Celebes it is believed that a man's
"inside" can take the form of a cat, wild pig, ape, deer or other
animal, and afterwards resume human form; it is termed _lamboyo_. The
exact relation of the _lamboyo_ to the _tanoana_ does not seem to be
settled; it will be seen below that the view seems to vary. According
to some the power of transformation is a gift of the gods, but others
hold that werwolfism is contagious and may be acquired by eating food
left by a werwolf or even by leaning one's head against the same
pillar. The Todjoers hold that any one who touches blood becomes a
werwolf. In accordance with this view is the belief that werwolfism
can be cured; the breast and stomach of the werman must be rubbed and
pinched, just as when any other witch object has to be extracted. The
patient drinks medicine, and the contagion leaves the body in the form
of snakes and worms. There are certain marks by which a werman can be
recognized. His eyes are unsteady and sometimes green with dark
shadows underneath. He does not sleep soundly and fireflies come out
of his mouth. His lips remain red in spite of betel chewing, and he
has a long tongue. The Todjoers add that his hair stands on end.
Some of the forms of the _lamboyo_ are distinguishable from ordinary
animals by the fact that they run about among the houses; the
wer-buffalo has only one horn, and the wer-pig transforms itself into
an ants' nest, such as hangs from trees. Some say that the werman does
not really take the form of an animal himself, but, like the sorcerer,
only sends out a messenger. The _lamboyo_ attacks by preference
solitary individuals, for he does not like to be observed. The victim
feels sleepy and loses consciousness; the _lamboyo_ then assumes human
form (his body being, however, still at home) and cuts up his victim,
scattering the fragments all about. He then takes the liver and eats
it, puts the body together again, licks it with his long tongue and
joins it together. When the victim comes to himself again he has no
idea that anything unusual has happened to him. He goes home, but soon
begins to feel unwell. In a few days he dies, but before his death he
is able sometimes to name the werman to whom he has fallen a victim.
From this account it might be inferred that the _lamboyo_ was
identical with the _tanoana_; the absence of the _lamboyo_ seems to
entail a condition of unconsciousness, and it can assume human form.
In other cases, however, the _lamboyo_ seems to be analogous to the
familiar of the sorcerer. The Toradjas tell a story of how a man once
came to a house and asked the woman to give him a rendezvous; it was
night and she was asleep; the question was put three times before the
answer was given "in the tobacco plantation." The husband was awake,
and next day followed his wife, who was irresistibly drawn thither.
The werman came to meet her in human form, although his body was
engaged in building a new house, and caused the woman to faint by
stamping three times on the ground. Thereupon the husband attacked the
werman with a piece of wood, and the latter to escape transformed
himself into a leaf; this the husband put into a piece of bamboo and
fastened the ends so that he could not escape. He then went back to
the village and put the bamboo in the fire. The werman said "Don't,"
and as soon as it was burnt he fell dead.
In another case a woman died, and, as her death was believed to be due
to the malevolence of a werwolf, her husband watched by her body. For,
like Indian witches, the werwolf, for some reason, wishes to revive
his victim and comes in human form to carry off the coffin. As soon as
the woman was brought to life the husband attacked the werwolf, who
transformed himself into a piece of wood and was burnt. The woman
remained alive, but her murderer died the same night.
According to a third form of the belief, the body of the werman is
itself transformed. One evening a man left the hut in which a party
were preparing to pass the night; one of his companions heard a deer
and fired into the darkness. Soon after the man came back and said he
had been shot. Although no marks were to be seen he died a few days
later.
In Central Java we meet with another kind of wer-tiger. The power of
transformation is regarded as due to inheritance, to the use of
spells, to fasting and will-power, to the use of charms, &c. Save when
it is hungry or has just cause for revenge it is not hostile to man;
in fact, it is said to take its animal form only at night and to guard
the plantations from wild pigs, exactly as the _balams_ (magicians) of
Yucatan were said to guard the corn fields in animal form. Variants of
this belief assert that the werman does not recognize his friends
unless they call him by name, or that he goes out as a mendicant and
transforms himself to take vengeance on those who refuse him alms.
Somewhat similar is the belief of the Khonds; for them the tiger is
friendly; he reserves his wrath for their enemies, and a man is said
to take the form of a tiger in order to wreak a just vengeance.
_Lycanthropy in South America._--According to K. F. P. v. Martius the
_kanaima_ is a human being who employs poison to carry out his
function of blood avenger; other authorities represent the _kanaima_
as a jaguar, which is either an avenger of blood or the familiar of a
cannibalistic sorcerer. The Europeans of Brazil hold that the seventh
child of the same sex in unbroken succession becomes a wer-man or
woman, and takes the form of a horse, goat, jaguar or pig.
II. As a pathological state lycanthropy may be described as a kind of
hysteria, and may perhaps be brought into connexion with the form of it
known as _latah_. It is characterized by the patient's belief that he
has been metamorphosed into an animal, and is often accompanied by a
craving for strange articles of food, including the flesh of living
beings or of corpses. In the lower stages of culture the state of the
patient is commonly explained as due to possession, but where he leaves
the neighbourhood of man real metamorphosis may be asserted, as in
ordinary lycanthropic beliefs. Marcellus of Sida says that in Greece the
patients frequented the tombs at night; they were recognizable by their
yellow complexion, hollow eyes and dry tongue. The Garrows of India are
said to tear their hair when they are seized with the complaint, which
is put down to the use of a drug applied to the forehead; this recalls
the stories of the witch's salve in Europe. In Abyssinia the patient is
usually a woman; two forms are distinguished, caused by the hyena and
the leopard respectively. A kind of trance ushers in the fit; the
fingers are clenched, the eyes glazed and the nostrils distended; the
patient, when she comes to herself, laughs hideously and runs on all
fours. The exorcist is a blacksmith; as a rule, he applies onion or
garlic to her nose and proceeds to question the evil spirit.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the anthropological side of the subject see
bibliography to WERWOLF; also _Tijdskrift voor indische Taal, Land en
Volkenkunde_, xxviii. 338, xli. 548, 568; _Med.
Zendelingsgenootschap_, xxxix. 3, 16; O. Stoll, _Suggestion_, p. 418;
W. H. Brett, _Indians of British Guiana_. For the pathological side,
see Hack Tuke, _Dict. of Psychological Medicine_, s.v. "Lycanthropy";
_Dict. des sciences médicales_; Waldmeier, _Autobiography_, p. 64; A.
J. Hayes, _Source of Blue Nile_, p. 286 seq.; _Abh. phil.-hist. Klasse
kgl. sächsische Gesellschaft der Wiss._ 17, No. 3. (N. W. T.)
LYCAON, in Greek mythology, son of Pelasgus, the mythical first king of
Arcadia. He, or his fifty impious sons, entertained Zeus and set before
him a dish of human flesh; the god pushed away the dish in disgust and
either killed the king and his sons by lightning or turned them into
wolves (Apollodorus iii. 8; Ovid, _Metam._ i. 198). Some say that Lycaon
slew and dished up his own son Nyctimus (Clem. Alex. _Protrept._ ii. 36;
Nonnus, _Dionys._ xviii. 20; Arnobius iv. 24). The deluge was said to
have been sent by Zeus in the time of Deucalion in consequence of the
sons' impiety. Pausanias (viii. 2) says that Lycaon sacrificed a child
to Zeus on the altar on mount Lycaeus, and immediately after the
sacrifice was turned into a wolf. This gave rise to the story that a man
was turned into a wolf at each annual sacrifice to Zeus Lycaeus, but
recovered his human form if he abstained from human flesh for ten years.
The oldest city, the oldest cultus (that of Zeus Lycaeus), and the first
civilization of Arcadia are attributed to Lycaon. His story has been
variously interpreted. According to Weizsäcker, he was an old Pelasgian
or pre-Hellenic god, to whom human sacrifice was offered, bearing a
non-Hellenic name similar to [Greek: Lykos], whence the story originated
of his metamorphosis into a wolf. His cult was driven out by that of the
Hellenic Zeus, and Lycaon himself was afterwards represented as an evil
spirit, who had insulted the new deity by setting human flesh before
him. Robertson Smith considers the sacrifices offered to the wolf-Zeus
in Arcadia to have been originally cannibal feasts of a wolf-tribe, who
recognized the wolf as their totem. Usener and others identify Lycaon
with Zeus Lycaeus, the god of light, who slays his son Nyctimus (the
dark) or is succeeded by him, in allusion to the perpetual succession of
night and day. According to Ed. Meyer, the belief that Zeus Lycaeus
accepted human sacrifice in the form of a wolf was the origin of the
myth that Lycaon, the founder of his cult, became a wolf, i.e.
participated in the nature of the god by the act of sacrifice, as did
all who afterwards duly performed it. W. Mannhardt sees in the ceremony
an allusion to certain agricultural rites, the object of which was to
prevent the failure of the crops and to avert pestilence (or to protect
them and the flocks against the ravages of wolves). Others (e.g. V.
Bérard) take Zeus Lycaeus for a Semitic Baal, whose worship was imported
into Arcadia by the Phoenicians; Immerwahr identifies him with Zeus
Phyxios, the god of the exile who flees on account of his having shed
blood. Another explanation is that the place of the sacred wolf once
worshipped in Arcadia was taken in cult by Zeus Lycaeus, and in popular
tradition by Lycaon, the ancestor of the Arcadians, who was supposed to
have been punished for his insulting treatment of Zeus. It is possible
that the whole may be merely a reminiscence of a superstition similar to
the familiar werwolf stories.
See articles by P. Weizsäcker in Roscher's _Lexikon_ and by G.
Fougères (s.v. "Lykaia") in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des
antiquités_; W. Immerwahr, _Die Kulte und Mythen Arkadiens_, 1.
(1891), p. 14; L. R. Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, i. (1896),
p. 40; A. Lang, _Myth, Ritual and Religion_ (1899); C. Pascal, _Studii
di antichità e mitologia_ (1896), who sees in Lycaon a god of death
honoured by human sacrifice; Ed. Meyer, _Forschungen zur alten
Geschichte_, i. (1892), p. 60; W. Mannhardt, _Wald- und Feldkulte_,
ii. (1905); G. Fougères, _Mantinée et l'Arcadie orientale_ (1898), p.
202; V. Bérard, _De l'origine des cultes arcadiens_ (1894); H. D.
Müller, _Mythologie der griechischen Stämme_, ii. (1861), p. 78; H.
Usener, _Rheinisches Museum_, liii. (1898), p. 375; G. Görres,
_Berliner Studien für classische Philologie_, x. 1 (1889), who regards
the Lycaea as a funeral festival connected with the changes of
vegetation; Vollgraf, _De Ovidii mythopoeia_; a concise statement of
the various forms of the legend in O. Gruppe, _Griechische
Mythologie_, ii. p. 920, n. 4; see also LYCANTHROPY; D. Bassi, "Apollo
Liceo," in _Rivista di storia antica_, i. (1895); and Frazer's
_Pausanias_, iv. p. 189. (J. H. F.)
LYCAONIA, in ancient geography, a large region in the interior of Asia
Minor, north of Mount Taurus. It was bounded on the E. by Cappadocia, on
the N. by Galatia, on the W. by Phrygia and Pisidia, while to the S. it
extended to the chain of Mount Taurus, where it bordered on the country
popularly called in earlier times Cilicia Tracheia and in the Byzantine
period Isauria; but its boundaries varied greatly at different times.
The name is not found in Herodotus, but Lycaonia is mentioned by
Xenophon as traversed by Cyrus the younger on his march through Asia.
That author describes Iconium as the last city of Phrygia; and in Acts
xiv. 5 St Paul, after leaving Iconium, crossed the frontier and came to
Lystra in Lycaonia. Ptolemy, on the other hand, includes Lycaonia as a
part of the province of Cappadocia, with which it was associated by the
Romans for administrative purposes; but the two countries are clearly
distinguished both by Strabo and Xenophon and by authorities generally.
Lycaonia is described by Strabo as a cold region of elevated plains,
affording pasture to wild asses and to sheep; and at the present day
sheep abound, but asses are practically unknown. Amyntas, king of
Galatia, to whom the district was for a time subject, maintained there
not less than three hundred flocks. It forms part of the interior
tableland of Asia Minor, and has an elevation of more than 3000 ft. It
suffers from want of water, aggravated in some parts by abundance of
salt in the soil, so that the northern portion, extending from near
Iconium to the salt lake of Tatta and the frontiers of Galatia, is
almost wholly barren, only small patches being cultivated near Iconium
and the large villages. The soil, where water is supplied, is
productive. In ancient times great attention was paid to storing and
distributing the water, so that much land now barren was formerly
cultivated and supported a large number of cities.
The plain is interrupted by some minor groups of mountains, of volcanic
character, of which the Kara Dagh in the south, a few miles north of
Karaman, rises above 7000 ft., while the Karadja Dagh, north-east of it,
though of inferior elevation, presents a striking range of volcanic
cones. The mountains in the north-west, near Iconium and Laodicea, are
the termination of the Sultan Dagh range, which traverses a large part
of Phrygia.
The Lycaonians appear to have been in early times to a great extent
independent of the Persian empire, and were like their neighbours the
Isaurians a wild and lawless race of freebooters; but their country was
traversed by one of the great natural lines of high road through Asia
Minor, from Sardis and Ephesus to the Cilician gates, and a few
considerable towns grew up along or near this line. The most important
was Iconium, in the most fertile spot in the country, of which it was
always regarded by the Romans as the capital, although ethnologically it
was Phrygian. It is still called Konia, and it was the capital of the
Seljuk Turkish empire for several centuries. A little farther north,
immediately on the frontier of Phrygia, stood Laodicea (Ladik), called
Combusta, to distinguish it from the Phrygian city of that name; and in
the south, near the foot of Mount Taurus, was Laranda, now called
Karaman, which has given name to the province of Karamania. Derbe and
Lystra, which appear from the Acts of the Apostles to have been
considerable towns, were between Iconium and Laranda. There were many
other towns, which became bishoprics in Byzantine times. Lycaonia was
Christianized very early; and its ecclesiastical system was more
completely organized in its final form during the 4th century than that
of any other region of Asia Minor.
After the defeat of Antiochus the Great, Lycaonia was given by the
Romans to Eumenes II., king of Pergamos. About 160 B.C. part of it, the
"Tetrarchy of Lycaonia," was added to Galatia; and in 129 B.C. the
eastern half (usually called during the following 200 years Lycaonia
proper) was given to Cappadocia as an eleventh strategia. In the
readjustment of the Provinciae, 64 B.C., by Pompey after the Mithradatic
wars, he gave the northern part of the tetrarchy to Galatia and the
eastern part of the eleventh strategia to Cappadocia. The remainder was
attached to Cilicia. Its administration and grouping changed often under
the Romans. In A.D. 371 Lycaonia was first formed into a separate
province. It now forms part of the Konia viláyet.
The Lycaonians appear to have retained a distinct nationality in the
time of Strabo, but their ethnical affinities are unknown. The mention
of the Lycaonian language in the Acts of the Apostles (xiv. 11) shows
that the native language was spoken by the common people at Lystra about
A.D. 50; and probably it was only later and under Christian influence
that Greek took its place.
See Sir W. M. Ramsay, _Historical Geography of Asia Minor_ (1890),
_Historical Commentary on Galatians_ (1899) and _Cities of St Paul_
(1907); also an article on the topography in the _Jahreshefte des
Oesterr. Archaeolog. Instituts_, 194 (Beiblatt) pp. 57-132.
(W. M. Ra.)
LYCEUM, the latinized form of Gr. [Greek: Lykeion], the name of a
gymnasium and garden with covered walks, near the temple of Apollo
Lyceus ([Greek: Apollon Aykeios]) at Athens. Aristotle taught here, and
hence the name was applied to his school of philosophy. The name had
been used in many languages for places of instruction, &c. In France the
term _lycée_ is given to the secondary schools which are administered by
the state, in contradistinction to the communal _collèges_.
LYCIA, in ancient geography, a district in the S.W. of Asia Minor,
occupying the coast between Caria and Pamphylia, and extending inland as
far as the ridge of Mt Taurus. The region thus designated is a peninsula
projecting southward from the great mountain masses of the interior. It
is for the most part a rugged mountainous country, traversed by
offshoots of the Taurus range, which terminate on the coast in lofty
promontories. The coast, though less irregular than that of Caria, is
indented by a succession of bays--the most marked of which is the Gulf
of Macri (anc. _Glaucus Sinus_) in the extreme west. A number of smaller
bays, and broken rocky headlands, with a few small islets, constitute
the coast-line thence to the S.E. promontory of Lycia, formed by a long
narrow tongue of rocky hill, known in ancient times as the "Sacred
Promontory" (Hiera Acra), with three small adjacent islets, called the
Chelidonian islands, which was regarded by some ancient geographers as
the commencement of Mt. Taurus. Though the mountain ranges of Lycia are
all offshoots of Mt, Taurus, in ancient times several of them were
distinguished by separate names. Such were Daedala in the west,
adjoining the Gulf of Macri, Cragus on the sea-coast, west of the valley
of the Xanthus, Massicytus (10,000 ft.) nearly in the centre of the
region, and Solyma in the extreme east above Phaselis (7800 ft.). The
steep and rugged pass between Solyma and the sea, called the Climax
("Ladder"), was the only direct communication between Lycia and
Pamphylia.
The only two considerable rivers are: (1) the Xanthus, which descends
from the central mass of Mt Taurus, and flows through a narrow valley
till it reaches the city of the same name, below which it forms a plain
of some extent before reaching the sea, and (2) the Limyrus, which
enters the sea near Limyra. The small alluvial plains at the mouths of
these rivers are the only level ground in Lycia, but the hills that rise
thence towards the mountains are covered with a rich arborescent
vegetation. The upper valleys and mountain sides afford good pasture for
sheep, and the main Taurus range encloses several extensive upland
basin-shaped valleys (_vailas_), which are characteristic of that range
throughout its extent (see ASIA MINOR).
The limits of Lycia towards the interior seem to have varied at
different times. The high and cold upland tract to the north-east,
called Milyas, was by some writers included in that province, though
it is naturally more connected with Pisidia. According to Artemidorus
(whose authority is followed by Strabo), the towns that formed the
Lycian league in the days of its integrity were twenty-three in
number; but Pliny states that Lycia once possessed seventy towns, of
which only twenty-six remained in his day. Recent researches have
fully confirmed the fact that the sea-coast and the valleys were
thickly studded with towns, many of which are proved by existing
remains to have been places of importance. By the aid of inscriptions
the position of the greater part of the cities mentioned in ancient
authors can be fixed. On the gulf of Glaucus, near the frontiers of
Caria, stood Telmessus, an important place, while a short distance
inland from it were the small towns of Daedala and Cadyanda. At the
entrance of the valley of the Xanthus were Patara, Xanthus itself,
and, a little higher up, Pinara on the west and Tlos on the east side
of the valley, while Araxa stood at the head of the valley, at the
foot of the pass leading into the interior. Myra, one of the most
important cities of Lycia, occupied the entrance of the valley of the
Andriacus; on the coast between this and the mouth of the Xanthus
stood Antiphellus, while in the interior at a short distance were
found Phellus, Cyaneae and Candyba. In the alluvial plain formed by
the rivers Arycandus and Limyrus stood Limyra, and encircling the same
bay the three small towns of Rhodiapolis, Corydalla and Gagae.
Arycanda commanded the upper valley of the river of the same name. On
the east coast stood Olympus, one of the cities of the league, while
Phaselis, a little farther north, which was a much more important
place, never belonged to the Lycian league and appears always to have
maintained an independent position.
The cold upland district of the Milyas does not seem to have contained
any town of importance. Podalia appears to have been its chief place.
Between the Milyas and the Pamphylian Gulf was the lofty mountain
range of Solyma, which was supposed to derive its name from the
Solymi, a people mentioned by Homer in connexion with the Lycians and
the story of Bellerophon. In the flank of this mountain, near a place
called Deliktash, was the celebrated fiery source called the Chimaera,
which gave rise to many fables. It has been visited in modern times by
Captain F. Beaufort, T. A. B. Spratt and Edward Forbes, and other
travellers, and is merely a stream of inflammable gas issuing from
crevices in the rocks, such as are found in several places in the
Apennines. No traces of recent volcanic action exist in Lycia.
_History._--The name of the Lycians, _Lukki_, is first met with in the
Tel el-Amarna tablets (1400 B.C.) and in the list of the nations from
the eastern Mediterranean who invaded Egypt in the reign of Mineptah,
the successor of Rameses II. At that time they seem to have occupied the
Cilician coast. Their occupation of Lycia was probably later, and since
the Lycian inscriptions are not found far inland, we may conclude that
they entered the country from the sea. On the other hand the name
appears to be preserved in Lycaonia, where some bands of them may have
settled. According to Herodotus they called themselves Termilae, written
Trmmile in the native inscriptions, and he further states that the
original inhabitants of the country were the Milyans and Solymi, the
Lycians being invaders from Crete. In this tradition there is a
reminiscence of the fact that the Lycians had been sea-rovers before
their settlement in Lycia. The Lycian Sarpedon was believed to have
taken part in the Trojan war. The Lydians failed to subdue Lycia, but
after the fall of the Lydian empire it was conquered by Harpagus the
general of Cyrus, Xanthus or Arnna, the capital, being completely
destroyed. While acknowledging the suzerainty of Persia, however, the
Lycians remained practically independent, and for a time joined the
Delian league. "The son of Harpagus" on the obelisk of Xanthus boasts of
having sacked numerous cities in alliance with the Athenian goddess. The
Lycians were incorporated into the empire of Alexander and his
successors, but even after their conquest by the Romans, preserved their
federal institutions as late as the time of Augustus. According to
Strabo the principal towns in the league were Xanthus, Patara, Pinara,
Olympus, Myra and Tlos; each of these had three votes in the general
assembly, while the other towns had only two or one. Taxation and the
appointment of the Lyciarch and other magistrates were vested in the
assembly. Under Claudius Lycia was formally annexed to the Roman empire,
and united with Pamphylia: Theodosius made it a separate province.
_Antiquities._--Few parts of Asia Minor were less known in modern times
than Lycia up to the 19th century. Captain Beaufort was the first to
visit several places on the sea-coast, and the remarkable rock-hewn
tombs of Telmessus had been already described by Dr Clarke, but it was
Sir Charles Fellows who first discovered and drew attention to the
extraordinary richness of the district in ancient remains, especially of
a sepulchral character. His visits to the country in 1838 and 1840 were
followed by an expedition sent by the British government in 1842 to
transport to England the valuable monuments now in the British Museum,
while Admiral Spratt and Edward Forbes explored the interior, and laid
down its physical features on an excellent map. The monuments thus
brought to light are among the most interesting of those discovered in
Asia Minor, and prove the existence of a distinct native architecture,
especially in the rock-cut tombs. But the theatres found in almost every
town, some of them of very large size, are sufficient to attest the
pervading influence of Greek civilization; and this is confirmed by the
sculptures, which are for the most part wholly Greek. None of them,
indeed, can be ascribed to a very early period, and hardly any trace can
be found of the influence of Assyrian or other Oriental art.
One of the most interesting results of these recent researches has been
the discovery of numerous inscriptions in the native language of the
country, and written in an alphabet peculiar to Lycia. A few of these
inscriptions are bilingual, in Greek and Lycian, and the clue thus
afforded to their interpretation has been followed up, first by Daniel
Sharpe and Moritz Schmidt, and in more recent years by J. Imbert, W.
Arkwright, V. Thomsen, A. Torp, S. Bugge and E. Kalinka.
The alphabet was derived from the Doric alphabet of Rhodes, but ten
other characters were added to it to express vocalic and other sounds
not found in Greek. The attempts to connect the language with the
Indo-European family have been unsuccessful; it belongs to a separate
family of speech which we may term "Asianic." Most of the inscriptions
are sepulchral; by far the longest and most important is that on an
obelisk found at Xanthus, which is a historical document, the concluding
part of it being in a peculiar dialect, supposed to be an older and
poetical form of the language. Among the deities mentioned are Trzzube
(Trosobis) and Trqqiz or Trqqas.
Lycian art was modelled on that of the Greeks. The rock-cut tomb usually
represented the house of the living, with an elaborate façade, but in
one or two instances, notably that of the so-called Harpy-tomb, the
façade is surmounted by a tall, square tower, in the upper part of which
is the sepulchral chamber. Lycian sculpture followed closely the
development of Greek sculpture, and many of the sculptures with which
the tombs are adorned are of a high order of merit. The exquisite
bas-reliefs on a Lycian sarcophagus now in the museum of Constantinople
are among the finest surviving examples of classical art. The
bas-reliefs were usually coloured. For the coinage, see NUMISMATICS,
section "Asia Minor."
AUTHORITIES.--C. Fellows, _Journal in Asia Minor_ (1839) and
_Discoveries in Lycia_ (1841); T. A. B. Spratt and E. Forbes, _Travels
in Lycia_ (1847); O. Benndorf and G. Niemann, _Reisen im südwestlichen
Kleinasien_ (1884); E. Petersen and F. von Luschan, _Reisen in Lykien_
(1889); O. Treuber, _Geschichte der Lykier_ (1887); G. Perrot and C.
Chipiez, _Histoire de l'art dans l'antiquite_, v. (1890); P.
Kretschmer, _Einleitung in die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache_
(1896); S. Bugge, _Lykische Studien_ (from 1897); A. Torp, _Lykische
Beiträge_ (from 1898); V. Thomsen, _Études lyciennes_ (1899); E.
Kalinka and R. Heberdey, _Tituli Asiae Minoris_, i. (1901); see also
articles XANTHUS, MYRA, PATARA. (A. H. S.)
LYCK, or LYK, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of East
Prussia, 112 m. by rail S.E. of Königsberg, and close to the frontier of
Poland, on a lake and river of the same name. Pop. (1900) 11,386. It is
the chief town of the region known as Masuria. On an island in the lake
is a castle formerly belonging to the Teutonic order, and dating from
1273, now used as a prison. There are iron-foundries, distilleries,
breweries, tanneries, paper mills and flour mills, and a trade in grain
and cattle.
LYCOPHRON, Greek poet and grammarian, was born at Chalcis in Euboea. He
flourished at Alexandria in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus (285-247
B.C.). According to Suïdas, he was the son of Socles, but was adopted by
Lycus of Rhegium. He was entrusted by Ptolemy with the task of arranging
the comedies in the Alexandrian library, and as the result of his
labours composed a treatise _On Comedy_. His own compositions, however,
chiefly consisted of tragedies (Suïdas gives the titles of twenty, of
which very few fragments have been preserved), which secured him a place
in the Pleiad of Alexandrian tragedians. One of his poems, _Alexandra_
or _Cassandra_, containing 1474 iambic lines, has been preserved entire.
It is in the form of a prophecy uttered by Cassandra, and relates the
later fortunes of Troy and of the Greek and Trojan heroes. References to
events of mythical and later times are introduced, and the poem ends
with a reference to Alexander the Great, who was to unite Asia and
Europe in his world-wide empire. The style is so enigmatical as to have
procured for Lycophron, even among the ancients, the title of "obscure"
([Greek: skoteinos]). The poem is evidently intended to display the
writer's knowledge of obscure names and uncommon myths; it is full of
unusual words of doubtful meaning gathered from the older poets, and
many long-winded compounds coined by the author. It has none of the
qualities of poetry, and was probably written as a show-piece for the
Alexandrian school. It was very popular in the Byzantine period, and was
read and commented on very frequently; the collection of scholia by
Isaac and John Tzetzes is very valuable, and the MSS. of the _Cassandra_
are numerous.[1] A few well-turned lines which have been preserved from
Lycophron's tragedies show a much better style; they are said to have
been much admired by Menedemus of Eretria, although the poet had
ridiculed him in a satyric drama. Lycophron is also said to have been a
skilful writer of anagrams.
Editio princeps (1513); J. Potter (1697, 1702); L. Sebastiani (1803);
L. Bachmann (1830); G. Kinkel (1880); E. Scheer (1881-1908), vol. ii.
containing the scholia. The most complete edition is by C. von
Holzinger (with translation, introduction and notes, 1895). There are
translations by F. Deheque (1853) and Viscount Royston (1806; a work
of great merit). See also Wilamowitz-Möllendorff, _De Lycophronis
Alexandra_ (1884); J. Konze, _De Dictione Lycophronis_ (1870). The
commentaries of the brothers Tzetzes have been edited by C. O. Müller
(1811).