APARRI, a town of the province of Cagayan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on
the Grande de Cagayan river near, its mouth, about 55 m. N. of
Tuguegarao, the capital. Pop. (1903) 18,252. The valley is one of the
largest tobacco-producing sections in the Philippines; and the town has
a considerable coastwise trade. Here, too, is a meteorological station.
APATITE, a widely distributed mineral, which, when found in large
masses, is of considerable economic value as a phosphate. As a mineral
species it was first recognized by A.G. Werner in 1786 and named by him
from the Greek [Greek: apatan], to deceive, because it had previously
been mistaken for other minerals, such as beryl, tourmaline, chrysolite,
amethyst, &c. Although long known to consist mainly of calcium
phosphate, it was not until 1827 that G. Rose found that fluorine or
chlorine is an essential constituent. Two chemical varieties of apatite
are to be distinguished, namely a fluor-apatite, (CaF)Ca4P3O12, and a
chlor-apatite, (CaCl)Ca4P3O12: the former, which is much the commoner,
contains 42.3% of phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5) and 3.8% fluorine, and the
latter 4.10 P2O5 and 6.8% chlorine. Fluorine and chlorine replace each
other in indefinite proportions, and they may also be in part replaced
by hydroxyl, so that the general formula becomes [Ca (F, Cl, OH)]
Ca4P3O12, in which the univalent group Ca(F, Cl, OH) takes the place of
one hydrogen atom in orthophosphoric acid H3PO4. The formula is
sometimes written in the form 3Ca3(PO4)2 + CaF2. Mangan-apatite is a
variety in which calcium is largely replaced by manganese (up to 10%
MnO). Cerium, didymium, yttrium, &c., oxides may also sometimes be
present, in amounts up to 5%.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
Apatite frequently occurs as beautifully developed crystals, sometimes a
foot or more in length, belonging to that division of the hexagonal
system in which there is pyramidal hemi-hedrism. In this type of
symmetry, of which apatite is the best example, there is only one plane
of symmetry, which is perpendicular to the hexad axis. The arrangement
of the pyramidal faces n and u in fig. 2 show the hemihedral character
and absence of the full number of planes and axes of symmetry. Fig. 2
represents a highly modified crystal from St Gotthard; a more common
form is shown in fig. 1, which is bounded by the hexagonal prism m,
hexagonal bipyramid x and basal pinacoid c.
In its general appearance, apatite exhibits wide variations. Crystals
may be colourless and transparent or white and opaque, but are often
coloured, usually some shade of green or brown, occasionally violet,
sky-blue, yellow, &c. The lustre is vitreous, inclining to sub-resinous.
There is an imperfect cleavage parallel to the basal pinacoid, and the
fracture is conchoidal. Hardness 5, specific gravity 3.2.
Yellowish-green prismatic crystals from Jumilla in Murcia in Spain have
long been known under the name asparagus-stone. Lazurapatite is a
sky-blue variety found as crystals with lapis-lazuli in Siberia; and
moroxite is the name given to dull greenish-blue crystals from Norway
and Canada. Francolite, from Wheal Franco, near Tavistock in Devonshire,
and also from several Cornish mines, occurs as crystallized stalactitic
masses. In addition to these crystallized varieties, there are massive
varieties, fibrous, concretionary, stalactitic, or earthy in form, which
are included together under the name phosphorite (q.v.), and it is these
massive varieties, together with various rock-phosphates (phosphatic
nodules, coprolites, guano, &c.) which are of such great economic
importance: crystallized apatite is mined for phosphates only in Norway
and Canada.
With regard to its mode of occurrence, apatite is found under a variety
of conditions. In igneous rocks of all kinds it is invariably present in
small amounts as minute acicular crystals, and was one of the first
constituents of the rock to crystallize out from the magma. The
extensive deposits of chlor-apatite near Kragero and Bamle, near Brevik,
in southern Norway, are in connexion with gabbro, the felspar of which
has been altered, by emanations containing chlorine, to scapolite, and
titanium minerals have been developed. The apatite occurring in
connexion with granite and veins of tin-stone is, on the other hand, a
fluor-apatite, and, like the other fluorine-bearing minerals
characteristic of tin-veins, doubtless owes its origin to the emanations
of tin fluoride which gave rise to the tin-ore. Special mention may be
here made of the beautiful violet crystals of fluor-apatite which occur
in the veins of tin-ore in the Erzgebirge, and of the brilliant
bluish-green crystals encrusting cavities in the granite of Luxullian in
Cornwall. Another common mode of occurrence of apatite is in metamorphic
crystalline rocks, especially in crystalline limestones: in eastern
Canada extensive beds of apatite occur in the limestones associated with
the Laurentian gneisses. Still another mode of occurrence is presented
by beautifully developed and transparent crystals found with crystals of
felspar and quartz lining the crevices in the gneiss of the Alps.
Crystallized apatite is also occasionally found in metalliferous veins,
other than those of tin, and in beds of iron ore; whilst if the massive
varieties (phosphorite) be considered many other modes of occurrence
might be cited. (L. J. S.)
APATURIA ([Greek: Apatouria]), an ancient Greek festival held annually
by all the Ionian towns except Ephesus and Colophon (Herodotus i. 147).
At Athens it took place in the month of Pyanepsion (October to
November), and lasted three days, on which occasion the various
phratries (i.e. clans) of Attica met to discuss their affairs. The name
is a slightly modified form of [Greek: apatoria = hamapatoria,
homopatoria], the festival of "common relationship." The ancient
etymology associated it with [Greek: apate] (deceit), a legend existing
that the festival originated in 1100 B.C. in commemoration of a single
combat between a certain Melanthus, representing King Thymoetes of
Attica, and King Xanthus of Boeotia, in which Melanthus successfully
threw his adversary off his guard by crying that a man in a black goat's
skin (identified with Dionysus) was helping him (Schol. Aristophanes,
_Acharnians_, 146). On the first day of the festival, called Dorpia or
Dorpeia, banquets were held towards evening at the meeting-place of the
phratries or in the private houses of members. On the second, Anarrhysis
(from [Greek: anarruein], to draw back the victim's head), a sacrifice
of oxen was offered at the public cost to Zeus Phratrius and Athena. On
the third day, Cureotis ([Greek: koureotis]), children born since the
last festival were presented by their fathers or guardians to the
assembled phratores, and, after an oath had been taken as to their
legitimacy and the sacrifice of a goat or a sheep, their names were
inscribed in the register. The name [Greek: koureotis] is derived either
from [Greek: kouros], that is, the day of the young, or less probably
from [Greek: keiro], because on this occasion young people cut their
hair and offered it to the gods. The victim was called [Greek: meion].
On this day also it was the custom for boys still at school to declaim
pieces of poetry, and to receive prizes (Plato, _Timaeus_, 21 B).
According to Hesychius these three days of the festival were followed by
a fourth, called [Greek: epibda], but this is merely a general term for
the day after any festival.
APE (Old Eng. _apa_; Dutch _aap_; Old Ger. _affo_; Welsh _epa_; Old
Bohemian _op_; a word of uncertain origin, possibly an imitation of the
animal's chatter), the generic English name, till the 16th century, for
animals of the monkey tribe, and still used specifically for the
tailless, manlike representatives of the order Primates (q.v.). The word
is now generally a synonym for "monkey," but the common verb for both
(as transferred figuratively to human beings) is "to ape," i.e. to
imitate.
APELDOORN, a town in the province of Gelderland, Holland, and a junction
station 26-1/2 m. by rail W. of Amersfoort. It is connected by canal
north and south with Zwolle and Zutphen respectively. Pop. (1900)
25,834. The neighbourhood of Apeldoorn is very picturesque and well
wooded. The Protestant church was restored after a fire in 1890. Close
by is the favourite country-seat of the royal family of Holland called
the Loo. It was originally a hunting-lodge of the dukes of Gelderland,
but in its present form dates chiefly from the time of the Stadtholder
William III., king of England. Apeldoorn possesses large paper-mills.
APELLA, the official title of the popular assembly at Sparta,
corresponding to the ecclesia in most other Greek states. Every full
citizen who had completed his thirtieth year was entitled to attend the
meetings, which, according to Lycurgus's ordinance, must be held at the
time of each full moon within the boundaries of Sparta. They had in all
probability taken place originally in the Agora, but were later
transferred to the neighbouring building known as the Skias (Paus. iii.
12. 10). The presiding officers were at first the kings, but in
historical times the ephors, and the voting was conducted by shouts; if
the president was doubtful as to the majority of voices, a division was
taken and the votes were counted. Lycurgus had ordained that the apella
must simply accept or reject the proposals submitted to it, and though
this regulation fell into neglect, it was practically restored by the
law of Theopompus and Polydorus which empowered the kings and elders to
set aside any "crooked" decision of the people (Plut. _Lycurg._ 6). In
later times, too, the actual debate was almost, if not wholly, confined
to the kings, elders, ephors and perhaps the other magistrates. The
apella voted on peace and war, treaties and foreign policy in general:
it decided which of the kings should conduct a campaign and settled
questions of disputed succession to the throne: it elected elders,
ephors and other magistrates, emancipated helots and perhaps voted on
legal proposals. There is a single reference (Xen. _Hell._ iii. 3. 8) to
a "small assembly" ([Greek: e mikra kaloumene ekklesia]) at Sparta, but
nothing is known as to its nature or competence. The term apella does
not occur in extant Spartan inscriptions, though two decrees of Gythium
belonging to the Roman period refer to the [Greek: megalai apellai] (Le
Bas-Foucart, _Voyage archeologique_, ii., Nos. 242a, 243).
See G. Gilbert, _Constitutional Antiquities of Sparta and Athens_
(Eng, trans., 1895), pp. 49 ff.; _Studien zur altspartanischen
Geschichte_ (Gottingen, 1872), pp. 131 ff.; G.F. Schomann,
_Antiquities of Greece: The State_ (Eng. trans., 1880), pp. 234 ff.;
_De ecdesiis Lacedaemoniorum_ (Griefswald, 1836) [= _Opusc. academ._
i. pp. 87 ff.]; C.O. Muller, _History and Antiquities of the Doric
Race_ (Eng. trans., 2nd ed. 1839), book iii. ch. 5, SS 8-10; G.
Busolt, _Die griechischen Staats- und Rechtsaltertumer_, 1887 (in Iwan
Muller's _Handbuch der klassischen Altertumsiuissenschaft_, iv. 1), S
90; _Griechische Geschichte_ (2nd ed.), i. p. 552 ff. (M. N. T.)
APELLES, probably the greatest painter of antiquity. He lived from the
time of Philip of Macedon till after the death of Alexander. He was of
Ionian origin, but after he had attained some celebrity he became a
student at the celebrated school of Sicyon, where he worked under
Pamphilus. He thus combined the Dorian thoroughness with the Ionic
grace. Attracted to the court of Philip, he painted him and the young
Alexander with such success that he became the recognized court painter
of Macedon, and his picture of Alexander holding a thunderbolt ranked
with the Alexander with the spear of the sculptor Lysippus. Other works
of Apelles had a great reputation in antiquity, such as the portraits of
the Macedonians Clitus, Archelaus and Antigonus, the procession of the
high priest of Artemis at Ephesus, Artemis amid a chorus of maidens, a
great allegorical picture representing Calumny, and the noted painting
representing Aphrodite rising out of the sea. Of none of these works
have we any copy, unless indeed we may consider a painting of Alexander
as Zeus in the house of the Vettii at Pompeii as a reminiscence of his
work; but some of the Italian artists of the Renaissance repeated the
subjects, in a vain hope of giving some notion of the composition of
them.
Few things are more hopeless than the attempt to realize the style of a
painter whose works have vanished. But a great wealth of stories, true
or invented, clung to Apelles in antiquity; and modern archaeologists
have naturally tried to discover what they indicate. We are told, for
example, that he attached great value to the drawing of outlines,
practising every day. The tale is well known of his visit to Protogenes,
and the rivalry of the two masters as to which could draw the finest and
steadiest line. The power of drawing such lines is conspicuous in the
decoration of red-figured vases of Athens. Apelles is said to have
treated his rival with generosity, for he increased the value of his
pictures by spreading a report that he meant to buy them and sell them
as his own. Apelles allowed the superiority of some of his
contemporaries in particular matters: according to Pliny he admired the
_dispositio_ of Melanthius, i.e. the way in which he spaced his figures,
and the _mensurae_ of Asclepiodorus, who must have been a great master
of symmetry and proportion. It was especially in that undefinable
quality "grace" that Apelles excelled. He probably used but a small
variety of colours, and avoided elaborate perspective: simplicity of
design, beauty of line and charm of expression were his chief merits.
When the naturalism of some of his works is praised--for example, the
hand of his Alexander is said to have stood out from the picture--we
must remember that this is the merit always ascribed by ignorant critics
to works which they admire. In fact the age of Alexander was one of
notable idealism, and probably Apelles succeeded in a marked degree in
imparting to his figures a beauty beyond nature.
Apelles was also noted for improvements which he introduced in
technique. He had a dark glaze, called by Pliny _atramentum_, which
served both to preserve his paintings and to soften their colour. There
can be little doubt that he was one of the most bold and progressive, of
artists. (P. G.)
APELLICON, a wealthy native of Teos, afterwards an Athenian citizen, a
famous book collector. He not only spent large sums in the acquisition
of his library, but stole original documents from the archives of Athens
and other cities of Greece. Being detected, he fled in order to escape
punishment, but returned when Athenion (or Aristion), a bitter opponent
of the Romans, had made himself tyrant of the city with the aid of
Mithradates. Athenion sent him with some troops to Delos, to plunder the
treasures of the temple, but he showed little military capacity. He was
surprised by the Romans under the command of Orobius (or Orbius), and
only saved his life by flight. He died a little later, probably in 84
B.C.
Apellicon's chief pursuit was the collection of rare and important
books. He purchased from the family of Neleus of Skepsis in the Troad
manuscripts of the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus (including their
libraries), which had been given to Neleus by Theophrastus himself,
whose pupil Neleus had been. They had been concealed in a cellar to
prevent their falling into the hands of the book-collecting princes of
Pergamum, and were in a very dilapidated condition. Apellicon filled in
the lacunae, and brought out a new, but faulty, edition. In 84 Sulla
removed Apellicon's library to Rome (Strabo xiii. p. 609; Plutarch,
_Sulla_, 26). Here the MSS. were handed over to the grammarian
Tyrannion, who took copies of them, on the basis of which the
peripatetic philosopher Andronicus of Rhodes prepared an edition of
Aristotle's works. Apellicon's library contained a remarkable old copy
of the _Iliad_. He is said to have published a biography of Aristotle,
in which the calumnies of other biographers were refuted.
APENNINES (Gr. [Greek: Apenninos], Lat. _Appenninus_--in both cases used
in the singular), a range of mountains traversing the entire peninsula
of Italy, and forming, as it were, the backbone of the country. The name
is probably derived from the Celtic _pen_, a mountain top: it originally
belonged to the northern portion of the chain, from the Maritime Alps to
Ancona; and Polybius is probably the first writer who applied it to the
whole chain, making, indeed, no distinction between the Apennines and
the Maritime Alps, and extending the former name as far as Marseilles.
Classical authors do not differentiate the various parts of the chain,
but use the name as a general name for the whole. The total length is
some 800 m. and the maximum width 70 to 80 m.
_Divisions._--Modern geographers divide the range into three parts,
northern, central and southern.
1. The northern Apennines are generally distinguished (though there is
no real solution of continuity) from the Maritime Alps at the Bocchetta
dell' Altare, some 5 m. W. of Savona on the high road to Turin.[1] They
again are divided into three parts--the Ligurian, Tuscan and Umbrian
Apennines. The Ligurian Apennines extend as far as the pass of La Cisa
in the upper valley of the Magra (anc. _Macra_) above Spezia; at first
they follow the curve of the Gulf of Genoa, and then run east-south-east
parallel to the coast. On the north and north-east lie the broad plains
of Piedmont and Lombardy, traversed by the Po, the chief tributaries of
which from the Ligurian Apennines are the Scrivia (_Olumbria_), Trebbia
(_Trebia_) and Taro (_Tarus_). The Tanaro (_Tanarus_), though largely
fed by tributaries from the Ligurian Apennines, itself rises in the
Maritime Alps, while the rivers on the south and south-west of the range
are short and unimportant. The south side of the range rises steeply
from the sea, leaving practically no coast strip: its slopes are
sheltered and therefore fertile and highly cultivated, and the coast
towns are favourite winter resorts (see RIVIERA). The highest point (the
Monte Bue) reaches 5915 ft. The range is crossed by several
railways--the line from Savona to Turin (with a branch at Ceva for
Acqui), that from Genoa to Ovada and Acqui, the main lines from Genoa to
Novi, the junction for Turin and Milan (both of which[2] pass under the
Monte dei Giovi, the ancient Mons loventius, by which the ancient Via
Postumia ran from Genua to Dertona), and that from Spezia to Parma under
the pass of La Cisa.[3] All these traverse the ridge by long
tunnels--that on the new line from Genoa to Honco is upwards of 5 m. in
length.
The Tuscan Apennines extend from the pass of La Cisa to the sources of
the Tiber. The main chain continues to run in an east-south-east
direction, but traverses the peninsula, the west coast meanwhile turning
almost due south. From the northern slopes many rivers and streams run
north and north-north-east into the Po, the Secchia (_Secia_) and Panaro
(_Scultenna_) being among the most important, while farther east most of
the rivers are tributaries of the Reno (anc. _Rhenus_). Other small
streams, e.g. the Ronco (_Bedesis_) and Montone (_Utis_), which flow
into the sea together east of Ravenna, were also tributaries of the Po;
and the Savio (_Sapis_) and the Rubicon seem to be the only streams from
this side of the Tuscan Apennines that ran directly into the sea in
Roman days. From the south-west side of the main range the Arno (q.v.)
and Serchio run into the Mediterranean. This section of the Apennines is
crossed by two railways, from Pistoia to Bologna and from Florence to
Faenza, and by several good high roads, of which the direct road from
Florence to Bologna over the Futa pass is of Roman origin; and certain
places in it are favourite summer resorts. The highest point of the
chain is Monte Cimone (7103 ft.). The so-called Alpi Apuane (the
_Apuani_ were an ancient people of Liguria), a detached chain south-west
of the valley of the Serchio, rise to a maximum height of 6100 ft. They
contain the famous marble quarries of Carrara. The greater part of
Tuscany, however, is taken up by lower hills, which form no part of the
Apennines, being divided from the main chain by the valleys of the Arno,
Chiana (_Clanis_) and Paglia (_Pallia_), Towards the west they are rich
in minerals and chemicals, which the Apennines proper do not produce.
The Umbrian Apennines extend from the sources of the Tiber to (or
perhaps rather beyond) the pass of Scheggia near Cagli, where the
ancient Via Flaminia crosses the range. The highest point is the Monte
Nerone (5010 ft.). The chief river is the Tiber itself: the others,
among which the Foglia (_Pisaurus_), Metauro (_Metaurus_) and Esino[4]
may be mentioned, run north-east into the Adriatic, which is some 30 m.
from the highest points of the chain. This portion of the range is
crossed near its southern termination by a railway from Foligno to
Ancona (which at Fabriano has a branch to Macerata and Porto Civitanova,
on the Adriatic coast railway), which may perhaps be conveniently
regarded as its boundary.[5] By some geographers, indeed, it is treated
as a part of the central Apennines.
2. The central Apennines are the most extensive portion of the chain,
and stretch as far as the valley of the Sangro (_Sangrus_). To the north
are the Monti Sibillini, the highest point of which is the Monte Vettore
(8128 ft.). Farther south three parallel chains may be traced, the
westernmost of which (the Monti Sabini) culminates to the south in the
Monte Viglio (7075 ft.), the central chain in the Monte Terminillo (7260
ft.), and farther south in the Monte Velino (8160 ft.), and the eastern
in the Gran Sasso d'Italia (9560 ft.), the highest summit of the
Apennines, and the Maiella group (Monte Amaro, 9170 ft.). Between the
western and central ranges are the plain of Rieti, the valley of the
Salto (_Himella_), and the Lago Fucino; while between the central and
eastern ranges are the valleys of Aquila and Sulmona. The chief rivers
on the west are the Nera (_Nar_), with its tributaries the Velino
(_Velinus_) and Salto, and the Anio, both of which fall into the Tiber.
On the east there is at first a succession of small rivers which flow
into the Adriatic, from which the highest points of the chain are some
25 m. distant, such as the Potenza (_Flosis_), Chienti (_Cluentus_),
Tenna (_Tinna_), Tronto (_Truentus_), Tordino (_Helvinus_), Vomano
(_Vomanus_), &c. The Pescara (_Aternus_), which receives the Aterno from
the north-west and the Gizio from the south-east, is more important; and
so is the Sangro.
The central Apennines are crossed by the railway from Rome to
Castelammare Adriatico via Avezzano and Sulmona: the railway from Orte
to Terni (and thence to Foligno) follows the Nera valley; while from
Terni a line ascends to the plain of Rieti, and thence crosses the
central chain to Aquila, whence it follows the valley of the Aterno to
Sulmona. In ancient times the Via Salaria, Via Caecilia and Via
Valeria-Claudia all ran from Rome to the Adriatic coast. The volcanic
mountains of the province of Rome are separated from the Apennines by
the Tiber valley, and the Monti Lepini, or Volscian mountains, by the
valleys of the Sacco and Liri.
3. In the southern Apennines, to the south of the Sangro valley, the
three parallel chains are broken up into smaller groups; among them may
be named the Matese, the highest point of which is the Monte Miletto
(6725 ft.). The chief rivers on the south-west are the Liri or
Garigliano (anc. _Liris_) with its tributary the Sacco (_Trerus_), the
Volturno (_Volturnus_), Sebeto (_Sabatus_), Sarno (_Sarnus_), on the
north the Trigno (_Trinius_), Biferno (_Tifernus_), and Fortore
(_Frento_). The promontory of Monte Gargano, on the east, is completely
isolated, and so are the volcanic groups near Naples. The district is
traversed from north-west to south-east by the railway from Sulmona to
Benevento and on to Avellino, and from south-west to north-east by the
railways from Caianello via Isernia to Campobasso and Termoli, from
Caserta to Benevento and Foggia, and from Nocera and Avellino to
Rocchetta S. Antonio, the junction for Foggia, Spinazzola (for Barletta,
Bari, and Taranto) and Potenza. Roman roads followed the same lines as
the railways: the Via Appia ran from Capua to Benevento, whence the
older road went to Venosa and Taranto and so to Brindisi, while the Via
Traiana ran nearly to Foggia and thence to Bari.
The valley of the Ofanto (_Aufidus_), which runs into the Adriatic close
to Barletta, marks the northern termination of the first range of the
Lucanian Apennines (now Basilicata), which runs from east to west, while
south of the valleys of the Sele (on the west) and Basiento (on the
east)-which form the line followed by the railway from Battipaglia via
Potenza to Metaponto--the second range begins to run due north and south
as far as the plain of Sibari (_Sybaris_). The highest point is the
Monte Pollino (7325 ft.). The chief rivers are the Sele
(_Silarus_)--joined by the Negro (_Tanager_) and Calore (_Calor_)--on
the west, and the Bradano (_Bradanus_), Basiento (_Casuentus_), Agri
(_Aciris_), Sinni (_Siris_) on the east, which flow into the gulf of
Taranto; to the south of the last-named river there are only unimportant
streams flowing into the sea east and west, inasmuch as here the width
of the peninsula diminishes to some 40 m. The railway running south from
Sicignano to Lagonegro, ascending the valley of the Negro, is planned to
extend to Cosenza, along the line followed by the ancient Via Popilia,
which beyond Cosenza reached the west coast at Terina and thence
followed it to Reggio. The Via Herculia, a branch of the Via Traiana,
ran from Aequum Tuticum to the ancient Nerulum. At the narrowest point
the plain of Sibari, through which the rivers Coscile (_Sybaris_) and
Crati (_Crathis_) flow to the sea, occurs on the east coast, extending
halfway across the peninsula. Here the limestone Apennines proper cease
and the granite mountains of Calabria (anc. _Bruttii_) begin. The first
group extends as far as the isthmus formed by the gulfs of S. Eufemia
and Squillace; it is known as the Sila, and the highest point reached is
6330 ft. (the Botte Donato). The forests which covered it in ancient
times supplied the Greeks and Sicilians with timber for shipbuilding.
The railway from S. Eufemia to Catanzaro and Catanzaro Marina crosses
the isthmus, and an ancient road may have run from Squillace to
Monteleone. The second group extends to the south end of the Italian
peninsula, culminating in the Aspromonte (6420 ft.) to the east of
Reggio di Calabria. In both groups the rivers are quite unimportant.
_Character_.--The Apennines are to some extent clothed with forests,
though these were probably more extensive in classical times (Pliny
mentions especially pine, oak and beech woods, _Hist. Nat_. xvi. 177);
they have indeed been greatly reduced in comparatively modern times by
indiscriminate timber-felling, and though serious attempts at
reafforestation have been made by the government, much remains to be
done. They also furnish considerable summer pastures, especially in the
Abruzzi: Pliny (_Hist. Nat_. xi. 240) praises the cheese of the
Apennines. In the forests wolves were frequent, and still are found, the
flocks being protected against them by large sheep-dogs; bears, however,
which were known in Roman times, have almost entirely disappeared. Nor
are the wild goats called _rotae_, spoken of by Varro (_R. R._ II. i.
5), which may have been either chamois or steinbock, to be found.
Brigandage appears to have been prevalent in Roman times in the remoter
parts of the Apennines, as it was until recently: an inscription found
near the Furlo pass was set up in A.D. 246 by an _evocatus Augusti_ (a
member of a picked corps) on special police duty with a detachment of
twenty men from the Ravenna fleet (G. Henzen in _Romische Mitteilungen_,
1887, 14). Snow lies on the highest peaks of the Apennines for almost
the whole year. The range produces no minerals, but there are a
considerable number of good mineral springs, some of which are thermal
(such as Bagni di Lucca, Monte Catini, Monsummano, Porretta, Telese,
&c.), while others are cool (such as Nocera, Sangemini, Cinciano, &c.),
the water of which is both drunk on the spot and sold as table water
elsewhere. (T. As.)
_Geology_.--The Apennines are the continuation of the Alpine chain, but
the individual zones of the Alps cannot be traced into the Apennines.
The zone of the Brianconnais (see ALPS) may be followed as far as the
Gulf of Genoa, but scarcely beyond, unless it is represented by the
Trias and older beds of the Apuan Alps. The inner zone of crystalline
and schistose rocks which forms the main chain of the Alps, is absent in
the Apennines except towards the southern end. The Apennines, indeed,
consist almost entirely of Mesozoic and Tertiary beds, like the outer
zones of the Alps. Remnants of a former inner zone of more ancient rocks
may be seen in the Apuan Alps, in the islands off the Tuscan coast; in
the Catena Metallifera, Cape Circeo and the island of Zannone, as well
as in the Calabrian peninsula. These remnants lie at a comparatively low
level, and excepting the Apuan Alps and the Calabrian peninsula they do
not now form any part of the Apennine chain. But that in Tertiary times
there was a high interior zone of crystalline rocks is indicated by the
character of the Eocene beds in the southern Apennines. These are formed
to a large extent of thick conglomerates which are full of pebbles and
boulders of granite and schist. Many of the boulders are of considerable
size and they are often still angular. There is now no crystalline
region from which they could reach their present position; and this and
other considerations have led the followers of E. Suess to conclude that
even in Tertiary times a large land mass consisting of ancient rocks
occupied the space which is now covered by the southern portion of the
Tyrrhenian Sea. This old land mass has been called Tyrrhenis, and
probably extended from Sicily into Latium and as far west as Sardinia.
On the Italian border of this land there was raised a mountain chain
with an inner crystalline zone and an outer zone of Mesozoic and
Tertiary beds. Subsequent faulting has caused the subsidence of the
greater part of Tyrrhenis, including nearly the whole of the inner zone
of the mountain chain, and has left only the outer zones standing as the
present Apennines.
Be this as it may, the Apennines, excepting in Calabria, are formed
chiefly of Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, Eocene and Miocene beds. In
the south the deposits, from the Trias to the middle Eocene, consist
mainly of limestones, and were laid down, with a few slight
interruptions, upon a quietly subsiding sea-floor. In the later part of
the Eocene period began the folding which gave rise to the existing
chain. The sea grew shallow, the deposits became conglomeratic and
shaly, volcanic eruptions began, and the present folds of the Apennines
were initiated. The folding and consequent elevation went on until the
close of the Miocene period when a considerable subsidence took place
and the Pliocene sea overspread the lower portions of the range.
Subsequent elevation, without folding, has raised these Pliocene
deposits to a considerable height--in some cases over 3000 ft. and they
now lie almost undisturbed upon the older folded beds. This last
elevation led to the formation of numerous lakes which are now filled up
by Pleistocene deposits. Both volcanic eruptions and movements of
elevation and depression continue to the present day on the shores of
the Tyrrhenian Sea. In the northern Apennines the elevation of the sea
floor appears to have begun at an earlier period, for the Upper
Cretaceous of that part of the chain consists largely of sandstones and
conglomerates. In Calabria the chain consists chiefly of crystalline and
schistose rocks; it is the Mesozoic and Tertiary zone which has here
been sunk beneath the sea. Similar rocks are found beneath the Trias
farther north, in some of the valleys of Basilicata. Glaciers no longer
exist in the Apennines, but Post-Pliocene moraines have been observed in
Basilicata.
REFERENCES.--G. de Lorenzo, "Studi di geologia nell' Appennino
Meridionale," _Atti d. R. Accad. d. Sci, Fis. e Mat._, Napoli, ser. 2,
vol. viii., no. 7 (1896); F. Sacco, "L' Appennino settentrionale,"
_Boll. Soc. geol. Ital._ (1893-1899). (P. La.)