[1] Strafford's _Letters_, ii. 300.
[2] _Life of Ormonde_, iii. 509; see also _Cal. of State Papers,
Ireland, 1660-1662_, pp. 294, 217; _Cal. of Clarendon St. Pap._, ii.
69, and Gardiner's _Commonwealth_, i. 153.
[3] Hallam, _Const. Hist._, iii. 396 (ed. 1855).
ANTRIM, a county in the north-east corner of Ireland, in the province of
Ulster. It is bounded N. and E. by the narrow seas separating Ireland
from Scotland, the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea, S. by Belfast Lough and
the Lagan river dividing it from the county Down, W. by Lough Neagh,
dividing it from the counties Armagh and Tyrone, and by county
Londonderry, the boundary with which is the river Bann.
The area is 751,965 acres or about 1175 sq. m. A large portion of the
county is hilly, especially in the east, where the highest elevations
are attained, though these are nowhere great. The range runs north and
south, and, following this direction the highest points are Knocklayd
(1695 ft.), Slieveanorra (1676), Trostan (1817), Slemish (1457), and
Divis (1567). The inland slope is gradual, but on the northern shore the
range terminates in abrupt and almost perpendicular declivities, and
here, consequently, some of the finest coast scenery in the island is
found, widely differing, with its unbroken lines of cliffs, from the
indented coast-line of the west. The most remarkable cliffs are those
formed of perpendicular basaltic columns, extending for many miles, and
most strikingly displayed in Fair Head and the celebrated Giant's
Causeway. From the eastern coast the hills rise instantly but less
abruptly, and the indentations are wider and deeper. On both coasts
there are several frequented watering-places, of which may be mentioned
on the north Portrush (with well-known golf links), Port Ballintrae and
Ballycastle; on the east Cushendun, Cushendall and Milltown on Red Bay,
Carn Lough and Glenarm, Larne, and Whitehead on Belfast Lough. All are
somewhat exposed to the easterly winds prevalent in spring. The only
island of size is Rathlin, off Ballycastle, 6-1/2 m. in length by 1-1/2
in breadth, 7 m. from the coast, and of similar basaltic and limestone
formation to that of the mainland. It is partially arable, and supports
a small population. The so-called Island Magee is a peninsula separating
Larne Lough from the Irish Channel.
The valleys of the Bann and Lagan, with the intervening shores of Lough
Neagh, form the fertile lowlands. These two rivers, both rising in
county Down, are the only ones of importance. The latter flows to
Belfast Lough, the former drains Lough Neagh, which is fed by a number
of smaller streams, among them the Crumlin, whose waters have petrifying
powers. The fisheries of the Bann and of Lough Neagh (especially for
salmon) are of value both commercially and to sportsmen, the small town
of Toome, at the outflow of the river, being the centre. Immediately
below this point lies Lough Beg, the "Small Lake," about 15 ft. lower
than Lough Neagh, which it excels in the pleasant scenery of its banks.
The smaller streams are of great use in working machinery.
_Geology._--On entering the county at the south, a scarped barrier of
hills is seen beyond the Lagan valley, marking the edge of the basaltic
plateaus, and running almost continuously round the coast to Red Bay.
Below it, Triassic beds are exposed from Lisburn to Island Magee, giving
sections of red sands and marls. Above these, marine Rhaetic beds appear
at intervals, notably near Larne, where they are succeeded by Lower Lias
shales and limestones. At Portrush, the Lower Lias is seen on the shore,
crowded with ammonites, but silicified and metamorphosed by invading
dolerite. The next deposits, as the scarps are approached, are
greensands of "Selbornian" age, succeeded by Cenomanian, and locally by
Turonian, sands. The Senonian series is represented by the White
Limestone, a hardened chalk with flints, which is often glauconitic and
conglomeratic at the base. Denudation in earliest Eocene times has
produced flint gravels above the chalk, and an ancient stream deposit of
chalk pebbles occurs at Ballycastle. The volcanic fissures that allowed
of the upwelling of basalt are represented by numerous dykes, many
cutting the earlier lava-flows as well as all the beds below them. The
accumulations of lava gave rise to the plateaus which form almost the
whole interior of the county. In a quiet interval, the Lower Eocene
plant-beds of Glenarm and Ballypalady were formed in lakes, where
iron-ores also accumulated. Rhyolites were erupted locally near Tardree,
Ballymena and Glenarm. The later basalts are especially marked by
columnar jointing, which determines the famous structures of the Giant's
Causeway and the coast near Bengore Head. Volcanic necks may be
recognized at Carrick-a-rede, in the intrusive mass of dolerite at
Slemish, at Carnmoney near Belfast, and a few other points. Fair Head is
formed of intrusive dolerite, presenting a superb columnar seaward face.
Faulting, probably in Pliocene times, lowered the basaltic plateaus to
form the basin of Lough Neagh, leaving the eastern scarp at heights
ranging up to 1800 ft. The glens of Antrim are deep notches cut by
seaward-running streams through the basalt scarp, their floors being
formed of Triassic or older rocks. Unlike most Irish counties, Antrim
owes its principal features to rocks of Mesozoic and Cainozoic age. At
Cushendun, however, a coarse conglomerate is believed to be Devonian,
while Lower Carboniferous Sandstones, with several coal-seams, form a
small productive basin at Ballycastle. The dolerite of Fair Head sends
off sheets along the bedding-planes of these carboniferous strata.
"Dalradian" schists and gneisses, with some dark limestones, come out in
the north-east of the county, forming a moorland-region between
Cushendun and Ballycastle. The dome of Knocklayd, capped by an outlier
of chalk and basalt, consists mostly of this far more ancient series.
Glacial gravels are well seen near Antrim town, and as drumlins between
Ballymena and Ballycastle. The drift-phenomena connected with the flow
of ice from Scotland are of special interest. Recently elevated marine
clays, of post-glacial date, fringe the south-eastern coast, while
gravels with marine shells, side by side with flint implements chipped
by early man, have been lifted some 20 ft. above sea-level near Larne.
Rock-salt some 80 ft. thick is mined in the Trias near Carrickfergus.
The Keuper clays yield material for bricks. Bauxite, probably derived
from the decay of lavas, is found between Glenarm and Broughshane,
associated with brown and red pisolitic iron-ores; both these materials
are worked commercially. Bauxite occurs also near Ballintoy. The
Ballycastle coal is raised and sold locally.
_Industries._--The climate is very temperate. The soil varies greatly
according to the district, being in some cases a rich loam, in others a
chalky marl, and elsewhere showing a coating of peat. The proportion of
barren land to the total area is roughly as 1 to 9; and of tillage to
pasture as 2 to 3. Tillage is therefore, relatively to other counties,
well advanced, and oats and potatoes are largely, though decreasingly,
cultivated. Flax is a less important crop than formerly. The numbers of
cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry are generally increasing. Dutch,
Ayrshire and other breeds are used to improve the breed of cattle by
crossing. Little natural wood remains in the county, but plantations
flourish on the great estates, and orchards have proved successful.
The linen manufacture is the most important industry. Cotton-spinning by
jennies was first introduced by Robert Joy and Thomas M'Cabe of Belfast
in 1777; and an estimate made twenty-three years later showed upwards of
27,000 hands employed in this industry within 10 m. of Belfast, which
remains the centre for it. Women are employed in the working of patterns
on muslin. There are several paper-mills at Bushmills in the north;
whisky-distilling is carried on; and there are valuable sea-fisheries
divided between the district of Ballycastle and Carrickfergus, while the
former is the headquarters of a salmon-fishery district. The workings at
the Ballycastle collieries are probably the oldest in Ireland. In 1770
the miners accidentally discovered a complete gallery, which has been
driven many hundred yards into the bed of coal, branching into
thirty-six chambers dressed quite square, and in a workman-like manner.
No tradition of the mine having been formerly worked remained in the
neighbourhood. The coal of some of the beds is bituminous, and of others
anthracite.
_Communications._--Except that the Great Northern railway line from
Belfast to the south and west runs for a short distance close to the
southern boundary of the county, with a branch from Lisburn to the town
of Antrim, the principal lines of communication are those of the
Northern Counties system, under the control of the Midland railway of
England. The chief routes are:--Belfast, Antrim, Ballymena (and thence
to Coleraine and Londonderry); a line diverging from this at White Abbey
to Carrickfergus and Larne, the port for Stranraer in Scotland; branches
from Ballymena to Larne and to Parkmore; and from Coleraine to Portrush.
The Ballycastle railway runs from Ballymoney to Ballycastle on the north
coast; and the Giant's Causeway and Portrush is an electric railway (the
first to be worked in the United Kingdom). The Lagan Canal connects
Lough Neagh with Belfast Lough.
_Population and Administration._--The population in 1891 was 208,010,
and in 1901, 196,090. The county is among those least seriously affected
by emigration. Of the total about 50% are Presbyterians, about 20% each
Protestant Episcopalians and Roman Catholics; Antrim being one of the
most decidedly Protestant counties in Ireland. Of the Presbyterians the
greater part are in connexion with the General Synod of Ulster, and the
other are Remonstrants, who separated from the Synod in 1829, or United
Presbyterians. The principal towns are Antrim (pop. 1826), Ballymena
(10,886), Ballymoney (2952), Carrickfergus (4208), Larne (6670), Lisburn
(11,461) and Portrush (1941). Belfast though constituting a separate
county ranks as the metropolis of the district. Ballyclare, Bushmills,
Crumlin, Portglenone and Randalstown are among the lesser towns. Belfast
and Larne are the chief ports. The county comprises 14 baronies and 79
civil parishes and parts of parishes. The constabulary force has its
headquarters at Ballymena. The assize town is Belfast, and quarter
sessions are held at Ballymena, Ballymoney, Belfast, Larne and Lisburn.
The county is divided between the Protestant dioceses of Derry and Down,
and the Roman Catholic dioceses of Down and Connor, and Dromore. It is
divided into north, mid, east and south parliamentary divisions, each
returning one member.
_History and Antiquities._--At what date the county of Antrim was formed
is not known, but it appears that a certain district bore this name
before the reign of Edward II. (early 14th century), and when the
shiring of Ulster was undertaken by Sir John Perrot in the 16th century,
Antrim and Down were already recognized divisions, in contradistinction
to the remainder of the province. The earliest known inhabitants were of
Celtic origin, and the names of the townlands or subdivisions, supposed
to have been made in the 13th century, are pure Celtic. Antrim was
exposed to the inroads of the Danes, and also of the northern Scots, who
ultimately effected permanent settlements. The antiquities of the county
consist of cairns, mounts or forts, remains of ecclesiastical and
military structures, and round towers. The principal cairns are: one on
Colin mountain, near Lisburn; one on Slieve True, near Carrickfergus;
and two on Colinward. The cromlechs most worthy of notice are: one near
Cairngrainey, to the north-east of the old road from Belfast to
Templepatrick; the large cromlech at Mount Druid, near Ballintoy; and
one at the northern extremity of Island Magee. The mounts, forts and
intrenchments are very numerous. There are three round towers: one at
Antrim, one at Armoy, and one on Ram Island in Lough Neagh, only that at
Antrim being perfect. There are some remains of the ecclesiastic
establishments at Bonamargy, where the earls of Antrim are buried,
Kells, Glenarm, Glynn, Muckamore and White Abbey. The noble castle of
Carrickfergus is the only one in perfect preservation. There are,
however, remains of other ancient castles, as Olderfleet, Cam's,
Shane's, Glenarm, Garron Tower, Redbay, &c., but the most interesting of
all is the castle of Dunluce, remarkable for its great extent and
romantic situation. Mount Slemish, about 8 m. east of Ballymena, is
notable as being the scene of St Patrick's early life. Island Magee had,
besides antiquarian remains, a notoriety as a home of witchcraft, and
was the scene of an act of reprisal for the much-disputed massacre of
Protestants about 1641, by the soldiery of Carrickfergus.
ANTRIM, a market-town in the west of the county Antrim, Ireland, in the
south parliamentary division, on the banks of the Six-Mile Water, half a
mile from Lough Neagh, in a beautiful and fertile valley. Pop. (1901)
1826. It is 21-3/4 m. north-west of Belfast by the Northern Counties
(Midland) railway, and is also the terminus of a branch of the Great
Northern railway from Lisburn. There is nothing in the town specially
worthy of notice, but the environs, including Shane's Castle and Antrim
Castle, possess features of considerable interest. About a mile from the
town is one of the most perfect of the round towers of Ireland, 93 ft.
high and 50 in circumference at the base. It stands in the grounds of
Steeple, a neighbouring seat, where is also the "Witches' Stone," a
prehistoric monument. A battle was fought near Antrim between the
English and Irish in the reign of Edward III.; and in 1642 a naval
engagement took place on Lough Neagh, for Viscount Massereene and
Ferrard (who founded Antrim Castle in 1662) had a right to maintain a
fighting fleet on the lough. On the 7th of June 1798 there was a smart
action in the town between the king's troops and a large body of rebels,
in which the latter were defeated, and Lord O'Neill mortally wounded.
Before the Union Antrim returned two members to parliament by virtue of
letters patent granted in 1666 by Charles II. There are manufactures of
paper, linen, and woollen cloth. The government is in the hands of town
commissioners.
ANTRUSTION, the name of the members of the bodyguard or military
household of the Merovingian kings. The word, of which the formation has
been variously explained, is derived from the O.H.Germ. _trost_,
comfort, aid, fidelity, trust, through the latinized form _trustis_. Our
information about the antrustions is derived from one of the _formulae_
of Marculfus (i. 18, ed. Zeumer, p. 55) and from various provisions of
the Salic law (see du Cange, _Glossarium, s._ "trustis"). Any one
desiring to enter the body of Antrustions had to present himself armed
at the royal palace, and there, with his hands in those of the king,
take a special oath or _trustis_ and _fidelitas_, in addition to the
oath of fidelity sworn by every subject at the king's accession. This
done, he was considered to be _in truste dominica_ and bound to the
discharge of all the services this involved. In return for these, the
antrustion enjoyed certain valuable advantages, as being specially
entitled to the royal assistance and protection; his _wergeld_ is three
times that of an ordinary Frank; the slayer of a Frank paid compensation
of 200 _solidi_, that of an antrustion had to find 600. The antrustion
was always of Frankish descent, and only in certain exceptional cases
were Gallo-Romans admitted into the king's bodyguard. These Gallo-Romans
then took the name of _convivae regis_, and the _wergeld_ of 300
_solidi_ was three times that of a _homo romanus_. The antrustions,
belonging as they did to one body, had strictly defined duties towards
one another; thus one antrustion was forbidden to bear witness against
another under penalty of 15 _solidi_ compensation.
The antrustions seem to have played an important part at the time of
Clovis. It was they, apparently, who formed the army which conquered the
land, an army composed chiefly of Franks, and of a few Gallo-Romans who
had taken the side of Clovis. After the conquest, the role of the
antrustions became less important. For each of their expeditions, the
kings raised an army of citizens in which the Gallo-Romans mingled more
and more with the Franks; they only kept one small permanent body which
acted as their bodyguard (_trustis dominica_), some members of which
were from time to time told off for other tasks, such as that of forming
garrisons in the frontier towns. The institution seems to have
disappeared during the anarchy with which the 8th century opened. It has
wrongly been held to be the origin of vassalage. Only the king had
antrustions; every lord could have vassals. The antrustions were a
military institution; vassalage was a social institution, the origins of
which are very complex.
All historians of Merovingian institutions and law have treated of the
antrustions, and each one has his different system. The principal
authorities are:--Waitz, _Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte_, 3rd ed.
vol. ii. pp. 335 et seq.; Brunner, _Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte_, vol.
ii. p. 97 et seq.; Fustel de Coulanges, _La Monarchie franque_, p. 80
et seq.; Maxirne Deloche, _La Trustis et Vantrustion royal sous les
deux premieres races_ (Paris, 1873), collecting and discussing the
principal texts; Guilhermoz, _Les Origines de la noblesse_ (Paris,
1902), suggesting a system which is new in part. (C. Pf.)
ANTWERP, the most northern of the nine provinces of Belgium. It is
conterminous with the Dutch frontier on the north. Malines, Lierre and
Turnhout are among the towns of the province. Its importance, however,
is derived from the fact that it contains the commercial metropolis of
Belgium. It is divided into three administrative districts
(_arrondissements_), viz. Antwerp, Malines and Turnhout. These are
subdivided into 25 cantons and 152 communes. The area is 707,932 acres
or 1106 sq. m. Pop. (1904) 888,980, showing an average of 804
inhabitants to the square mile.
ANTWERP (Fr. _Anvers_), capital of the above province, an important city
on the right bank of the Scheldt, Belgium's chief centre of commerce and
a strong fortified position.
Modern Antwerp is a finely laid out city with a succession of broad
avenues which mark the position of the first enceinte. There are long
streets and terraces of fine houses belonging to the merchants and
manufacturers of the city which amply testify to its prosperity, and
recall the 16th century distich that Antwerp was noted for its moneyed
men ("Antwerpia nummis"). Despite the ravages of war and internal
disturbances it still preserves some memorials of its early grandeur,
notably its fine cathedral. This church was begun in the 14th century,
but not finished till 1518. Its tower of over 400 ft. is a conspicuous
object to be seen from afar over the surrounding flat country. A second
tower which formed part of the original plan has never been erected. The
proportions of the interior are noble, and in the church are hung three
of the masterpieces of Rubens, viz. "The Descent from the Cross," "The
Elevation of the Cross," and "The Assumption." Another fine church in
Antwerp is that of St James, far more ornate than the cathedral, and
containing the tomb of Rubens, who devoted himself to its embellishment.
The Bourse or exchange, which claims to be the first distinguished by
the former name in Europe, is a fine new building finished in 1872, on
the site of the old Bourse erected in 1531 and destroyed by fire in
1858. Fire has destroyed several other old buildings in the city,
notably in 1891 the house of the Hansa League on the northern quays. A
curious museum is the Maison Plantin, the house of the great printer C.
Plantin (q.v.) and his successor Moretus, which stands exactly as it did
in the time of the latter. The new picture gallery close to the southern
quays is a fine building divided into ancient and modern sections. The
collection of old masters is very fine, containing many splendid
examples of Rubens, Van Dyck, Titian and the chief Dutch masters.
Antwerp, famous in the middle ages and at the present time for its
commercial enterprise, enjoyed in the 17th century a celebrity not less
distinct or glorious in art for its school of painting, which included
Rubens, Van Dyck, Jordaens, the two Teniers and many others.
_Commerce._--Since 1863, when Antwerp was opened to the trade of the
outer world by the purchase of the Dutch right to levy toll, its
position has completely changed, and no place in Europe has made greater
progress in this period than the ancient city on the Scheldt. The
following figures for the years 1904 and 1905 show that its trade is
still rapidly increasing:--
+------+-------------------------+-------------------------+
| | Exports. | Imports |
| Year.+-----------+-------------+-----------+-------------+
| | Tonnage. | Value. | Tonnage. | Value. |
+------+-----------+-------------+-----------+-------------+
| 1904 | 6,578,558 | L71,349,678 | 8,427,894 | L79,539,100 |
| 1905 | 7,153,655 | L80,032,355 | 9,061,781 | L91,194,517 |
+------+-----------+-------------+-----------+-------------+
The growth of its commerce in recent times may be measured by a
comparison of the following figures. In 1888, 4272 ships entered the
port and 4302 sailed from it. In 1905, 6095 entered the port and 6065
sailed from it--an increase of nearly 50%. In 1888 the total tonnage was
7,800,000; in 1905 it had risen to 19,662,000. These figures explain how
and why Antwerp has outgrown its dock accommodation. The eight principal
basins or docks already existing in 1908 were (1) the Little or
Bonaparte dock; (2) the Great dock, also constructed in Napoleon's time;
(3) the Kattendijk, built in 1860 and enlarged in 1881; (4) the Wood
dock; (5) the Campine dock, used especially for minerals; (6) the Asia
dock, which is in direct communication with the Meuse by a canal as well
as with the Scheldt; (7) the Lefebvre dock; and (8) the America dock,
which was only opened in 1905. Two new docks, called "intercalary"
because they would fit into whatever scheme might be adopted for the
rectification of the course of the Scheldt, were still to be
constructed, leading out of the Lefebvre dock and covering 70 acres.
With the completion of the new maritime lock, ships drawing 30 ft. of
water would be able to enter these new docks and also the Lefebvre and
America docks. In connexion with the projected _grande coupure_ (that
is, a cutting through the neck of the loop in the river Scheldt
immediately below Antwerp), the importance of these four docks would be
greatly increased because they would then flank the new main channel of
the river. When the Belgian Chambers voted in February 1906 the sums
necessary for the improvement of the harbour of Antwerp no definite
scheme was sanctioned, the question being referred to a special mixed
commission. The improvements at Antwerp are not confined to the
construction of new docks. The quays flanking the Scheldt are 3-1/2 m.
in length. They are constructed of granite, and no expense has been
spared in equipping them with hydraulic cranes, warehouses, &c.
_Fortifications._--Besides being the chief commercial port of Belgium,
Antwerp is the greatest fortress of that country. Nothing, however,
remains of the former enceinte or even of the famous old citadel
defended by General Chasse in 1832, except the _Steen_, which has been
restored and contains a museum of arms and antiquities. After the
establishment of Belgian independence Antwerp was defended only by the
citadel and an enceinte of about 2-1/2 m. round the city. No change
occurred till 1859, when the system of Belgian defence was radically
altered by the dismantlement of seventeen of the twenty-two fortresses
constructed under Wellington's supervision in 1815-1818. At Antwerp the
old citadel and enceinte were removed. A new enceinte 8 m. in length was
constructed, and the villages of Berchem and Borgerhout, now parishes of
Antwerp, were absorbed within the city. This enceinte still exists, and
is a fine work of art. It is protected by a broad wet ditch (plans in
article FORTIFICATION), and in the caponiers are the magazines and store
chambers of the fortress. The enceinte is pierced by nineteen openings
or gateways, but of these seven are not used by the public. As soon as
the enceinte was finished eight detached forts from 2 to 2-1/2 m.
distant from the enceinte were constructed. They begin on the north near
Wyneghem and the zone of inundation, and terminate on the south at
Hoboken. In 1870 Fort Merxem and the redoubts of Berendrecht and
Oorderen were built for the defence of the area to be inundated north of
Antwerp. In 1878, in consequence of the increased range of artillery and
the more destructive power of explosives, it was recognized that the
fortifications of Antwerp were becoming useless and out of date. It was
therefore decided to change it from a fortress to a fortified position
by constructing an outer line of forts and batteries at a distance
varying from 6 to 9 m. from the enceinte. This second line was to
consist of fifteen forts, large and small. Up to 1898 only five had been
constructed, but in that and the two following years five more were
finished, leaving another five to complete the line. A mixed commission
selected the points at which they were to be placed. With the completion
of this work, which in 1908 was being rapidly pushed on, Antwerp might
be regarded as one of the best fortified positions in Europe, and so
long as its communications by sea are preserved intact it will be
practically impregnable.
Two subsidiary or minor problems remained over. (1) The much-discussed
removal of the existing enceinte in order to give Antwerp further
growing space. If it were removed there arose the further question,
should a new enceinte be made at the first line of outer forts, or
should an enceinte be dispensed with? An enceinte following the line of
those forts would be 30 m. in length. Then if the city grew up to this
extended enceinte the outer forts would be too near. To screen the city
from bombardment they would have to be carried 3 m. further out, and the
whole Belgian army would scarcely furnish an adequate garrison for this
extended position. A new enceinte, or more correctly a rampart of a less
permanent character, connecting the eight forts of the inner line and
extending from Wyneghem to a little south of Hoboken, was decided upon
in 1908. (2) The second problem was the position on the left bank of the
Scheldt. All the defences enumerated are on the right bank. On the left
bank the two old forts Isabelle and Marie alone defend the Scheldt. It
is assumed (probably rightly) that no enemy could get round to this side
in sufficient strength to deliver any attack that the existing forts
could not easily repel. The more interesting question connected with
the left bank is whether it does not provide, as Napoleon thought, the
most natural outlet for the expansion of Antwerp. Proposals to connect
the two banks by a tunnel under the Scheldt have been made from time to
time in a fitful manner, but nothing whatever had been done by 1908 to
realize what appears to be a natural and easy project.
_Population._--The following statistics show the growth of population in
and since the 19th century. In 1800 the population was computed not to
exceed 40,000. At the census of 1846 the total was 88,487; of 1851,
95,501; of 1880, 169,100; of 1900, 272,830; and of 1904, 291,949. To
these figures ought to be added the populations (1904) of Borgerhout
(43,391) and Berchem (26,383), as they are part of the city, which would
give Antwerp a total population of 361,723.
_History._--The suggested origin of the name Antwerp from _Hand-werpen_
(hand-throwing), because a mythical robber chief indulged in the
practice of cutting off his prisoners' hands and throwing them into the
Scheldt, appeared to Motley rather far-fetched, but it is less
reasonable to trace it, as he inclines to do, from _an t werf_ (on the
wharf), seeing that the form _Andhunerbo_ existed in the 6th century on
the separation of Austrasia and Neustria. Moreover, hand-cutting was not
an uncommon practice in Europe. It was perpetuated from a savage past in
the custom of cutting off the right hand of a man who died without heir,
and sending it as proof of _main-morte_ to the feudal lord. Moreover,
the two hands and a castle, which form the arms of Antwerp, will not be
dismissed as providing no proof by any one acquainted with the
scrupulous care that heralds displayed in the golden age of chivalry
before assigning or recognizing the armorial bearings of any claimant.
In the 4th century Antwerp is mentioned as one of the places in the
second Germany, and in the 11th century Godfrey of Bouillon was for some
years best known as marquis of Antwerp. Antwerp was the headquarters of
Edward III. during his early negotiations with van Artevelde, and his
son Lionel, earl of Cambridge, was born there in 1338.
It was not, however, till after the closing of the Zwyn and the decay of
Bruges that Antwerp became of importance. At the end of the 15th century
the foreign trading gilds or houses were transferred from Bruges to
Antwerp, and the building assigned to the English nation is specifically
mentioned in 1510. In 1560, a year which marked the highest point of its
prosperity, six nations, viz. the Spaniards, the Danes and the Hansa
together, the Italians, the English, the Portuguese and the Germans,
were named at Antwerp, and over 1000 foreign merchants were resident in
the city. Guicciardini, the Venetian envoy, describes the activity of
the port, into which 500 ships sometimes passed in a day, and as
evidence of the extent of its land trade he mentioned that 2000 carts
entered the city each week. Venice had fallen from its first place in
European commerce, but still it was active and prosperous. Its envoy, in
explaining the importance of Antwerp, states that there was as much
business done there in a fortnight as in Venice throughout the year.
The religious troubles that marked the second half of the 16th century
broke out in Antwerp as in every other part of Belgium excepting Liege.
In 1576 the Spanish soldiery plundered the town during what was called
"the Spanish Fury," and 6000 citizens were massacred. Eight hundred
houses were burnt down, and over two millions sterling of damage was
wrought in the town on that occasion.
In 1585 a severe blow was struck at the prosperity of Antwerp when Parma
captured it after a long siege and sent all its Protestant citizens into
exile. The recognition of the independence of the United Provinces by
the treaty of Munster in 1648 carried with it the death-blow to
Antwerp's prosperity as a place of trade, for one of its clauses
stipulated that the Scheldt should be closed to navigation. This
impediment remained in force until 1863, although the provisions were
relaxed during French rule from 1795 to 1814, and also during the time
Belgium formed part of the kingdom of the Netherlands (1815 to 1830).
Antwerp had reached the lowest point of its fortunes in 1800, and its
population had sunk under 40,000, when Napoleon, realizing its
strategical importance, assigned two millions for the construction of
two docks and a mole.
One other incident in the chequered history of Antwerp deserves mention.
In 1830 the city was captured by the Belgian insurgents, but the citadel
continued to be held by a Dutch garrison under General Chasse. For a
time this officer subjected the town to a periodical bombardment which
inflicted much damage, and at the end of 1832 the citadel itself was
besieged by a French army. During this attack the town was further
injured. In December 1832, after a gallant defence, Chasse made an
honourable surrender.
See J.L. Motley's _Rise of the Dutch Republic_; C. Scribanii,
_Origines Antwerpiensium_; Gens, _Hist. de la ville d'Anvers_; Mertens
and Torfs, _Geschiedenis van Antwerp_; Genard, _Anvers a travers les
ages_; _Annuaire statisgue de la Belgigue_. (D. C. B.)
ANU, a Babylonian deity, who, by virtue of being the first figure in a
triad consisting of Anu, Bel and Ea, came to be regarded as the father
and king of the gods. Anu is so prominently associated with the city of
Erech in southern Babylonia that there are good reasons for believing
this place to have been the original seat of the Anu cult. If this be
correct, then the goddess Nana (or Ishtar) of Erech was presumably
regarded as his consort. The name of the god signifies the "high one"
and he was probably a god of the atmospheric region above the
earth--perhaps a storm god like Adad (q.v.), or like Yahweh among the
ancient Hebrews. However this may be, already in the old-Babylonian
period, i.e. before Khammurabi, Anu was regarded as the god of the
heavens and his name became in fact synonymous with the heavens, so that
in some cases it is doubtful whether, under the term, the god or the
heavens is meant. It would seem from this that the grouping of the
divine powers recognized in the universe into a triad symbolizing the
three divisions, heavens, earth and the watery-deep, was a process of
thought which had taken place before the third millennium. To Anu was
assigned the control of the heavens, to Bel the earth, and to Ea the
waters. The doctrine once established remained an inherent part of the
Babylonian-Assyrian religion and led to the more or less complete
disassociation of the three gods constituting the triad from their
original local limitations. An intermediate step between Anu viewed as
the local deity of Erech (or some other centre), Bel as the god of
Nippur, and Ea as the god of Eridu is represented by the prominence
which each one of the centres associated with the three deities in
question must have acquired, and which led to each one absorbing the
qualities of other gods so as to give them a controlling position in an
organized pantheon. For Nippur we have the direct evidence that its
chief deity, En-lil or Bel, was once regarded as the head of an
extensive pantheon. The sanctity and, therefore, the importance of Eridu
remained a fixed tradition in the minds of the people to the latest
days, and analogy therefore justifies the conclusion that Anu was
likewise worshipped in a centre which had acquired great prominence. The
summing-up of divine powers manifested in the universe in a threefold
division represents an outcome of speculation in the schools attached to
the temples of Babylonia, but the selection of Anu, Bel and Ea for the
three representatives of the three spheres recognized, is due to the
importance which, for one reason or the other, the centres in which Anu,
Bel and Ea were worshipped had acquired in the popular mind. Each of the
three must have been regarded in his centre as the most important member
in a larger or smaller group, so that their union in a triad marks also
the combination of the three distinctive pantheons into a harmonious
whole.
In the astral theology of Babylonia and Assyria, Anu, Bel and Ea became
the three zones of the ecliptic, the northern, middle and southern zone
respectively. The purely theoretical character of Anu is thus still
further emphasized, and in the annals and votive inscriptions as well as
in the incantations and hymns, he is rarely introduced as an active
force to whom a personal appeal can be made. His name becomes little
more than a synonym for the heavens in general and even his title as
king or father of the gods has little of the personal element in it. A
consort Antum (or as some scholars prefer to read, Anatum) is assigned
to him, on the theory that every deity must have a female associate, but
Antum is a purely artificial product--a lifeless symbol playing even
less of a part in what may be called the active pantheon than Anu.
For works of reference see BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN RELIGION.
(M. Ja.)
ANUBIS (in Egyptian _Anup_, written _Inpw_ in hieroglyphs), the name of
one of the most important of the Egyptian gods. There were two types of
canine divinities in Egypt, their leading representatives being
respectively Anubis and Ophois (Wp-w'-wt, "opener of the ways"): the
former type is symbolized by the recumbent animal [Hieroglyph], the
other by a similar animal (in a stiff standing attitude), carried as an
emblem on a standard [Hieroglyph] in war or in religious processions.
The former comprised two beneficent gods of the necropolis; the latter
also were beneficent, but warlike, divinities. They thus corresponded,
at any rate in some measure, respectively to the fiercer and milder
aspects of the dog-tribe. In late days the Greeks report that [Greek:
kunes] (dogs) were the sacred animals of Anubis while those of Ophois
were [Greek: lykoi] (wolves). The above figure [Hieroglyph] is coloured
black as befits a funerary and nocturnal animal: it is more attenuated
than even a greyhound, but it has the bushy tail of the fox or the
jackal. Probably these were the original genii of the necropolis, and in
fact the same lean animal figured _passant_ [Hieroglyph] is s'b "jackal"
or "fox." The domestic dog would be brought into the sacred circle
through the increased veneration for animals, and the more pronounced
view in later times of Anubis as servant, messenger and custodian of the
gods.
Anubis was the principal god in the capitals of the XVIIth and XVIIIth
nomes of Upper Egypt, and secondary god in the XIIIth and probably in
the XIIth nome; but his cult was universal. To begin with, he was the
god of the dead, of the cemetery, of all supplies for the dead, and
therefore of embalming when that became customary. In very early
inscriptions the funerary prayers in the tombs are addressed to him
almost exclusively, and he always took a leading place in them. In the
scene of the weighing of the soul before Osiris, dating from the New
kingdom onwards, Anubis attends to the balance while Thoth registers the
result. Anubis was believed to have been the embalmer of Osiris: the
mummy of Osiris, or of the deceased, on a bier, tended by this god, is a
very common subject on funerary tablets of the late periods. Anubis came
to be considered especially the attendant of the gods and conductor of
the dead, and hence was commonly identified with Hermes (cf. the name
Hermanubis); but the role of Hermes as the god of eloquence, inventor of
arts and recorder of the gods was taken by Thoth. In those days Anubis
was considered to be son of Osiris by Nephthys; earlier perhaps he was
son of Re, the sun-god. In the 2nd century A.D. his aid was "compelled"
by the magicians and necromancers to fetch the gods and entertain them
with food (especially in the ceremony of gazing into the bowl of oil),
and he is invoked by them sometimes as the "Good Ox-herd." The cult of
Anubis must at all times have been very popular in Egypt, and, belonging
to the Isis and Serapis cycle, was introduced into Greece and Rome.
See Erman, _Egyptian Religion_; Budge, _Gods of the Egyptians_; Meyer,
in _Zeits. f. Aeg. Spr._ 41-97. (F. Ll. G.)
ANURADHAPURA, a ruined city of Ceylon, famous for its ancient monuments.
It is situated in the North-central province. Anuradhapura became the
capital of Ceylon in the 5th century B.C., and attained its highest
magnificence about the commencement of the Christian era. In its prime
it ranked beside Nineveh and Babylon in its colossal proportions--its
four walls, each 16 m. long, enclosing an area of 256 sq. m.,--in the
number of its inhabitants, and the splendour of its shrines and public
edifices. It suffered much during the earlier Tamil invasions, and was
finally deserted as a royal residence in A.D. 769. It fell completely
into decay, and it is only of recent years that the jungle has been
cleared away, the ruins laid bare, and some measure of prosperity
brought back to the surrounding country by the restoration of hundreds
of village tanks. The ruins consist of three classes of buildings,
_dagobas_, monastic buildings, and _pokunas_. The _dagobas_ are
bell-shaped masses of masonry, varying from a few feet to over 1100 in
circumference. Some of them contain enough masonry to build a town for
twenty-five thousand inhabitants. Remains of the monastic buildings are
to be found in every direction in the shape of raised stone platforms,
foundations and stone pillars. The most famous is the Brazen Palace
erected by King Datagamana about 164 B.C. The _pokunas_ are
bathing-tanks or tanks for the supply of drinking-water, which are
scattered everywhere through the jungle. The city also contains a sacred
Bo-tree, which is said to date back to the year 245 B.C. The railway was
extended from Matale to Anuradhapura in 1905. Population: town, 3672;
province, 79,110.
ANVIL (from Anglo-Saxon _anfilt_ or _onfilti_, either that on which
something is "welded" or "folded," cf. German _falzen_, to fold, or
connected with other Teutonic forms of the word, cf. German _amboss_, in
which case the final syllable is from "beat," and the meaning is "that
on which something is beaten"), a mass of iron on which material is
supported while being shaped under the hammer (see FORGING). The common
blacksmith's anvil is made of wrought iron, often in America of cast
iron, with a smooth working face of hardened steel. It has at one end a
projecting conical _beak_ or _bick_ for use in hammering curved pieces
of metal; occasionally the other end is also provided with a bick, which
is then partly rectangular in section. There is also a square hole in
the face, into which tools, such as the anvil-cutter or chisel, can be
dropped, cutting edge uppermost. For power hammers the anvil proper is
supported on an anvil block which is of great massiveness, sometimes
weighing over 200 tons for a 12-ton hammer, and this again rests on a
strong foundation of timber and masonry or concrete. In anatomy the term
anvil is applied to one of the bones of the middle ear, the _incus_,
which is articulated with the _malleus_.
ANVILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE BOURGUIGNON D' (1697-1782), perhaps the greatest
geographical author of the 18th century, was born at Paris on the 11th
of July 1697. His passion for geographical research displayed itself
from early years: at the age of twelve he was already amusing himself by
drawing maps for Latin authors. Later, his friendship with the
antiquarian, Abbe Longuerue, greatly aided his studies. His first
serious map, that of Ancient Greece, was published when he was fifteen,
and at the age of twenty-two he was appointed one of the king's
geographers, and began to attract the attention of the first
authorities. D'Anville's studies embraced everything of geographical
nature in the world's literature, as far as he could master it: for this
purpose he not only searched ancient and modern historians, travellers
and narrators of every description, but also poets, orators and
philosophers. One of his cherished objects was to reform geography by
putting an end to the blind copying of older maps, by testing the
commonly accepted positions of places through a rigorous examination of
all the descriptive authority, and by excluding from cartography every
name inadequately supported. Vast spaces, which had before been covered
with countries and cities, were thus suddenly reduced almost to a blank.
D'Anville was at first employed in the humbler task of illustrating by
maps the works of different travellers, such as Marchais, Charlevoix,
Labat and Duhalde. For the history of China by the last-named writer he
was employed to make an atlas, which was published separately at the
Hague in 1737. In 1735 and 1736 he brought out two treatises on the
figure of the earth; but these attempts to solve geometrical problems by
literary material were, to a great extent, refuted by Maupertuis'
measurements of a degree within the polar circle. D'Anville's historical
method was more successful in his 1743 map of Italy, which first
indicated numerous errors in the mapping of that country, and was
accompanied by a valuable memoir (a novelty in such work), showing in
full the sources of the design. A trigonometrical survey which Benedict
XIV. soon after had made in the papal states strikingly confirmed the
French geographer's results. In his later years d'Anville did yeoman
service for ancient and medieval geography, accomplishing something like
a revolution in the former; mapping afresh all the chief countries of
the pre-Christian civilizations (especially Egypt), and by his _Memoire
et abrege de geographie ancienne et generale_ and his _Etats formes en
Europe apres la chute de l'empire romain en occident_ (1771) rendering
his labours still more generally useful. In 1754, at the age of
fifty-seven, he became a member of the Academie des Inscriptions et
Belles Lettres, whose transactions he enriched with many papers. In 1775
he received the only place in the Academie des Sciences which is
allotted to geography; and in the same year he was appointed, without
solicitation, first geographer to the king. His last employment
consisted in arranging his collection of maps, plans and geographical
materials. It was the most extensive in Europe, and had been purchased
by the king, who, however, left him the use of it during his life. This
task performed, he sank into a total imbecility both of mind and body,
which continued for two years, till his death in January 1782.
D'Anville's published memoirs and dissertations amounted to 78, and
his maps to 211. A complete edition of his works was announced in 1806
by de Manne in 6 vols. quarto, only two of which had appeared when the
editor died in 1832. See Dacier's _Eloge de d'Anville_ (Paris, 1802).
Besides the separate works noticed above, d'Anville's maps executed
for Rollin's _Histoire ancienne_ and _Histoire romaine_, and his
_Traite des mesures anciennes et modernes_ (1769), deserve special
notice.
ANWARI [Auhad-uddin Ali Anwari], Persian poet, was born in Khorasan
early in the 12th century. He enjoyed the especial favour of the sultan
Sinjar, whom he attended in all his warlike expeditions. On one
occasion, when the sultan was besieging the fortress of Hazarasp, a
fierce poetical conflict was maintained between Anwari and his rival
Rashidi, who was within the beleaguered castle, by means of verses
fastened to arrows. Anwari died at Balkh towards the end of the 12th
century. The _Diwan_, or collection of his poems, consists of a series
of long poems, and a number of simpler lyrics. His longest piece, _The
Tears of Khorassan_, was translated into English verse by Captain
Kirkpatrick (see also PERSIA. _Literature_).
ANWEILER, or ANNWEILER, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian Palatinate,
on the Queich, 8 m. west of Landau, and on the railway from that place
to Zweibrucken. Pop. 3700. It is romantically situated in the part of
the Haardt called the Pfalzer Schweiz (Palatinate Switzerland), and is
surrounded by high hills which yield a famous red sandstone. On the
Sonnenberg (1600 ft.) lie the ruins of the castle of Trifels, in which
Richard Coeur de Lion was imprisoned in 1193. The industries include
cloth-weaving, tanning, dyeing and saw mills. There is also a
considerable trade in wine.
ANZENGRUBER, LUDWIG (1839-1889), Austrian dramatist and novelist, was
born at Vienna on the 29th of November 1839. He was educated at the
_Realschule_ of his native town, and then entered a bookseller's shop;
from 1860 to 1867 he was an actor, without, however, displaying any
marked talent, although his stage experience later stood him in good
stead. In 1869 he became a clerk in the Viennese police department, but
having in the following year made a success with his anti-clerical
drama, _Der Pfarrer von Kirchfeld_, he gave up his appointment and
devoted himself entirely to literature. He died at Vienna on the both of
December 1889. Anzengruber was exceedingly fertile in ideas, and wrote a
great many plays. They are mostly of Austrian peasant life, and although
somewhat melancholy in tone are interspersed with bright and witty
scenes. Among the best known are _Der Meineidbauer_ (1871), _Die
Kreuzelschreiber_ (1872), _Der G'wissenswurm_ (1874), _Hand und Herz_
(1875), _Doppelselbstmord_ (1875), _Das vierte Gebot_ (1877), and _Der
Fleck auf der Ehr'_ (1889). Anzengruber also published a novel of
considerable merit, _Der Schandfleck_ (1876; remodelled 1884); and
various short stories and tales of village life collected under the
title _Wolken und Sunn'schein_ (1888).
Anzengruber's collected works, with a biography, were published in 10
vols. in 1890 (3rd ed. 1897); his correspondence has been edited by A.
Bettelheim (1902). See A. Bettelheim, _L. Anzengruber_ (1890); L.
Rosner, _Erinnerungen an L. Anzengruber_ (1890): H. Sittenberger,
_Studien zur Dramaturgie der Gegenwart_ (1899); S. Friedmann, _L.
Anzengruber_ (1902).
ANZIN, a town of northern France, in the department of Nord, on the
Scheldt, 1-1/2 m. N.W. of Valenciennes, of which it is a suburb. Pop.
(1906) 14,077. Anzin is the centre of important coal-mines of the
Valenciennes basin belonging to the Anzin Company, the formation of
which dates to 1717. The metallurgical industries of the place are
extensive, and include iron and copper founding and the manufacture of
steam-engines, machinery, chain-cables and a great variety of heavy iron
goods. There are also glass-works and breweries.
AONIA, a district of ancient Boeotia, containing the mountains Helicon
and Cithaeron, and thus sacred to the Muses, who are called by Pope the
"Aonian maids."
AORIST (from Gr. [Greek: aoristos], indefinite), the name given in Greek
grammar to certain past tenses of verbs (first aorist, second aorist).
AOSTA (anc. _Augusta Praetoria Salassorum_), a town and episcopal see of
Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Turin, 80 m. N.N.W. by rail of the
town of Turin, and 48 m. direct, situated 1910 ft. above sea-level, at
the confluence of the Buthier and the Dora Baltea, and at the junction
of the Great and Little St Bernard routes. Pop. (1901) 7875. The
cathedral, reconstructed in the 11th century (to which one of its
campanili and some architectural details belong), was much altered in
the 14th and 17th; it has a rich treasury including an ivory diptych of
406 with a representation of Honorius. The church of St Ours, founded in
425, and rebuilt in the 12th century, has good cloisters (1133); the
15th-century priory is picturesque. The castle of Bramafam (11th
century) is interesting. Cretinism is common in the district.
After the fall of the Roman empire the valley of Aosta fell into the
hands of the Burgundian kings; and after many changes of masters, it
came under the rule of Count Humbert I. of Savoy (Biancamano) in 1032.
The privilege of holding the assembly of the states-general was granted
to the inhabitants in 1189. An executive council was nominated from this
body in 1536, and continued to exist until 1802. After the restoration
of the rule of Savoy it was reconstituted and formally recognized by
Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, at the birth of his grandson Prince
Amedeo, who was created duke of Aosta. Aosta was the birthplace of
Anselm. For ancient remains see AUGUSTA PRAETORIA SALASSORUM.
APACHE (apparently from the Zuni name, = "enemy," given to the Navaho
Indians), a tribe of North American Indians of Athapascan stock. The
Apaches formerly ranged over south-eastern Arizona and south-western
Mexico. The chief divisions of the Apaches were the Arivaipa,
Chiricahua, Coyotero, Faraone Gileno, Llanero, Mescalero, Mimbreno,
Mogollon, Naisha, Tchikun and Tchishi. They were a powerful and warlike
tribe, constantly at enmity with the whites. The final surrender of the
tribe took place in 1886, when the Chiricahuas, the division involved,
were deported to Florida and Alabama, where they underwent military
imprisonment. The Apaches are now in reservations in Arizona, New Mexico
and Oklahoma, and number between 5000 and 6000.
For details see _Handbook of American Indians_, ed. F.W. Hodge,
(Washington, 1907); also INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN.
APALACHEE (apparently a Choctaw name, = "people on the other side"), a
tribe of North American Indians of Muskhogean stock. They have been
known since the 16th century, and formerly ranged the country around
Apalachee Bay, Florida. About 1600 the Spanish Franciscans founded a
successful mission among them, but early in the 18th century the tribe
suffered defeat at the hands of the British, the mission churches were
burnt, the priests killed, and the tribe practically annihilated, more
than one thousand of them being sold as slaves.
See _Handbook of American Indians_, ed. F.W. Hodge (Washington, 1907).
APALACHICOLA, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Franklin
county, Florida, U.S.A., in the N.W. part of the state, on Apalachicola
Bay and at the mouth of the Apalachicola river. Pop. (1890) 2727; (1900)
3077, of whom 1589 were of negro descent; (1905, state census) 3244. It
is served by the Apalachicola Northern railway (to Chattahoochee,
Florida), and by river steamers which afford connexion with railways at
Carrabelle about 25 m. distant, at Chatahoochee (or River Junction), and
at Columbus and Bainbridge, Georgia, and by ocean-going vessels with
American and foreign ports. The city has a monument (1900) to John
Gorrie (1803-1855), a physician who discovered the cold-air process of
refrigeration in 1849 (and patented an ice-machine in 1850), as the
result of experiments to lower the temperatures of fever patients. The
bay is well protected by St Vincent, Flag, Sand, and St George's
islands; and the shipping of lumber, naval stores and cotton, which
reach the city by way of the river, forms the principal industry. Before
the development of railways in the Gulf states, Apalachicola was one of
the principal centres of trade in the southern states, ranking third
among the Gulf ports in 1835. In 1907 the Federal government projected a
channel across the harbour bar 100 ft. wide and 10 ft. deep and a
channel 150 ft. wide and 18 ft. deep for Link Channel and the West Pass.
In 1907 the exports were valued at $317,838; the imports were
insignificant. The value of the total domestic and foreign commerce of
the port for the year ending on the 30th of June 1907 was estimated at
$1,240,000 (76,000 tons). The fishery products, including oysters,
tarpon, sturgeon, caviare and sponges, are also important.
APAMEA, the name of several towns in western Asia.
1. A treasure city and stud-depot of the Seleucid kings in the valley of
the Orontes. It was so named by Seleucus Nicator, after Apama, his wife.
Destroyed by Chosroes in the 7th century A.D.. it was partially rebuilt
and known as _Famia_ by the Arabs; and overthrown by an earthquake in
1152. It kept its importance down to the time of the Crusades. The
acropolis hill is now occupied by the ruins of Kalat el-Mudik.
See R.F. Burton and T. Drake, _Unexplored Syria_; E. Sachau, _Reise in
Syrien_, 1883.
2. A city in Phrygia, founded by Antiochus Soter (from whose mother,
Apama, it received its name), near, but on lower ground than, Celaenae.
It was situated where the Marsyas leaves the hills to join the Maeander,
and it became a seat of Seleucid power, and a centre of Graeco-Roman and
Graeco-Hebrew civilization and commerce. There Antiochus the Great
collected the army with which he met the Romans at Magnesia, and there
two years later the treaty between Rome and the Seleucid realm was
signed. After Antiochus' departure for the East, Apamea lapsed to the
Pergamenian kingdom and thence to Rome in 133, but it was resold to
Mithradates V., who held it till 120. After the Mithradatic wars it
became and remained a great centre for trade, largely carried on by
resident Italians and by Jews. In 84 Sulla made it the seat of a
_conventus_ of the Asian province, and it long claimed primacy among
Phrygian cities. Its decline dates from the local disorganization of the
empire in the 3rd century A.D.; and though a bishopric, it was not an
important military or commercial centre in Byzantine times. The Turks
took it first in 1070, and from the 13th century onwards it was always
in Moslem hands. For a long period it was one of the greatest cities of
Asia Minor, commanding the Maeander road; but when the trade routes were
diverted to Constantinople it rapidly declined, and its ruin was
completed by an earthquake. A Jewish tradition, possibly arising from a
name _Cibotus_ (ark), which the town bore, identified a neighbouring
mountain with Ararat. The famous "Noah" coins of the emperor Philip
commemorate this belief. The site is now partly occupied by _Dineir_
(q.v., sometimes locally known also as _Geiklar_, "the gazelles,"
perhaps from a tradition of the Persian hunting-park, seen by Xenophon
at Celaenae), which is connected with Smyrna by railway; there are
considerable remains, including a great number of important Graeco-Roman
inscriptions.
See W.M. Ramsay, _Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia_, vol. ii.; G.
Weber, _Dineir-Celenes_ (1892); D.G. Hogarth in _Journ, Hell. Studies_
(1888); O. Hirschfeld in _Trans. Berlin Academy_ (1875).
(D. G. H.)
3. A town on the left bank of the Euphrates, at the end of a bridge of
boats (_zeugma_); the Til-Barsip of the Assyrian inscriptions, now
Birejik (q.v.).
4. The earlier Myrlea of Bithynia, now Mudania (q.v.), the port of
Brusa. The name was given it by Prusias I., who rebuilt it.
5. A city mentioned by Stephanus and Pliny as situated near the Tigris,
the identification of which is still uncertain.