THE TREATIES OF FRIENDSHIP AND ALLIANCE, AND OF COMMERCE AND
NAVIGATION, BETWEEN THE CROWNS OF GREAT BRITAIN AND PORTUGAL, SIGNED
AT RIO DE JANEIRO, ON THE 19th OF FEBRUARY 1810.
I HAVE heard many discussions both in England and in Brazil, upon the
merits and demerits of these Treaties; in such disputations Englishmen
have appeared to suppose that their interests had not been sufficiently
consulted; and the contrary opinion was maintained by the Portugueze,
for they considered their nation to be aggrieved by them, and that
great partiality had been shown to British subjects. I cannot avoid
thinking that the Treaties are as impartial as possible, and that due
regard has been paid to both parties. If British subjects have gained
some advantages, one of considerable importance which they possessed
before, has been given up; and the commercial intercourse between
both parties has been placed in very favourable circumstances. Even
the innovations which by these Treaties have been made in the laws
of Brazil in favour of Englishmen, tend to the general advancement
of that country,—to forward its progress towards a higher pitch of
civilization. In the discussions which I have heard, Englishmen, by
the arguments which they used, appeared to think that Brazil should
have been treated overbearingly, as a country which had been humbled by
misfortune, and that of this circumstance advantage should have been
taken by Great Britain. The idea which is entertained of the weakness
of Brazil, must proceed from the trifling defensive preparations
which are to be seen upon her coasts. Her sea-ports might no doubt
be much injured by attacks from a maritime enemy; but the country
is impregnable, it possesses far stronger fortresses than any which
can be raised by man; in its extent, in its woods, and in a hardy
population, who are accustomed to live on very little food, and that
of a poor kind. However, any ideas of conquest in South America by
Europeans, against the wishes of the people, experience has proved to
be fallacious; the Dutch war with Pernambuco, and our own errors at
Buenos Ayres bear witness to this fact.
The Portugueze on the other hand seem to have imbibed the idea that
Great Britain has taken undue advantage of the state of the Portugueze
monarchy, and has imposed heavy terms, such as suited her own purposes.
Many of the arguments which are made use of by the Portugueze, are
brought forwards by them without any consideration of the state of
Brazil;—of the relative situation of the two high contracting parties.
The following plea for complaint, although it does not relate to the
Treaties, may be mentioned in this place, for it is a favourite one
with many persons. It is said, that the Regent of Brazil has made
grants of land to British subjects, but that the Portugueze are not
permitted to possess landed property in the dominions of His Britannic
Majesty. A complaint of this kind would appear to denote that the two
countries were in the same state with regard to population; that Brazil
did not require an enormous increase of people, and that Great Britain
possessed a superabundance of territory. Far from the grants of land to
foreigners being urged as a breach of the declared reciprocity between
the two nations, the government of Brazil ought to invite foreigners to
purchase lands and establish themselves there; it ought to allow them
to follow their own religion; it should naturalize them and fix them to
the soil by the protection which the laws ought to afford them; and by
the permission which should be given to them of having some share in
the concerns of the society into which they had been adopted.
The Portugueze are continually pointing to the rapid advancement of the
United States of America, and holding up that country as an example
which ought to be followed in the introduction of minor improvements
in Brazil; but they do not seek high enough for the sources of the
prosperity of North America; the statesmen of that country receive
every one who pleases to establish himself under their protection, and
the laws of the republic tolerate all religions; these are the great
fountains from which the increase of her power has been drawn. An
impartial distribution of justice, and a mildness of government have
acted in unison with the views of her rulers. Brazil however is totally
unfit for a republican form of government; _her_ people have been
guided in a far different track from that of the inhabitants of the
United States. The first settlers in North America left their native
shores, because their ideas were too democratic for the mother country,
and because their religious opinions did not coincide with those of
their countrymen; therefore the minds of the descendants of parents
like these were prepared for the declaration of republican principles.
But the colonists of Brazil were regularly invited to settle under
the direction of officers who had been appointed by the government of
Portugal, and who were entrusted with despotic power; they were Roman
Catholics too. Consequently the habits of their descendants lead them
to quiet acquiescence in the mandates of those who govern them; to
follow rather than to direct, to be guided rather than to be obliged
all at once without any previous instruction, to think for themselves.
Still, although a government which is established on principles of
democracy is not suited to Brazil, that country would bear many degrees
of advancement towards a state of freedom,—in religion, in personal
security, and in legislative authority; this last might certainly be
granted to a certain degree.[257]
However to return; I shall attempt to prove that the Treaties in
question have been fairly drawn out, and that they exist for the
benefit of both nations; that each has conceded in some points much
to the well-being of both. Neither party should desire to have every
thing, from whence, says a Brazilian writer, “arise conflicts, hatreds,
and the pretences upon which complaints and wars are founded.”[258]
The Portugueze canvass the Treaties as if they were jealous of what
had been granted to British subjects, without considering whether the
advantages which had been conceded were or were not for the benefit of
Brazil. They should consider what is for their own good, and not what
Great Britain grants to them, or what their government grants to Great
Britain.
I shall only mention those articles of the Treaties which are
particularly interesting, and which may be liable to discussion,
wishing to be as observant of conciseness as possible.
THE TREATY OF FRIENDSHIP AND ALLIANCE.
I PASS over the primary articles as being unimportant, or from the
interest of the subjects to which they relate having already subsided.
ARTICLE 6th. “His Britannic Majesty is allowed the privilege of causing
timber, for the purpose of building ships of war, to be purchased and
cut down in the woods of Brazil.”
This was supposed to afford to Great Britain an inexhaustible and
inexpensive source of supplying her navy with timber; but I have
understood that the expence which must be incurred in felling the
trees, and bringing the timber to the water’s edge, would be too great
to render the project feasible; and that the woods of Brazil were
discovered to contain a less proportion of valuable timber than had
been imagined. If the British government had thought proper to act upon
this article,—if the plan had been judged worthy of being executed,
the advantages which Brazil must have derived from it would have been
considerable. The increased traffic which would have been experienced
by the ports in which dock-yards would have been established, and the
number of mechanics who would have gone over, many of whom would in all
probability have remained ultimately in that country, must have been
beneficial to it. The ship carpenters and caulkers of Brazil are fully
as good as those of England, and if encouragement was given to the most
necessary art of ship-building, no external aid would be requisite. But
due encouragement is what is wanting.
ARTICLE 7th. “Any squadron that may be sent by either of the High
Contracting Parties to the succour of the other, shall be supplied
with fresh provisions by that power for whose assistance it is fitted
out.” This plainly alludes to the British squadron stationed at Rio de
Janeiro for the protection of the coast of Brazil; and it is only fair
that the party which is assisted should feed those who have undertaken
its defence.
ARTICLE 8th. “Any number of ships of war are permitted to enter the
ports of either of the High Contracting Parties.” This is connected
with the foregoing article, and was necessary for its execution.
ARTICLE 9th. “The Inquisition or Tribunal of the Holy Office not having
been hitherto established or recognized in Brazil, H.R.H. the Prince
Regent of Portugal, guided by an enlightened and liberal policy,
takes the opportunity afforded by the present treaty, to declare
spontaneously in his own name, and in that of his heirs and successors,
that the Inquisition shall never hereafter be established in the South
American dominions of the Crown of Portugal.”
A hint is thrown out towards the conclusion of the same article of some
intention to abolish the Inquisition in Portugal, and in all other
parts of the Portugueze dominions. I imagine that Great Britain would
scarcely have stipulated for this change of policy in the government of
Brazil, if some intimation had not been made that the ministry of that
country wished in this manner to get rid of the abominable tribunal.
Great Britain indeed cannot be said to have stipulated for it; the
Prince declares his purpose _spontaneously_. Be this as it may, this
most horrible Court does not exercise its power in Brazil, and thus
has been removed, almost irrevocably, one of the most intolerable
burthens under which any nation ever laboured. The late Secretary
of State for Foreign Affairs, D. Rodrigo de Souza Coutinho, was a
man of a liberal mind; and Brazil has in his death sustained a great
loss; but this misfortune is alleviated by the means which it has
afforded of placing at the head of affairs the Chevalier Araujo[259].
This nobleman seems to have adopted Brazil as his country, to direct
his attention entirely to the concerns of that kingdom, and to wish
to increase the importance of the State over which he has been most
judiciously placed. He appears also to be aware of the means by which
progressive prosperity is to be obtained,—liberality, toleration,
mildness, reformation. The solemn manner in which the rulers of Brazil
have declared their intentions in this respect, is a triumph of
liberality over bigotry which was scarcely to be expected; and still
less was the public avowal of principles like these to be looked for
from the quarter in which they appeared. The misfortunes of Portugal
have produced incalculable benefit to the transatlantic territories
which she held under subjection; and although the mother country has
suffered much, still some advantages cannot fail to proceed from the
change in her situation; at any rate her internal affairs may meet
with some alterations which may better the condition of the people.
Portugal no longer enjoys the exclusive trade with Brazil, but I know
not whether in the end she will not be happier in depending upon her
own resources;—upon a moderate trade with other nations suited to her
political importance, instead of the gigantic commercial intercourse
which was carried on through her ports. The government will probably
undergo some reform, and Portugal will in all likelihood soon see the
Inquisition abolished, and may perhaps witness the re-establishment of
the Cortes.
ARTICLE 10th. “A gradual abolition of the slave trade on the part of
the Regent of Portugal is promised, and the limits of the same traffic
along the coast of Africa are determined.” Of this subject I have
already in another place treated.
THE TREATY OF COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION.
ARTICLE 2d. “There shall be reciprocal liberty of commerce and
navigation between the subjects of the two High Contracting Parties,
and they are allowed to trade, travel, sojourn, and establish
themselves in the ports &c. of the dominions of each, excepting in
those from which all foreigners are excluded.”
The ease with which leave to travel in Brazil may be obtained, I
have myself experienced, and even without a passport an Englishman
might travel in some of the provinces. Great complaint has been
made by the Portugueze of the strictness with which the British
Alien Laws have been enforced; and here a breach of reciprocity is
stated to exist,—not by the Treaty, but in the non-accomplishment
of this article. The extreme difficulty with which one foreigner is
distinguished from another, by persons who do not understand the
language of any, and the vicinity of Great Britain to the Continent
of Europe,—to her greatest enemy, and the immense number of foreign
prisoners which she held in confinement during the war, placed her in
a far different situation from Brazil, in which the only foreigners
excepting Spaniards, who could possibly have found their way into the
country, must have arrived there in British or Portugueze vessels,
consequently little doubt could be entertained of the propriety of
allowing any foreigner to receive a passport to travel in the interior
or along the coast of that country[260]. Difficulties were doubtless
experienced, and vexations submitted to on some occasions, and these
cases have been brought forwards. It must be recollected that the
number of Portugueze subjects travelling in Great Britain was, and is,
much greater than that of British subjects travelling in Brazil; and
that the number of magistrates to whom each of these travellers must
shew his pass is much greater in the former country than in the latter,
owing to the more numerous population of Great Britain. Therefore a
very few cases of hardship in Brazil would only average a much greater
number of like instances of severity in Great Britain.[261]
With respect to naturalization in the dominions of either of the two
crowns, the Portugueze are much more favourably situated than British
subjects, because, according to existing laws, a British subject can
only be naturalized in the kingdom of Portugal and Brazil, if he
professes the Roman Catholic Religion.
ARTICLES 3d, 4th, and 5th. These relate to custom-house duties,
port-charges, &c., which are to be paid with perfect reciprocity by
the vessels of both nations. If the same duties, at the custom-houses
in Brazil, were not paid for goods which were imported in British as
in Portugueze vessels, the consequences would be, that every English
merchant must resort to smuggling, or be obliged to give up all idea
of competition with the Portugueze. The duty on cotton, the chief
article which is exported from Brazil to England, is equal in vessels
of either nation. This duty is not however of such importance to the
commodity as to render the importer of it in a ship which pays a
higher impost unable to vie with him who pays a lower one. But in the
case of manufactured goods shipped from hence to Brazil, the duty is
of primary consequence, because there is very frequently, I may say
generally, a loss upon such shipments, and an increase of 10 _per
cent._ upon a concern which has independently of these 10 _per cent._
undergone a loss, would often be ruinous. I have not a doubt in saying
that the government of Brazil is a gainer by lowering the duties upon
goods which are imported in British vessels to the standard of those
which are imported in vessels that are owned by its subjects. Under
existing regulations all parties come into the market upon an equal
footing, and although some persons will attempt to evade the payment
of any duty, still it is not necessary that a whole body of men should
resort to smuggling for the purpose of bringing their commodities into
the market with any prospect of a successful sale. I own that I think
a higher duty than 15 _per cent._ might be raised by government, but
if any advance was made it should be done generally upon all classes
of traders, whether subjects of Brazil or foreigners, to be done to
any advantage. The reciprocity which is established by these articles
has been followed by most advantageous consequences to both parties.
Great Britain is materially benefited in a commercial point of view by
the importation of the cotton of Brazil, direct from that country; and
the improvement which has been caused, and continues to act in Brazil
by the introduction of British manufactured goods is incalculable,
in point of wealth and civilization, and in producing incentives for
exertion.
The latter part of the 5th Article determines which are the vessels
that shall be accounted British, and which shall be accounted
Portugueze, for the purpose of ascertaining those of both nations
which may enjoy the favourable stipulations. The Portugueze here
again complain that the English have the advantage over them from
the great numbers of vessels which they build, and from the numerous
prizes which they take from their enemies, whilst the Portugueze
construct very few vessels, and take no prizes[262]. The Portugueze
have lately been in the habit of purchasing vessels that have been
built in the United States. As soon as these are owned by Portugueze
subjects, the national colours of the new owners may be hoisted, and
they enjoy all the privileges of vessels of Portugueze build. It is
urged that the British government should have suffered these vessels to
enter the ports of Great Britain enjoying the same advantages as are
granted to such vessels by the Portugueze government. If the subject
is considered it will be perceived that this would be equally against
the interest of both nations. Great Britain would by this means afford
a considerable market for the shipping of one of her maritime rivals.
By the low prices at which such vessels may be obtained, and the small
number of hands which they require, the Portugueze navigation would
likewise be materially injured. Instead of any encouragement being
given to ship-building in Brazil, the subjects of that country would
resort to North America for vessels, and a bar would be placed against
the advancement of this complicated art, in a country possessing many
advantages which adapt it for the formation of a numerous navy.
The latter part of the 8th Article stands thus:—“But it is to be
distinctly understood that the present Article is not to be interpreted
as invalidating or affecting the exclusive right possessed by the crown
of Portugal within its own dominions to the farm for the sale of ivory,
brazil-wood, urzela, diamonds, gold dust, gunpowder, and tobacco, in
the form of snuff.” I hope that ere long the system of gradual reform
will reach these monopolies, and that the trade in the Articles which
they comprise will be thrown open.
ARTICLE 10th. “British subjects resident in the Portugueze dominions
shall be permitted to nominate special magistrates to act for them as
judges-conservator.” This privilege is not conceded to the Portugueze
residing in Great Britain, and has therefore been complained of. Every
Portugueze well knows the dreadful state of the courts of justice in
all the dominions of his sovereign, and how extremely difficult it
is to obtain redress under any grievance. He must be aware of the
advantages which may be obtained by being personally acquainted with
the magistrate before whom a cause is to be agitated. If this is the
case (and that it is, speaking generally, no one will deny) in causes
among themselves, how much more necessary is it that some protection
should be afforded to foreigners, who cannot have opportunities
of using undue influence; and besides, where the decision depends
entirely upon one man, he will probably be inclined to favour his own
countrymen. “The acknowledged equity of British jurisprudence, and the
singular excellence of the British Constitution,” as the same article
of the Treaty observes, render unnecessary any special magistrate to
manage the concerns of foreigners residing in Great Britain. The state
of the British courts of law is the pride of every Englishman; a doubt
of the impartiality of their decisions never strikes the mind of any
reasonable man. Although one party in the State constantly opposes the
measures of government, and seeks out any abuses which may have crept
into its proceedings, still the courts of law continue to act, year
after year, without any suspicion of misconduct,—without any idea
of unfairness in their determinations being entertained. I speak in
this manner of Portugueze courts of law, in the first place, from the
radical badness of the system by which the determination of a cause
depends upon one man; and in the second place, from the practice of one
court, which I have had opportunities of witnessing, and the general
complaints of almost every Portugueze who has had any thing to do with
proceedings of this description. Doubtless there must be some men who
do their duty; but a system of government should be founded upon the
basis of as near an approach as can be formed to the impossibility of
misconduct, and upon responsibility.
It is in the courts of law that a thorough change should be effected in
the Portugueze dominions; their corrupt state calls most loudly for
reformation, and it is from this source that the existing government
has one heavy weight hanging over it, which may lead to most serious
consequences. There are two evils which cannot be long endured when
they have arrived at a certain height. Heavy and injudicious taxation,
and injustice;—these reach every man; in his own hut he feels them,
and they follow him every where, subjecting him to privations, and to
many mortifications; his temper is soured and his anger will at last
break loose.
ARTICLE 12th. “British subjects, and all other foreigners resident in
the dominions of Portugal shall have perfect liberty of conscience,
and shall be permitted to build churches and chapels under certain
restrictions as to their outward appearance; and any person who should
attempt to make converts from, or should declaim against the Catholic
religion publicly, is to be sent out of the country in which the
offence has been committed.” It is disgraceful that such an article
as this should be necessary in any Treaty between two civilized
states; but every step towards liberality should be greeted with great
joy, proceeding from those countries in which the Catholic religion
predominates. That part of the article which concedes liberty of
conscience, not only to British subjects, but to every foreigner, is
another indication of the spirit of liberality having found its way
into the Council of Rio de Janeiro, for, I should imagine that the
British statesman would only have required this stipulation for his
countrymen, without mentioning the subjects of other powers. I have
heard this article much complained of by men who were afterwards
surprised to hear that the Portugueze were allowed to have their
chapels in England; and here these gentlemen would have been desirous
of preventing perfect reciprocity.
ARTICLE 17th. “It is agreed and covenanted that articles of military
and naval stores brought into the ports of H. R. H. the Prince Regent
of Portugal, which the Portugueze government may be desirous of taking
for its own use shall be paid for without delay at the prices appointed
by the proprietors, who shall not be compelled to sell such articles on
any other terms. And it is farther stipulated, that if the Portugueze
government shall take into its own care and custody any cargo or part
of a cargo, with a view to purchase or otherwise, the said Portugueze
government shall be responsible for any damage or injury that such
cargo or part of a cargo may receive while in the care and custody of
the officers of the said Portugueze government.”
I have transcribed this article at full length. What must be the
reputed state of a government from which common equity must be
stipulated for? But I trust that the time for such abuses has gone by,
and that the era of reformation has commenced.
ARTICLE 18th. “The privilege is granted to British subjects of being
_assignantes_ for the duties to be paid at the custom-houses.” The
inability of being _assignantes_ was of considerable inconvenience
to English merchants, and obliged them to pay a _per centage_ to a
Portugueze for the use of his name in this capacity. The _assignantes_
are bondsmen for the duties to be paid at the end of three and six
months; and no reason could be urged against Englishmen being allowed
to serve as _assignantes_, excepting that of leaving the country
without waiting to answer their bonds.
ARTICLE 19th. “All goods, merchandises, and articles whatsoever of
the produce, manufacture, industry, or invention of the dominions or
subjects of either of the High Contracting Parties, shall be received
into the ports of the other, upon the terms of the most favoured
nation.”
ARTICLE 20th. “Certain articles of the growth and produce of Brazil,
which are subject to prohibitory duties in Great Britain, as they are
similar to the produce of the British colonies, are permitted to be
warehoused in Great Britain for exportation.” The non-admission of
these commodities, which are principally sugar and coffee, for the
consumption of the British empire, has been subject to discussion.
It was not to be expected that Great Britain would sacrifice her own
possessions by this alteration in her policy; and particularly towards
a country in which the articles in question can be produced at a
smaller expence than in the British colonies.
ARTICLE 21st. “British East Indian goods and West Indian produce may be
subjected to prohibitory duties in the dominions of Portugal.” British
merchants might complain of this article with as much reason as the
Portugueze do of the former. The relative situations of the two empires
require both of them.
ARTICLE 23d. “His R. H. the Prince Regent of Portugal being desirous
to place the system of commerce announced by the present Treaty upon
the most extensive basis, is pleased to take the opportunity afforded
by it, of publishing the determination pre-conceived in His Royal
Highness’ mind of rendering Goa a free port, and of permitting the
free toleration of all religious sects whatever in that city and its
dependencies.” Here is another most pleasant symptom of change of
policy.
ARTICLE 25th. “Great Britain gives up the right which she enjoyed
of creating factories or incorporated bodies of British merchants
in the Portugueze dominions.” This was a privilege of considerable
importance, from the union which it produced among the merchants of
that nation residing in the same place. They were better able as a body
to urge any petition to the Portugueze government, and to transact
the affairs which interested them generally. However their protection
is sufficiently provided for in other articles of the Treaty, and
therefore it is well that this privilege was given up: it was an odious
one, and not necessary; and certainly was not consistent with the basis
of reciprocity upon which the Treaty was formed.
ARTICLE 26th. This declares that the stipulations existing concerning
the admission of the wines of Portugal into Great Britain, and
the woollen cloths of Great Britain into Portugal, shall remain
unaltered[263]. The article continues thus; “in the same manner it is
agreed, that the favours, privileges, and immunities, granted by either
contracting party to the subjects of the other, whether by Treaty,
Decree or _Alvará_, shall remain unaltered.[264]”
ARTICLE 32d. “It is agreed and stipulated by the High Contracting
Parties, that the present Treaty shall be unlimited in point of
duration, that the obligations and conditions expressed or implied in
it shall be perpetual and immutable, and that they shall not be changed
or affected in any manner, in case H. R. H. the Prince Regent of
Portugal, his heirs or successors, should again establish the seat of
the Portugueze monarchy within the European dominions of that crown.”
Brazil is thus laid open for ever. However, even if the government was
so inclined, it would be impossible to close the ports of that kingdom
to foreign trade; the benefits which have resulted from the direct
intercourse with Great Britain have been too generally felt for the
people to be made to return to the ancient colonial system.
The British North American colonies first shewed the example of
throwing off the yoke of the mother country, and this was to be
expected from the principles of many of the first settlers. The attempt
succeeded, but a doubt still remains whether it would not have been
more to their advantage to have remained subject to Great Britain for
some time longer;—whether they were at the time of emancipation of
a competent age to rely upon their own resources. However the spirit
of their government and of their people, may have made amends for any
prematurity of freedom; and the United States have advanced with most
surprising (I may almost say unnatural) rapidity, in power and wealth,
and consequent importance in the scale of nations. Their change of
situation was not however obtained without years of bloodshed and
desolation.
The Spanish colonies are now making the same experiment; they are
experiencing great misery, and the contest is far from being decided.
Brazil has obtained a government of its own, under most peculiar
circumstances, and these have probably saved that country from the
misery of revolution. If the rulers of that extensive kingdom perform
their duty, if they act with common prudence, their own downfall may be
prevented, and the unhappiness of a whole people for the space of one
generation, may be rendered unnecessary. The government has much to do
before the people will or ought to be satisfied; and the people have
been too much accustomed to submission, to be excited to a change of
government, unless the grievances under which they suffer are of such
magnitude as to be too considerable to be borne.
The reformation which would, I think, reconcile the people is not of
very difficult execution. Judicious taxation, instead of the system
which exists, is requisite in the first place; the articles of primary
necessity are heavily taxed, such as provisions of all descriptions,
and the same occurs with respect to the most important articles of
trade. An impartial administration of justice ought in the second place
to be provided for. The abolition of all monopolies, and of the system
of farming the taxes. A decrease in the power of civil and military
magistrates: a change in the manner of recruiting: a suppression of
great numbers of the civil and military officers of government,—by the
existence of these taxation is rendered much heavier than it otherwise
would be, fees are augmented, and the redress of grievances becomes
more difficult because responsibility is more divided. The misconduct
of each person is not of sufficient moment to be taken notice of, and
mal-practices are too widely diffused to be punished.
The change of policy which would lead to the general advancement of
the country, consists in the abolition of the slave trade, in the
toleration of all religions, in the naturalization of foreigners, and
perhaps ultimately in the establishment of legislative assemblies, and
of a general Cortes.
If my limits would allow, and this was a proper place for the purpose,
I think I could shew that the _reformation_ which is proposed is
perfectly within the power of the Court, and is absolutely necessary
for the security of the present dynasty. The _change of policy_ must
be entered into gradually. The government will not go so far at
present;—neither are the people fit for the reception of the whole of
these innovations, nor would they accord with their ideas. They are
steps to which all countries which are in a state of improvement must
advance; and if those persons who are placed at the head of their
affairs are aware of what is due to them revolutions may be prevented,
by keeping pace with the ideas of the people, and attending to their
progressive state.
I look forwards with hope to a continuance of peace in Brazil; I
trust that the devastations of revolution, that the misfortunes which
political convulsions produce may be averted; that the natural quietude
and goodness of the people of that kingdom, and the wisdom and prudence
of the government will unite in the far preferable plan of continuing
in the path which all those persons who desire their welfare will
pray for;—in conceding to each other, and in agreeing to establish a
lasting empire upon the true basis of perfect confidence.
APPENDIX.
I HAVE in a former part of this volume mentioned Dr. Manoel Arruda da
Camara, as having published two pamphlets at Rio de Janeiro, in 1810.
One of these is entitled “A Dissertation upon the Plants of Brazil from
which fibrous substances may be obtained, adapted to various uses in
society, and which may supply the place of hemp; the enquiry being made
by order of the Prince Regent.” The other pamphlet is called “An Essay
on the utility of establishing gardens in the principal provinces of
Brazil for the cultivation of new plants.”
I shall only give those parts of the works which may be interesting to
English readers.—_Transl._
A DISSERTATION, &c.
SECTION 1st.
_Of Plants which afford Fibres, properly so called._
CAROA, Bromelia variegata:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant. Pern._—The
description is taken from my Centuria of the genera and species of new
plants of Pernambuco.
CLASS, Hexandria:—ORDER, Monogynia:—DIVISION, Flowers complete.
_Gen. Char._ Calyx superior and trifid. Corolla tripetalous, with
nectariferous scales at the base of each petal. Fruit an umbellate,
trilocular berry.
_Section 1st._ With flowers discrete or separated.
_Spec. Char._ Leaves ciliate, spiny, stained with transverse green and
whitish marks.
_Nat. Char._ No stem.
Leaves radical and few, (from 3 to 7) from three to six feet long,
channelled, revolute and spiny, green in the interior or concave
surface, and stained with transverse whitish marks on the exterior or
convex surface.
FLOWERS, The stalk two feet long, flexuose and almost spiral, with
alternate scales without thorns; the spike simple, the peduncle
or flower stalk short. Bracteæ small, the floral leaves simple,
and at the foot of each flower stalk. CALYX monophyllous, with
obtuse indentations, trifid, tubular, permanent and erect. COROLLA
tripetalous, tubular, of a bluish purple colour, oblong, obtuse, erect,
with nectariferous scales at the bases; from the middle of each petal
to the bottom is a channel which sheaths a single filament of the
stamina. STAMINA consist of six filaments inserted in the receptacle;
of these, three are alternate with, and three are opposite to the
petals; of the last the bases run down the grooves in the petals, and
fix themselves in the receptacle. PISTIL consists of one filiform
style, with a single stigma. PERICARP, an oval, pointed berry, somewhat
angular and umbellate, nearly of the size of an olive.
The plant is to be found in the Sertoens of Pernambuco, Paraiba, Searà,
and principally in the Sertam of Cariri de Fora, and Pajaù, and upon
the banks of the river St. Francisco. It blossoms in the months of
July, August, and September.
USES.
The leaves of this plant are composed of two segments, one exterior and
convex, and the other interior and concave; the former is more compact
and hard, the latter is thinner; between them is to be found a quantity
of longitudinal fibres, of the same length as the leaves, fixed in a
juicy pulp. These fibres are strong, and from them cordage may be made,
and even coarse cloth, if care is taken in preparing the thread. This
may the more easily be done, from the enormous quantities which nature
affords without the aid of cultivation. The inhabitants of the banks of
the river St. Francisco weave their fishing nets of these fibres.
There are two methods of obtaining the fibres of the _caroà_. 1st.
Having taken the leaf from the plant (which is easily done) the convex
side of it should be clipped at the bottom with a knife, and with the
other hand, the fibres pulled out, some force being necessary. They
will bring with them a quantity of vegetable liquid, with which the
pulp is soaked. For this reason the above manner of obtaining the
thread is called _ensuar o caroà_, to sweat the _caroà_. The fibre
which is thus extracted is green, and it is necessary to wash it, for
the purpose of cleaning it. 2d. The leaves being taken from the plant,
and being tied up in bundles, should be thrown into water, where they
must be allowed to remain for four or five days; then they should be
taken out to be beaten in bunches, that the hammers or mallets may not
cut the fibres. This operation will not be sufficient to separate it
from the pulp, but it will be necessary to tie it up again in bundles,
and to steep it for two days or more, at the close of which the beating
should be renewed; it must be yet a third time put into water, and
beat. After this the fibres are usually obtained clean; and they should
be wound up and braided that they may not be entangled.
I have observed, that by beating the leaves, and thus bruising them
before they are in the first instance put into water, the labour is
much diminished; and that maceration in stagnant waters produces the
desired effect in much less time than in a cold running stream. If
the fibres which are obtained by each process above-mentioned, are
examined, it will be found that those which have undergone the first,
are stronger than those of the second, but more labour is necessary;
the difference, however, will not be experienced if the fibre is
bruised before it is steeped, because this operation accelerates
the maceration. The fibre of this, like that of all other plants,
is subject to rot, if it is allowed to remain under water for any
considerable time.
The expence of obtaining the thread which is extracted by the first
process, cannot be calculated with exactitude, because it entirely
depends upon the expertness of the persons who perform the work; and
this again depends upon habit and practice. I have purchased it at 1200
_reis per arroba_ of 32 _lbs._ or at 2½_d. per lb._ The fibre which
is obtained by the second process, is sold at a cheaper rate, because
the labour is less; I have purchased this at 1000 _reis per arroba_,
rather more than 2_d. per lb._
It is not necessary to cultivate the plant; many leagues of land are
covered with it; and there are situations which are so completely
overspread with it, that the ground cannot be passed over. This occurs
in many parts of Curimataû, and of Cariri de Fora; both these places
are in the captaincy of Paraiba. It is in these that I recommend the
establishment of manufactories, for the purpose of extracting the
fibre, for they are the nearest to the coast, and there are good roads
to them by which the produce may be carried in carts and waggons.
Although the _caroà_ is long lived, still many leagues of the lands
which were covered with it have been laid waste by the fires which
mischievous persons, sportsmen, and even the owners of estates annually
let loose (_such is Arruda’s expression_). It is probable that even
the remaining _caroà_ grounds will be destroyed, if government does
not take some measures to prevent a continuance of such practices,
fulminating penalties against the incendiaries of so useful a
plant.[265]
CRAUATA DE REDE, Bromelia Sagenaria:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant. Pern._ The
description is taken from my Centuria of the genera and species of new
plants of Pernambuco.
CLASS, Hexandria:—ORDER, Monogynia:—DIVISION, Flowers complete.
_Gen. Char._ Calyx superior, and trifid. Corolla tripetalous, with
nectariferous scales at the base of each petal. Fruit an umbellate
trilocular berry.
_Section 2d._ With the flowers united by the receptacles or berries
united in one.
_Spec. Char._ Leaves radical, ciliate serrated; the berries are united
into one pyramidal fruit; the bracteæ long, imbricate, covering the
fruit.
_Nat. Char._ No stem.
Leaves radical and many, (from 3 to 9 feet long) one inch and a half
wide, channelled; the edges ciliate spiny, ash-coloured on the convex,
and green on the concave surface.
FLOWERS, The stalk, a foot and a half long, with alternate leaves,
the flowers of a bluish purple colour, with the receptacles united.
CALYX monophyllous, with obtuse indentations, trifid, erect. COROLLA
tripetalous, tubular, erect, obtuse, blue, each petal has at the base
nectariferous scales. STAMINA consist of six filiform filaments, three
alternate and three opposite, fixed to the receptacle; and of oblong,
bilocular anthers. PISTIL consists of one filiform style with a single
stigma. PERICARP, a trilocular berry, united by the sides to the other
berries, which altogether form one pyramidal fruit, covered, having
long imbricate bracteæ. The seeds are of the size of a grain of maize,
fasciated.
The plant is to be found upon the coast of Pernambuco, Paraiba, and Rio
Grande, it does not extend into the interior more than ten or twelve
leagues. It is commonly called _crauatà de rede_, or net _crauatà_,
because the inhabitants of the parts in which it grows, make their
fishing nets of its fibres. It blossoms in July and August.
This species of _bromelia_ is new; the fruit of it is similar to that
of the _bromelia ananas_, being however smaller; the berries are less
juicy, and of a disagreeable taste; the bracteæ are three inches in
length, erect, and placed one over the other after the manner of tiles,
so as to cover all the superficies of the fruit. I took its specific
name of _Sagenaria_, from the circumstance of its fibres being used by
fishermen for making their nets.
The fibre of the plant varies in length from three to eight feet,
according to the greater or less fertility of the land; in dry land
it is short, fine, and soft; in good land, it is longer but likewise
thicker and rough; the strength of it is great, the following fact
proving that this is the case. Upon the wharf of the city of Paraiba,
there is a rope made of this fibre, which has been in use during many
years, for the purpose of embarking the bales (_of manufactured goods,
I suppose_) and chests of sugar: with the same rope the anchors of a
line of battle ship were embarked, which had been left at Paraiba by
the (_charrua_) ship Aguia; they were intended for Bahia, and could not
be raised by hempen cables of greater diameter.
It is with difficulty that this kind of fibre becomes white by the
common manner of bleaching, which proceeds from a certain natural
varnish (if I may be allowed so to call it) with which the surface
is covered; it does not rot so easily as other kinds of fibre, when
soaked in water. From this property the fishermen prefer it for their
nets; but notwithstanding the natural varnish of its coloured parts,
the fishermen increase its power to resist the water, by carbonising
(if I may be allowed so to say) the threads of their nets with
astringents which they obtain from various plants; such as the bark of
the _aroeira_ and of the _coipuna_, and for this purpose the nets are
steeped for some time in a decoction or infusion of these barks, as is
practised in tanning.
From the qualities which it possesses, and which I have just mentioned,
I am persuaded that the fibre is well adapted to the manufacture of
cables, and cordage; and the specimens of cloth, and one pair of
stockings which by this opportunity I forward to the ministry, made of
it, indicate the possibility of manufacturing sail-cloth from it, and
even finer cloths, if improvements were made in its preparation; but
these are at present entirely disregarded.
The leaf of the plant is composed of two ligneous plates, one convex
and the other concave; and also of a quantity of longitudinal fibres
inserted between them, and united to each other by juicy fecula, but
sufficiently attached to prevent them from being disengaged by the
hand; therefore they can only be extracted by maceration. The plant
is rooted up, which is done by means of a forked stick, and is called
_desbancar_. The leaves must then be taken from the stem, and thirdly
the thorns must be taken off, which is done easily by separating the
spiny edges with a knife. The leaves being thus prepared are steeped
in water for about a fortnight. The maceration is known to be complete
when the outward rind and ligneous bark of the leaves are sufficiently
soft to be pierced by the nail; the leaves are then taken out of the
water one by one, and the base of each of them is opened until the
fibres appear; the rind of each surface must be secured with one hand,
that with the other the fibres may be pulled out; even so they will
be removed with other substances attached to them. For the purpose of
being cleaned, they must be braided and again steeped for one day, and
then beaten with mallets upon a bench, and the maceration and beating
must be repeated until the fibres become clean. I have paid for each
_arroba_ of it 1920 _reis_, or 4_d. per lb._ But the usual price at
which it is sold is from 120 to 160 _reis_, or 8_d._ to 10½_d. per
lb._
ANANAS MANSO, Bromelia Ananas.
CLASS, Hexandria:—ORDER, Monogynia:—DIVISION, Flowers complete.
The use which is made of the _ananas_ at our tables is so common that
in this respect it is unnecessary that any thing should be said;
therefore I shall only mention the purposes to which the fibrous
property of its leaves may be applied. This I discovered in 1801,
when I was directed by a Royal Order to make enquiry into the fibrous
qualities of indigenous plants. I found, on comparing the fibre of
this with that of all others, that it is the strongest and the finest,
and that it is adapted to the manufacture of cloth even of superior
quality. I took the leaves of two of these plants which weighed 14
_lbs._ I beat them with mallets, washing those portions which had been
beat; they yielded rather more than one quarter of a pound of thread.
The operation lasted nine hours, being performed by one man. It is
bleached with great ease. The _ananas_ may be produced in almost all
kinds of land; it will grow in a sandy soil, and still more does it
flourish in that which is argillaceous; the sun does not destroy it,
nor is it injured by rain; no insect attacks it. Each shoot multiplies
so largely, that in a short time the space which has been at first left
between each plant, is soon filled up. After a bed of _ananas_ has
once been planted, very little care is required to keep it in order.
I have known some which have existed sixteen years without requiring
to be replanted. An excellent beverage may be obtained from it by
fermentation.[266]
ANANAS DE AGULHA, Bromelia muricata:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant._
I have given the description of this plant in my first centuria; and do
not describe it in this place because I have not made any experiments
with it, but I suspect that it possesses fibrous qualities. Its fruit
is of the same make as that of the _ananas manso_ and of the _crauata
de rede_, from which it principally differs, in having, instead of
bracteæ, thorns of three inches and a half in length, raised in the
direction of the fruit, so that being covered with these sharp thorns,
it cannot be taken hold of without much care; from this peculiarity it
is that I took the specific name of the species.
CAROATA, Bromelia Karatas:—_Lin._
The little importance which the fibre of this species can claim,
renders it unnecessary for me to give a minute description of it. The
leaves are from 8 to 10 feet long, and afford a great quantity of
fibre, but it is not strong, and can only be applied to very ordinary
purposes.
CAROATA-AÇU, OU PITEIRA, Agave vivipara:—_Lin. Syst. Veg._
CLASS, Hexandria:—ORDER, Monogynia.
The only uses to which at the present time this plant is put, are the
following. Its spungy pith possesses the property of burning gently
without extinguishing; the peasants therefore are in the habit of
putting some of it into their fires when they wish to prevent them
from going out for a considerable time. Hedges are made of it, by
planting the bulbs or tender shoots; these easily take root and grow.
Piso says, “_ex foliis hujus plantæ optimus pannus conficitur, qui si
rite præparetur, panno lineo excedit; folia stupam quoque et filosam
materiam suppeditant, ex qua fila et retia sua contexunt piscatores_.”
From hence it may be inferred that the Dutch knew better than we do how
to take advantage of the natural productions of the country. At the
present time even the fishermen do not make use of its fibre for their
lines and nets, substituting in place of it the _crauata de rede_. The
only use to which the Portugueze apply the fibre of the _agave_, is in
making the cords, which the friars of the Third Order of St. Francis,
commonly called of Jesus, wear round their waists.
The fibre is to be obtained by maceration, but the leaves must in the
first instance be bruised, and afterwards steeped.[267]
COQUEIRO, Cocos Nucifera—_Lin. Syst. Veget._
The oil which is obtained from the pulp of the fruit is easily
separated from the mucilage by means of fire; thirty-two cocos rendered
me 17 _lbs._ of oily pulp, and these gave me three pounds of pure oil.
It is fitted to other purposes besides that of food, for it serves
to give light; and mixed with soda it yields good soap, white and
hard. One hundred cocos give one _canada_ of oil of the _canadas_ of
Pernambuco. So that each coco costing 10 _reis_, a _canada_ may be
obtained for 1280 _reis_, or 7_s._ 1¼_d._
From the fibre of the outward rind of the coco, which is called
_cairo_, may be made all kinds of cordage; even cables are manufactured
from it.
The only means by which the fibre of the coco rind can be obtained,
are by beating and maceration; before the rind is put into water to
steep, it ought to be beaten for the purpose of loosening its texture,
principally that of the outward surface, which is hard and compact;
and this should be done that the water may penetrate with more ease.
After the first operation, it must be left to steep for two or three
days, and then should be beaten; and this should be continued until the
separation is accomplished; great care, however, should be taken that
the rind of the coco be not allowed to dry. Because I have observed,
that if this occurs, the ligneous fecula or spongy pulp, which is found
intermixed with the fibres, adheres still more strongly to them. I have
likewise remarked, that from the rind which has been recently taken
from the coco, the fibre is much more easily extracted than from that
which has been along time separated from it.[268]
The rind of 40 cocos rendered me 6_lbs._ of _cairo_. The annual produce
of the coco groves of Itamaraca is 360,000 cocos, more or less; and
according to calculation these are capable of yielding 1680 arrobas of
prepared _cairo_. The island of Itamaraca is three leagues in length,
and the coast is alone planted with coco trees, and if these are thus
productive what might not the coco groves yield, which extend along the
coast from the river St. Francisco to the bar of Mamanguape, a distance
of 94 leagues all cultivated with coco trees?[269]
ANINGA, Arum liniferum:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant. Pern._
CLASS, Monoecia. ORDER, Polyandria.[270]
_Gen. Char._ Spathe monophyllous, cucullate, large. Spadix shorter
than the spathe, simple, clubbed at the naked end; at the base are the
female flowers, and in the middle the male.
_Spec. Char._ Stem arboraceous, leaves sagittate, about one foot long,
petioles of two feet.
_Nat. Char._ Stem from 6 to 8 feet long, two to three inches in
diameter, straight, cylindrical, of an ashy-green colour, marked with
scars of the fallen leaves; the substance spongy, juicy, soft; and in
this substance are numerous longitudinal fibres, of the thickness of
the hairs of horses’ tails, long.
BRANCHES are uncommon.
Leaves are rather more than one foot long and of the same breadth at
the base, sagittate, simple, coriaceous. PETIOLES, amplexicaul, two
feet long, channelled from the base to the middle, where the channel
ends in an appendix of 23 inches, the remainder is cylindrical.
FLOWERS, axillary, solitary. CALYX a spathe longer than the spadix.
The spadix is almost one foot long. STAMINA numerous. PERICARP, many
berries at the base of the spadix.
The plant is to be found in Pernambuco, and it grows so plentifully in
marshes that many are covered with it.
The substance of the stem of the plant is spongy, and full of an acid
juice which acts upon metals; some of the peasants use this in cleaning
their knives, firelocks, &c. This is the only use to which the plant
has, as yet, been applied; but from the experiments which I have made
upon it, I am persuaded that it may be rendered serviceable in the
manufacture of cordage of great strength.
As the fibres are placed in the pulp longitudinally, and are slightly
fixed to it, the operations of beating and washing will separate them
entirely. I have not made any experiments as to the durability of the
cordage.
TUCUM. This is the name which is given to a species of palm tree,
but I have not yet been able to acquaint myself with what genus it
belongs to. Piso speaks of it, giving a bad print of it and a worse
description. Manoel Ferreira da Camara in his _Descrip. fisica da
Comarca dos Ilheos_, exaggerates the utility of the fibre of the plant.
I tried to obtain the fibre from the leaves in a dry state, or, as the
peasants term it, _suado_ (sweated.) I held with the left hand the
point of the leaf, and with the right rather lower down, I doubled
it as if I was going to break it, at the same time pulling it. After
it was broken, there remained in my left hand some fibres, which had
been loosened from the inner surface of the leaf. I soon saw that this
would not do, for one person would not be able to extract more than
one eighth of a _lb._ of fibre in the course of the day; therefore I
had recourse to maceration, but this did not succeed, for at the close
of eight days I found that both the leaves and the fibre had rotted.
Other species of palms grow in great numbers, forming groves of many
leagues, such as the _Carnâùba_, the _palmeira_, properly so called,
the _uricuri_, and the _catolé_, &c. but the _tucum_ and another kind
called _Maiarà_ grow in the shade of the woods, where they are much
scattered, each tree being at some distance from the other; the _tucum_
has few leaves; it is a thin palm tree of 5 to 6 inches in diameter and
of 12 to 16 feet in length.
MACAIBA or MACAUBA, Cocos ventricosa:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant. Pern._ The
description is taken from my centuria of the genera and species of new
plants of Pernambuco.
CLASS, Monoecia. ORDER, Hexandria.
_Gen. Char._ Spathe simple; spadix ramose.
MALE FLOWER; calyx, a trifid perianth. Corolla, tripetalous; six
stamina; germen barren. FEMALE FLOWER; calyx trifid; stigmata three;
fruit a drupe.
_Spec. Char._ Stem aculeate, ventricose; leaves pinnate; small leaves
ensiform replicate.
_Nat. Char._ Stem 30 feet long, ventricose, armed with sharp thorns
circularly arranged.
FLOWERS. Spathe monophyllous, lanceolate, concave, large. Spadix
divided into many spikes. The female flowers below, the male flowers
above; close to which the bases are fixed in cups hollowed in the
common peduncle. CALYX, a perianth of three linear pieces, very small,
alternate with the petals of the corolla. COROLLA, tripetalous,
oblong, concave, pointed, yellowish. STAMINA consist of six filiform
filaments of the length of the corolla and of incumbent anthers,
oblong. PISTIL, style thick, without a stigma, barren. FEMALE FLOWERS.
Calyx small, whitish, monophyllous, trifid, irregular, permanent.
COROLLA tripetalous, rounded, the sides imbricate and united in the
middle with the nectary. NECTARY, a monophyllous corolla which lines
and reunites within the bases of the petals. STAMINA, none. PISTIL
consists of a rounded germen, a very short style and three stigmata,
simple. PERICARP, a round drupe, of the size of a large _jambo_ or rose
apple, or of a small common apple, yellowish: it consists of a ligneous
exterior bark which is weak; of a bony nut, an oily almond, and a layer
of oily, yellow pulp.
The plant is to be found in Pernambuco, and in some other parts of
Brazil.
The oily pulp of the fruit and the almond of the inner stone is eaten,
and is sold in the markets. The ventricose or middle part of the
stem contains a fecula which is extracted in times of want, and is
eaten being prepared in various manners. The leaf contains a fibre
fine and strong, like the leaf of the _tucum_; but like that it is
difficult to obtain when dry or _suado_, and impossible to get it by
maceration, for the same happened with this as with the _tucum_ in
the experiments which I made. This is a new species, and owing to the
middle of the stem being much thicker than the extremities, I have
given to it the specific name of _cocos ventricosa_. For some time I
was in doubt whether I should place it in this genus or not, on account
of its monopetalous nectary, which lines and unites the petals of
the corolla within. The female as well as the male flowers are fixed
in cups hollowed in the spike or common peduncle. The female flowers
are solitary, that is, each in its cup; the male flowers are two and
two.[271]
These are the fibrous plants of Brazil which are of the most
importance. It is evident that of all that have been mentioned there
are only four which can be made use of advantageously for cordage.
The _caroa_ (_bromelia variegata_); the _crauatà de rede_, (_bromelia
sagenaria_); the _caroata-açu_ (_agave vivipara_); and the fibre of
the rind of the _coco da praia_ (_cocos nucifera_); their cheapness,
the ease with which they may be prepared, their abundance, and the
possibility of obtaining them still cheaper, render these the fibres of
chief importance. The fibre of the leaf of the _tucum_, which has been
so much extolled, and that of the _macaiba_, and of the _dendezeiro_
(another palm) cannot become of general service to society, and much
less can they be rendered applicable to the use of shipping, from the
difficulty with which they are to be obtained, and from many other
circumstances.
SECTION 2d.
CARRAPIXO, Urena Sinuata:—LIN. SYST. VEGET. edit. 14.
CLASS, Monadelphia:—ORDER, Polyandria.
The bark of this plant is with ease separated by means of maceration
for a fortnight; and from it cords are made for many purposes, and
although they are not very strong, they are much esteemed for slinging
hammocks; when the operation of macerating is made in clean water,
the fibre becomes pretty well whitened. The plant is not cultivated;
and in the neighbourhood of Paratibi it grows spontaneously, in such
quantities that the inhabitants of that village gather it for sale. I
have heard that it grows in abundance at Rio de Janeiro, and is known
there by the name of _guaxuma_. The name of _carrapixo_ is likewise
given in Pernambuco to some other plants, of which the seeds stick
to whatever chances to touch them, by means of small ears which are
thorny; for this reason the plant of which we are treating is sometimes
called _carrapixinho_, for the purpose of distinguishing it.
GUAXUMA DO MANGUE, Hibiscus Pernambucensis:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant. Pern._
CLASS, Monadelphia:—ORDER, Polyandria.
_Gen. Char._ Calyx double, the outside divided into many segments, the
inside into five segments, campanulate. Capsule quinque-locular; many
seeds.
_Spec. Char._ Leaves cordate, entire; stem fruit-bearing, with the
exterior calyx monophyllous, having eight notches.
_Nat. Char._ Stem of six feet and more; bark black, few branches.
Leaves cordate, rounded, acuminated, entire; the petioles cylindrical.
Stipules deciduous, acute.
FLOWERS, Large, yellow, like those of the cotton plant, axillary and
terminal; each peduncle of one, two, and three flowers. CALYX double,
permanent, the exterior monophyllous, with eight notches, acute; the
interior monophyllous, campanulate, divided into five segments, acute
and long. COROLLA pentapetalous, yellow, and the petals hold the
stameniferous column upon their bases. STAMINA numerous, fixed to the
stameniferous column by subulate filaments; anthers rounded. PISTIL
consists of one oval germen acuminate; one style, which is longer than
the column of the stamina, erect, and it has four or five separate
stigmata. PERICARP a capsule of almost one inch long, pentangular and
quinque-locular, inclosed in the calyx, which is much enlarged after
fecundation.
The plant is to be found in Pernambuco in places near to the sea, or
where salt water reaches, and principally upon the banks of the rivers
Goiana and Paraiba. I have found it in flower and fruit in the months
of February and March.
The persons who catch crabs tie them to each other with the bark of the
plant; and this is the only use to which it is applied. Cordage might
be made of its inner rind, as is practised in some parts of America
with the _hibiscus populneus_; also the _hibiscus tiliaceus_, from
which at Cayenne cords for common use are made.
EMBIRA BRANCA or JANGADEIRA, Apeiba Cimbalaria:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant.
Pern._
CLASS, Poliandria:—ORDER, Monogynia.
_Gen. Char._ Calyx, monophyllous, trifid; pericarp a decem-locular
capsule, covered with thorns or spines, depressed, opening only on the
lower side.
_Spec. Char._ Stem of 20 to 30 feet long, and of one foot and a half in
diameter.
Leaves ovate, lanceolate, cordate, reticulate, green and smooth above,
covered with hairs, which are of a copper colour underneath. STAMINA
monadelphic. The plant is to be found in Pernambuco, abounding in the
virgin woods. It blossoms from August to October.
The timber of this tree is not compact, and its specific gravity is
much less than that of water, with which it does not easily become
saturated. The inhabitants of the coast make use of it for the purpose
of constructing rafts; three or four of these trees are put together,
and are well fastened to each other[272]. The bark of the tree is
fibrous, and from it a great quantity of cordage is made for the common
purposes of the country.
Marcgraff calls it _Apeiba_; and Aublet adopted the same name when he
fixed the genus of the three species which he describes in Guiana,
and he supposes that the species _tibourbu_ is the same as that which
Marcgraff speaks of in Pernambuco; they are certainly alike, but I
imagine that it must be a variety, from the size of the tree, which
only grows there to the height of eight feet, and here it exceeds 20
feet. There is less hair upon the leaves, the silky work of the edges
is not so deep; and there is even some difference in the shape; the
stamina are manifestly monadelphic. This last circumstance inclined
me to call it _apeiba monadelpha_, but the use to which the tree
is applied in the construction of rafts decided me in calling it
_cimbalaria_.
EMBIRA VERMELHA, Unona carminativa:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant. Pern._
This plant has a red fibrous bark, of which as much use is made in
manufacturing cordage as of the _embira branca_; but the bark ought not
be permitted to be gathered, for the tree produces seeds, of which the
capsules have the taste and the pungency of black pepper. Many persons
make use of them as a spice in cooking, and some even prefer them to
pepper; they are carminative. If the bark is taken off, the tree dies;
the seeds are worthy of becoming an article of trade as a spice.[273]
I have omitted a great number of plants which possess fibrous
properties, that this Dissertation might not be made too long; some of
them are not much in use, and others are not applied to any purpose. I
shall mention some, such as the _guaxuma branca da mata_ (_helicteras
baruensis_) of which the inner bark is white and strong, but on being
wetted, it becomes rotten and breaks. However, I think it might be
applied to the manufacture of paper. The _barriguda or sumàûma_
(_bombax ventricosa:—Arrud. Cent. Plant. Pern._) and the Sertam plant,
called the _embiratanha_, which I have named _bombax mediterranea_,
also afford fibre from the bark, but they are not much used. All the
species _anona_ (called commonly _areticum_) afford fibre, and of these
the plant which gives the strongest and the most durable fibre is the
_areticum a pé_. The cord with which the flag of Fort Cabedello at
Paraiba is hoisted, is made of the rind of this plant, and it has been
there for many years. Finally all the plants of the genera _hibiscus_,
_sidas_, _altheas_, and in general all the mallows afford fibre of
greater or less strength. The _embiriba_ (_lecythis_) gives tow, and
although it cannot be applied to the manufacture of cordage, its use is
great for caulkers.
_An Essay on the Utility of establishing Gardens in the principal
Provinces of Brazil._
THE first part of this pamphlet treats of the advantages which Brazil
would obtain by the establishment of Royal Botanic Gardens. The second
part contains a list of those plants which it would be expedient to
transplant from other quarters of the globe to Brazil, and from one
part of Brazil to the other. I shall only translate that portion of the
second part which relates to the plants of Brazil.—_Transl._
_Plants of Parà and Maranham._
CRAVO DO MARANHAM, Myrtus caryophylata.
PIXURI.
ABACATI., Laurus Persea:—The fruit of this tree contains a butterous
substance, which is very pleasant; there are two kinds or varieties,
one of which is distinguished by the name of Cayenne.
BACURI, Moronobea esculenta:—This tree grows to a great height; and
the stem is entirely without branches, forming at the top a large
cope. The fruit is nearly of the size of an orange, but it is oval and
contains 23 stones covered with a white pulp, which have a pleasant
taste, being sweet, and somewhat acid. In Pernambuco is to be found
another species of the same genus, growing in marshes, which is
commonly called _gulandim_; on cutting into the stem a white juice
oozes out, which appears to me to be resinous, and perhaps might be
applied to some use. Both these species are described in my Centuria of
the new genera and species of the plants of Pernambuco.
BACABA, Areca Bacaba:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant. Pern._ This palm tree is a
species of _areca oleracea_, producing however larger fruit; the nut
is covered with a mucilaginous pulp, from which the inhabitants of the
places in which it grows make an excellent beverage, called _bacabada_
or _ticuara de bacabas_.
ABACAXI, Bromelia:—There are three varieties of _ananas_ at Maranham,
called _abacaxi_; of one the fruit is white, and the leaves are not
serrated; of another the fruit is of a purple colour, and the leaves
spiny; the third I have not seen. I brought the two first varieties
to Pernambuco, where they have been planted, and are already becoming
common, and they have been forwarded by some patriotic persons to other
provinces. Their flavour is much superior to that of the species which
has been long well known.
MARACUJA MAMAM, Passiflora Alata.
_Plants of Seara._
PIQUI, Acantacaryx Pinguis:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant. Pern._ This plant
produces most abundantly a fruit of the size of an orange, of which the
pulp is oily, feculous, and very nourishing. It is the delight of the
inhabitants of Searà and Piauhi. The tree grows to the height of fifty
feet, and is of proportionate thickness. The timber of it is of as good
quality as that of the _cicopira_, for ship-building. It grows well in
the sandy plains which are in Pernambuco called _taboleiros_, and in
Piauhi _chapadas_, therefore its cultivation would be very advantageous
in the _taboleiros_ bordering the coast, which are at present of no
service. It has afforded great assistance to the people in times of
drought and famine.
BURITI, An Borassus?—This species of palm is one of the highest and
most beautiful of trees; it grows only in bogs and marshes; the fruit
is of the size of a hen’s egg, and of the same form; it is of a red
colour at the time of maturation, and is covered with scales spirally
arranged. Under the scales is found a layer of oily pulp of the same
red colour, from which the inhabitants of Piauhi obtain an emulsion;
when this is mixed with sugar, it becomes a substantial drink, which is
by no means unpleasant. However, if it is used to excess, the colour of
the fruit is communicated to the surface of the skin, and to the white
of the eyes, producing the appearance of jaundice, but without any
injury to the health.
MARACUJA SUSPIRO, Passiflora:—This is the finest flavoured fruit of
the genus; it is called _suspiro_, because one of them may be swallowed
at once, leaving upon the palate a most exquisite taste and a sweet
smell. It is to be found in the Serra de Beruoca, upon the borders of
Acaracù.[274]
MANDAPUCA, Myrtus Scabra:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant. Pern._
COCO NAIA, a large palm tree, which is to be found abundantly in Cariri
Novo and Piauhi; the nut contains three or four seeds, from which oil
is extracted, and this is applied to the same purposes as that of the
_cocos nucifera_. The nut is covered with a feculous substantial flour,
which has afforded much relief in times of need. From this fecula
is made a soup or _angù_, as it is called, which is seasoned with
the emulsion or oil obtained from the almond of the same fruit. The
pith of the tops of these palms is a white substance, tender, juicy,
sweetish, and pleasant to the taste, and it is harmless even if eaten
raw. If it be boiled with meat, the taste is not unlike the cabbage,
but it is more solid. After having taken from it the saccharine parts
by means of one boiling, it becomes capable of being seasoned, and many
excellent dishes are made from them, after the manner of the _areca
oleracea_. For the knowledge of these last uses the inhabitants of
those parts are indebted to my example. The same may be practised with
the _palmeira pindoba_ (_cocos butiroza_, _Lin._) which is very common
at Pernambuco. For these purposes the larger trees should not be cut
down, but rather only those which have attained the height of ten or
fifteen feet.[275]
MARANGABA, Psidium Pigmeum:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant. Pern._
This is a species of _goiaba_ plant which does not attain more than
two or three feet in height; it abounds in the _chapada_ of the Serra
Araripe of Cariri Novo.[276]
In front of my house at Itamaraca, there was a _dendezeiro_ which stood
alone, and I know that there was no other tree of the same species
anywhere within sight. The tree bore fruit.—_Transl._
_Plants of Pernambuco._
CARAPITAIA, Carlotea formosissima:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant. Pern._
BILROS, Carlotea Speciosa:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant. Pern._
Two beautiful species of a new genus, which I have dedicated to H. R.
H. the Princess of Brazil; the roots of these plants are tuberous,
abounding with soft and nutritive fecula, which has afforded assistance
to the people of the Sertam of Pajaù in times of drought. These plants
are worthy of being cultivated not only from their utility but for the
purpose of ornamenting gardens, their flowers being umbellate, crimson,
and very beautiful.
CANELLA DO MATO, Linharia aromatica:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant. Pern._
CATINGA BRANCA, Linharea tinctoria:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant. Pern._
Of the first of these plants the leaves and bark have a pleasant smell,
which is like that of cloves. It is not as yet used, being unknown. I
have made use of the leaves and bark of this plant in distilling rum,
and have obtained a pleasant liqueur. I have learnt by experience that
the extract of the leaves is not only pleasant to the taste and smell,
but that it likewise strengthens the stomach. It is to be found in the
greatest abundance upon the _taboleiros_, which bound the captaincies
of Paraiba and Searà, upon the borders of Pinhancò, and I have likewise
seen it in Piauhi.[277]
The second of these plants is a shrub which grows abundantly upon the
skirts of the mountains, and upon the banks of the rivulets of the
Sertoens of Pernambuco, Paraiba, and Seara. It yields by boiling a
yellow dye, which is sufficiently durable upon skins. It is probable
that some means might be found of fixing the colour upon cotton cloth,
as is the case with the _tatajuba_ (_morus tinctoria_). Besides this
use, it is applied to that of curing _sarnas_, an eruptive complaint;
the patient being washed in a decoction of the leaves. As I could not
arrange these plants in any of the known genera, I have formed one
for them to which I have given the name of _Linharea_, in memory of
D. Rodrigo de Souza Coutinho, _Conde de_ Linhares, the cultivator and
protector of letters.
CARNAUBA or CARNAIBA, Corypha cerifera:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant. Pern._
This palm is one of the most useful plants of the Sertoens; it rises
to the height of thirty feet and more; the _varzeas_ or low lands
upon the borders of the rivers and rivulets of Pernambuco, Paraiba
do Norte, Searà, and Piauhi, and principally the banks of the rivers
Jaguaribe, Apodi, Mossorò, and Açu, are covered with these trees.
When the fruit of it has attained the size of a small olive (which
when green it resembles in form), it should be boiled several times
in different water to take off its astringent properties; and then a
sufficient boiling being given it becomes soft and has the taste of
boiled maize. In this state it is eaten with milk, and is a wholesome
food. The pith of the stem of the young plants, being bruised in water,
affords a nutritive fecula, as white as that of mandioc. The plant
should not much exceed the height of a man when used for this purpose.
It is of great service to the inhabitants of those parts in times of
drought and famine. The leaves of the young plant are of two feet in
length, and are doubled after the manner of a fan, whilst they are yet
young; afterwards they open, and become of little less than two feet in
breadth. If they are cut in this state, and are allowed to dry in the
shade, a considerable quantity of small light coloured scales will be
loosened from the surface. These will melt by the heat of a fire into
white wax, of which it possesses the properties; it is however more
brittle, but this may be remedied by mixing it with the common wax,
which is more oily. In 1797 I made known this discovery to the R. P. M.
Fr. Joze Marianno da Conceiçam Vellozo, who published the account of it
in the _Paladio Portuguez_; but at that time I was not so well aware as
I am now of the importance of the wax.
The fruit of this tree when ripe is black and shining, and of the
size of eggs of tame pigeons. The kernel is covered with a layer of
sweet pulp, which is eaten by cattle, as are also the dry leaves which
fall, when other food fails. The leaves are used for covering houses,
and although thus exposed to the weather, they last for twenty years
without requiring to be renewed. The stem is made use of for building
houses, for fences, pens, &c.[278]
ANIL DE PERNAMBUCO, Koanophyllon tinctoria:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant. Pern._
This is a shrub which grows to the height of twelve feet or more. It
is of the class syngenesia; the leaves are from two to three inches in
length, and of proportionate breadth; it is enough to soak a piece of
cotton cloth in its juice for it to become green, and from this colour
it is changed to blue by the absorption of the oxigen of atmospheric
air. The colour becomes so fixed, that it resists the action of soap
and the lye of potash, and it rather brightens than fades after it has
undergone these experiments. It is probable that by fermentation and
beating, it may yield blue fecula, like the common indigo (_indigofera
tinctoria_). I know that it may be cultivated with ease, for I have
sown the seeds which are like those of the lettuce; they come up in a
few days. The land which is adapted to it is _varzea fresca_, or marshy
land composed of _maçape_, or stiff clay.
ANIL TREPADOR, Cissus tinctorius:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant. Pern._
If the leaves of this plant are rubbed upon a white cloth, they impart
to it a green colour like that of any other herb. By exposure to
atmospheric air it changes this colour for a fixed blue, which resists
the lye of potash and soap. It is found in the mountains and low lands
of the Sertoens.
HERVA LOMBRIGUEIRA OR ARAPABACA, Spigelia anthelmia:—_Lin. Syst.
Veget._
This plant has anthelminthic properties, and is sold in our towns. It
grows abundantly in argillaceous low lands.
URUCU, Bixa Orellana. _Lin._
This is a shrub, and is worthy of cultivation from the dye which the
leaves afford; but it is not cultivated by any one in Pernambuco, not
even as a curiosity.
PITOMBEIRA, Meleagrinex Pernambucana:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant. Pern._
This tree grows to the height of 30 or 40 feet; the timber of it is
compact and may be applied to some purposes. It produces its fruit in
large rounded bunches, in capsules which do not open. It has a solid
kernel of two cotyledons, covered with a sweetish acid pulp, which is
not unpleasant. If turkeys eat of these kernels they die immediately;
from this circumstance I took the name of the genus, of which I have
only found two species.
IMBUZEIRO, Spondia tuberosa:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant. Pern._
This is a tree which grows plentifully in the Sertoens of Pernambuco
and Paraiba. It produces a fruit which is rather smaller than
pullets eggs, obovate, with five points at the lower part, being the
indications of the five stigmata. Its colour is yellow, and below
the coriaceous epidermis, it retains a juicy pulp, of a pleasant
sweetish acid taste. With this juice, and milk, curds, and sugar, a
much esteemed mess is made, called _imbuzada_. This tree throws out
long horizontal roots, which penetrate very little, and upon these are
seen at short distances round tubers of eight inches (_hum palmo_)
in diameter, full of water, like unto water-melons; these supply the
vegetation of the tree in seasons of drought, and sometimes refresh the
sportsman who has penetrated into the woods. The re-production of the
tree is very easy by means of shoots.
PIRANGA, Bignonia tinctoria:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant. Pern._
This is a fruit-bearing and sarmentose plant; its leaves yield, by
boiling, a red dye, which can be made a fixed dye upon cotton cloth, by
means of preparations analogous to those which are made for madder.
UMARI, Geoffroya spinosa:—_Jacq. Stirp. Americ._
This plant, which Jacquim found at Carthagena in the sandy lands near
to the coast, grows at Pernambuco upon argillaceous low lands, upon
which it arrives at 30 or 40 feet in height; in Carthagena, according
to the same author, it does not reach more than twelve feet. The
flowers are yellow, and have a smell which is similar to that of the
coco-oil; those of Carthagena have a disagreeable smell. May they not
be two separate species? From the almond of this plant is extracted
a white and nutritive fecula, of which the inhabitants of the Rio do
Peixe, and of the Sertam of Paraiba do Norte make much use. The plant
grows very plentifully in the low lands of those parts, and it is also
to be met with in the province of Rio Grande do Norte.
IPECACUANHA PRETA, Ipecacuanha officinalis:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant. Pern._
Until the present time the botanists of Europe have not known to what
genus this plant belongs. Some of them thought it was the _euphorbia
Ipecacuanha_, others, that it was the _psoralia glandulosa_, others,
the _spiræa trifoliata_, others the _viola ipecacuanha_, finally others
suspected that it was the _psychotria emetica_; but I have observed the
_ipecacuanha preta_ very frequently when in flower, and I think that it
has more affinity to the _tapagomea_ of Aublet. However, I have given
it the name of _ipecacuanha_, for although both are barbarous, still
the latter has been used for a century and a half. The Ipecacuanha is
easily cultivated, for I have made the experiment, but it requires
shade, or at any rate it must not be completely exposed to the heat of
the sun.
IPECACUANHA BRANCA, Viola Ipecacuanha:—_Lin._ Pombalia Ipecacuanha:
_Vandel_.
Although the root of this plant was formerly mistaken for that of the
_ipecacuanha preta_, it is well known now to be of another description.
It is much used in medicine in Pernambuco, as a gentle purgative, &c.
It is easily cultivated, and delights in a moist atmosphere and a sandy
soil. In the neighbourhood of the Campina Grande (of Paraiba) I have
seen large pieces of ground covered with the plant. Of this species of
ipecacuanha our druggists might make their syrup of _viola_, and our
physicians might without scruple apply the flowers and calyx in place
of the flowers of the _viola odorata_, for it promotes expectoration,
and possesses stimulant qualities which strengthen the nerves.
CONTRA-HERVA, Dorstenia rotundifolia:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant. Pern._
CONTRA-HERVA DE FOLHA LONGANA, Dorstenia Pernambucana:—_Arrud. Cent.
Plant. Pern._
These two species of _contra-herva_ are new, and are peculiar to
Pernambuco; besides these two I have not met with any other species.
But they have the same virtue as the true _contra-herva_ of Mexico
(_dorstenia contra-herva_), and the physicians of Pernambuco do not use
any other. They are to be found in great quantities in some parts.
ANGELIM, Skolemora Pernambucensis:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant. Pern._
The fruit of this tree possesses the strongest vegetable anthelminthic
properties with which I am acquainted. It is necessary to be careful
in the use of it, for if the dose is too large, the medicine will
attack the nervous system, and produce convulsions. The common dose is
one-fourth part of a seed for an adult. I know of three species of this
plant.
BATATA DE PURGA, Convolvulus mechoacan.
The root of this species of _convolvulus_ is tuberose; and a dose of
two drachms of the fecula is sufficient as a purgative. The root is
cut into small slices that it may be dried with more ease; a thread
is then passed through the middle of each slice, for the purpose of
exposing them for sale. It is a gentle purgative, and is now much in
use, therefore it is worthy of being cultivated. It may be observed as
being remarkable, that quantities of the root are sometimes sold by
the peasants which have little effect. This ought to be attributed to
its being gathered out of season. All plants should be gathered after
their maturation. Thus the _batata de purga_ should be gathered after
the fruit and leaves have dried, but before the rains come on. I have
observed in Pernambuco two species of _convolvulus_, of tuberose roots,
both of which are purgative, and the prepared root of both is commonly
known under the name of _purga de batata_; one of these is the true
_convolvulus mechoacan_, and is different from the other in leaf,
branch, and fruit; of this I have given the description in my Centuria
of new plants.[279]
PAPO DE PERU, Aristolochia grandiflora:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant. Pern._
This beautiful species of _aristolochia_, which I first met with in
the torrents of Cariri Novo, is medicinal, and is worthy of being
cultivated in gardens, not only for its utility, but likewise on
account of the beauty and size of its flower. Besides this, I am
acquainted with five species of _aristolochia_, some of which may be
made useful. The plant is commonly called _angelicò_.
MANGABEIRA, Ribeirea sorbilis. This tree grows well in the sandy lands
of the _taboleiros_; the fruit varies from the size of a pigeon’s
egg to that of a pullet’s; the colour is a greenish yellow, spotted
with red; it is almost of the consistence of the service; and is well
known in the markets of Pernambuco and Bahia. Considerable numbers of
these trees are now cultivated in the neighbourhood of Olinda; and the
attention which is paid to the tree has improved the fruit. If this is
pounded spirituous fermentation takes place with great ease, and from
this passes to acetosity; thus the juice forms most excellent vinegar,
in a very short period, which I found to be stronger than that of the
grape, of the sugar cane, of bananas or of _cambuins_. I have described
this new genus in my _Cent. Plant. Pern._ dedicating it to my disciple
P. Joam Ribeiro Pessoa de Mello Montenegro, professor of drawing in
the seminary of Olinda. He is worthy of this honour, not only from
having attempted to introduce into this captaincy the cultivation of
some useful exotic plants, but from the curious and philosophical
examination which he has made respecting the wonderful phenomenon of
the manner of the fructification of the _mangabeira_ plant, which will
be found in my _Centuria Plant. Pern._
OITI COROIA, Pleragina rufa:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant. Pern._
OITI DA PRAIA, Pleragina odorata:—_Arrud. Cent. Plant. Pern._