The sixteenth century was the golden age of science and literature in
Timbuctoo. Her scholars with the University of Sankoré as a center had
so generously contributed to the world's thought that they had brought
to that country no less fame than its statesmen and warriors by their
constructive work and daring deeds. The country, however, was finally
invaded by the Moors and the scattering of the talented class
resulting thereby led to the inevitable decline of culture. "Yet,"
says Félix DuBois, "the greatest work of all literature of the Sudan
was produced in the first days of its twilight, namely, that Tarik é
Soudan (the History of the Soudan)"[194] which we shall here briefly
consider.
Investigators had for years endeavored to discover this valuable book,
which because of certain traces in the Barbary States had been
generally considered the work of Ahmed Baba. The explorer Barth, the
first to make a study of this document, was of the same opinion. Félix
DuBois expresses his surprise that a man so well informed on Arabian
subjects as Barth could be so easily misled, when the very extracts
themselves quote Ahmed Baba as an authority. This misconception was
due to the failure of the German scholar to read anything but the
fragments which he discovered at Gando and to his suspicion that the
author in quoting Ahmed Baba was following the Arabs' custom of
quoting themselves. Félix DuBois found an excellent copy in Jenne and
made from it a duplicate which was corrected from a copy of
Timbuctoo,[195] so that he now has the work in what he considers as
complete a form as possible.[196]
In establishing the authorship of this work, Félix DuBois emphasizes
the fact that the book contains the date, year, month and day of
Ahmed Baba's death and that elsewhere the author gives a very
circumstantial account of himself and his belongings. "His name,"
according to this authority, "is Abderrahman (ben Abdallah, ben Amran,
ben Amar) Sadi el Timbucti, and he was born at Timbuctoo, (the 'object
of his affections'), of one of those families in which science and
piety are transmitted as a patrimony."[197] It seems that he was
trained by a distinguished professor who inspired him with the desire
to be intellectual. This book shows, too, that he was a mature man
some time between 1625 and 1635, during the period when the star of
Timbuctoo was waning. That he should still maintain himself as a
scholar and obtain the respect of the destructive invaders was due to
the reverence with which they held the learned men of the fallen
Empire. Having established a reputation which far transcended the
bounds of his native country, Abderrahman Sadi was received with marks
of honor and presented with gifts during all of his travels to Massina
and the regions of the Upper Niger. He was made iman of a mosque of
Jenne in 1631, but was later deprived of that honor. He then returned
to Timbuctoo, where he was received with sympathy and consoled by
friends.
Abderrahman Sadi spent his remaining years, first at Timbuctoo, then
at Jenne. It seems that because of his unusual learning and knowledge
of politics and government he was employed by the pashas in diplomatic
affairs. Although there was then no longer the same center of culture
as flourished at the University of Sankoré in former years,
Abderrahman Sadi, still imbued with the desire to impart knowledge,
devoted no little of his time to giving lectures and holding
conferences. His most important undertaking, however, was his great
historical work embracing all the countries of the Niger. For such a
stupendous task he had adequate preparation not only by his former
training but by his experience as a traveller, his services as a
public functionary, his social contact and his access to documents
which are no longer extant. The following is the preface:
"Praise be to God whom the weight of a pearl upon the earth does
not escape. May prayer and salvation be with the Master of the
first and last, our Lord Mohammed. We know that our ancestors
took pleasure in mentioning the companions of the Prophet and the
saints, the sheiks and eminent kings of their country, with their
lives, their edifices, and the great events of their reigns. They
have told us all that they have seen, or heard, of the times
extending behind us.
"As for the present time, no one is to be found to take an
interest in these things or follow the path traced by their
ancestors. Witnessing the decline of this science (history), so
precious on account of the instruction it offers to mankind, I
have implored the assistance of God in writing down all that I
have read, seen, or heard concerning the kings of the Sudan and
the Songhoi people, and in relating their history and the events
connected with their expeditions of war. I shall speak of
Timbuctoo and of its foundation, of the princes who have wielded
the power of that city, I shall mention the learned and pious men
who dwelt therein, and I shall continue this history to the close
of the dominion of the sultans of Morocco."[198]
While it is not our purpose to sketch here the history of this empire,
some knowledge of it will give a better appreciation of this great
work. As an historical document the Tarik é Soudan is the only source
from which we get an idea as to the origin of the Songhoi. The natives
of this country inform the traveller that they came from the east. The
Tarik é Soudan says: "The first king of the Songhoi was called
Dialliaman," meaning, "He has come from Yemen." Dialliaman quitted
Yemen in company with his brother. They travelled through the country
of God until destiny brought them to the land of Kokia. Giving a more
detailed account it says:
"Now Kokia was a town of the Songhoi people situated on the banks
of a river, and was very ancient. It existed in the time of the
Pharaohs, and it is said that one of them, during his dispute
with Moses, sent thither for the magician whom he opposed to the
Prophet.
"The two brothers reached the town in such a terrible state of
distress that their appearance was scarcely human; their skins
were cracked by the heat and dust of the desert, and they were
almost naked. The inhabitants questioned them concerning the
country of their origin, and their names have been forgotten in
the surname with which their reply provided them, 'Dia min al
Jemen'--'Come from Yemen,' And Dialliaman the elder settled in
Kokia. Now the god of the Songhoi was a fish who appeared to them
from the water at certain periods wearing a golden ring in his
nose; and the people gethered together and worshipped the fish,
receiving its commands and prohibitions and obeying its oracles.
"Perceiving their error, Dialliaman hid in his heart a resolution
to kill the false deity, and God assisted him in his design.
"One day he pierced the fish with a lance in the presence of the
people and killed it. Then the people proclaimed Dialliaman
king."[199]
Here the author has confused tradition with history.[200] The document
itself, however, substantiates the contention that there arose in this
region one of the world's greatest empires ruled by an almost unbroken
succession of kings who piloted the nation through the trials of its
incipiency, enabled it to develop a very advanced civilization, and
extended its influence over a large portion of Africa. The empire of
the Songhoi lasted about 1,000 years, during which three dynasties
ruled over these people. The kings of these lines adopted the names
Dia, Sunni, and Askia. The first included thirty kings who ruled from
700 to 1335; the second a line of eighteen kings from 1335 to 1492,
and the third and last dynasty from 1494 to 1591.
During the reign of Dia Sobi of the first dynasty the empire passed
through a crisis. Unable to conquer its enemies from without, it
finally became the vassal of the Mali empire on the west. Jenne, the
city of much wealth and culture, was then separated from the Songhoi
empire. But finally there came Ali Kolon, of the second dynasty, who
freed the Songhoi from the rule of Mali. The country thereafter
continued for some time in peace. Later it expanded considerably under
Sunni Ali, "the true Negro soldier," who ruled from 1464 to 1493.
Although skeptical, violent and oppressive he paved the way for the
establishment of the largest empire which had ever existed in that
part of the world.
In 1494 the second dynasty was brought to a close when Sunni Barro,
the last of that line, was obliged to flee from the country and Askia
Mohammed usurped the throne. He began as a pious ruler and was,
therefore, praised as "a brilliant light shining after great darkness;
a savior who drew the servants of God from idolatry and the country
from ruin."[201] He made pilgrimages to Mecca, scattered his funds in
the holy places, rendered homage to the Khalif Abassid Motewekkel in
Egypt, got in touch with the theologians and learned men of Cairo and
endeavored to take over the more advanced civilization of Egypt.
During these years, however, his piety did not deter him from the use
of the sword. He ever fought his neighbors, conducting an expedition
against some nation almost every year. He eventually succeeded in
triumphing over his enemies, conquering Mali on the west and Agades,
Katsina, Kano, Zegzey, and Sanfara on the east. He was then Askia the
Great, the ruler of one of the greatest empires of the world,
extending north and south from Thegazza to Bandouk and east and west
from Lake Chad to the Atlantic Ocean. He was not a mere warrior. He
was just as successful in carrying out a constructive policy of
incorporation. Instead of being satisfied with the payment of tribute,
he destroyed old systems, established his lieutenants in the seats of
government, appointed viceroys to supervise the governors of
provinces, promoted commerce, and built up a formidable standing army.
Askia the Great, however, finally declined and was deposed by his son
Askia Moussa in 1521. He entered upon the policy of killing his
hundred brothers and was finally assassinated. Then came a nephew of
Askia the Great, Askia Bankouri, who, much like his predecessor,
endeavored to murder his uncles who might pretend to the throne.
Despite this blot on his escutcheon, however, it is said that he
wielded power with magnificence and maintained a great court. He was
dethroned by the Viceroy of Dandi in 1537 and Askia Ismael was
proclaimed king. His motives, according to the Tarik, are interesting.
"I accepted the honour for three reasons," declared he; "to rescue my
father from his distressful condition, to enable my sisters to resume
the veil that Bankouri had obliged them to relinquish, and to pacify
Yan Mara, one of the hundred hen ostriches, who was wont to throw
herself into a frenzy whenever she saw Bankouri."[202]
Ismael died in 1540 and was succeeded by his brother Ishak. Following
the example of his predecessor, he put to death many of his relations.
The last four Askia to rule over the entire empire had much difficulty
in maintaining their positions because of the internal and external
causes operating to make it decline and fall. The Moors, the most
aggressive peoples then seeking to invade the dominions, finally
overran the empire and made it a colony.
Referring to this turbulent period through which the empire passed,
the Tarik says: "All was changed in a moment. Danger took the place of
security, destitution of abundance, trouble, calamities, and violence
succeeded to tranquillity. Everywhere the populations began to destroy
each other. In all places and in every direction rapine became the
law, war spared neither life nor property, nor the position of the
people. Disorder was general, it spread everywhere till it reached at
last the highest degree of intensity." "Things continued thus," adds
the historian, "until towards the moment in which the Songhoi dynasty
approached its end, and its empire ceased to exist. At this moment
faith was exchanged for infidelity; there was nothing forbidden by God
which was not openly done. Men drank wine, they gave themselves up to
vice.... As to adultery, it became so frequent that indulgence in it
was almost accepted as permissible. Without it there was no elegance
and no glory. ... Because of these abominations, the Almighty in his
vengeance drew down upon the Songhoi the victorious army of the Moors.
He brought it through terrible suffering from a distant country. Then
the roots of this people were separated from the trunk, and the
chastisement they underwent was exemplary."[203]
The Tarik é Soudan, however, continues its story beyond the fall of
the empire of the Songhoi. It throws light on Foulbes, Touaregs, Mossi
and Ouolofs, mentions Morocco and Massina, sketches the careers of
saints and scholars, sets forth the authors _curriculum vitae_, and
brings this narrative to a close in 1653. His task as a historian
finished, the author appends the annals of the country to the year
1656, saying: "What shall happen hereafter I shall relate in the same
manner as that which is past, for as long as I shall be alive."[204]
It is highly probable that the author died that year.
Considered from all angles the student must agree with the
investigator that the Tarik é Soudan is a masterpiece. Barth, the
distinguished German scholar, says that the book forms "one of the
most important additions that the present age has made to the history
of mankind."[205] Lady Lugard, another writer in this field, believes
that it is not merely an authentic narrative but is an unusually
valuable document since it throws unconscious light upon the life,
manners, politics and literature of that country. "Above all," says
she, "it possesses the crowning quality, displayed usually in creative
poetry alone, of presenting a vivid picture of the character of the
men with whom it deals. It has been called the 'Epic of the Soudan,'"
continues the writer. "It lacks the charm of form, but in all else
the description is well merited. Its pages are a treasure-house of
information for the careful student and the volumes may be read many
times without extracting from them more than a small part of all that
they contain."[206]
Félix DuBois refers to it as serving him as his "charming and
picturesque guide through the Soudan." "The _Tarik é Soudan_," says
he, "is conceived upon a perfectly clear and logical plan according to
the most correct rules of literary composition."[207] "It forms, with
the exception of the holy writings, the favorite volume of the negro,
and is known to the furthest extremity of western Africa, from the
shores of the Niger to the borders of Lake Chad." "Its style,"
continues he, "is very simple and clear, entirely lacking those
literary artifices so much in vogue among the Arabs; and the author
displays an unusual conscientiousness, never hesitating to give both
versions of a doubtful event."[208] On the whole it is a book of
elevated active morals and with its charming combination of fables,
marvels and miracles it is well adapted to influence the negraic mind.
The work is not an uninteresting narration of events but an
explanation of them as the rewards of God when fortunate and
punishments of the wicked when calamitous. Devoted to religion and
civic virtue, the author portrays as sinful the evil deeds of all
whether they be peasants or kings. "The _Tarik_ is to this day,"
remarks Félix DuBois, "the Hozier of the Soudan. In addition to the
attractions to be found in its pages, it contains a charm which
entirely escapes the Sudanese, and which we alone are privileged to
taste, viz., the _naïvete_, good nature, and delicious sincerity which
pervade the book." The "book admirably reflects the life and mind of
the Soudan of yesterday. One enjoys from its pages," says this writer,
"the delicate repasts offered by Homer, Herodotus, and Froissard, and
it is for this reason I have called the _Tarik_ the chef-d'oeuvre of
Sudanese literature."[209]