MUNICIPALITY, POLICE, AND BRIGANDAGE.
_Municipality._—Improvement at Constantinople—No Improvement in
Country Towns—Sanitary Negligence.
_Police._—The Corruption of the old Police—Formation of the new
Corps—Its various Classes—Economical Reductions—The Corruption
of the new Police—Voluntary Guards the connecting Link between
Police and Brigandage.
_Brigandage._—Ancient and Modern Brigands—Great Diminution
of Numbers—Constant Outrages, however—Albanians the
born Brigands—Systematic Attacks—Uselessness of the
Police—My Brigand Guides—Usual Manner of Attack—Danger to
_Kheradjis_—Brigands at Vodena repulsed by a Chorbadji and his
Wife—Impotence of the Authorities—Outrage at Caterina—Modern
Greek Klephts.
The sanitary and protective laws of Turkey are in their application
still very primitive, although of late years they have been revised and
reorganized, and a municipality and district police corps have been
formed. The carrying out of these new laws was intrusted to a regular
administration, having its chief seat at Constantinople, with branches
in all the provincial towns, and it has done good service in the capital
itself, for many of the improvements that have been made there are due to
the efforts of the municipality.
In other towns, however, its good influence, though well paid for by the
inhabitants has hitherto been little felt. The streets continue to be
ill-paved, and but dimly lighted with petroleum; sanitary measures are
neglected; immense heaps of refuse are piled upon pieces of waste ground
and stray spots, and are left to decompose by the action of the air, be
devoured by unclean animals, or float away on some small stream of water.
Enough, however, remains in the streets and in the vicinity of towns and
villages to pollute the air and cause intermittent fever. Fortunately
the climate is naturally salubrious, and the public health, taken on an
average, is good. Some districts are considered very unhealthy, but the
fault lies with the municipality of the place, who, when they become more
intelligent and active, may perhaps attend less to their own interests
and more to those of the public. Besides the above-mentioned innovations
of the _Beledié_, or municipality, small portions of pavement, two or
three feet in length, are now and then constructed, professing to be the
commencement of a magnificent pavement that is to traverse the town; but
alas! after a few weeks the work is abandoned, and these short lengths of
footpath are left isolated in the midst of pools of mud and water, which
can only be crossed by using the boulders scattered here and there as
stepping-stones.
Sometimes a number of scavengers may be seen doing duty in the streets,
or carting away the rubbish collected in the town; but they only convey
it to the quay, where it is left for the ragged Jews and other beggars to
explore.
The defects of the police were far more serious and more deeply felt
throughout Turkey than those of the municipality. The police were
insufficient as a protective force. They were badly organized, and they
showed an utter want of principle, honesty, and morality. The deplorable
condition of this corps, and the oppressive and illegal influence it
exerted over the people, gave rise to great public indignation, and
induced the people to complain loudly against it.
Ali and Fuad Pashas, well aware of the grievance, were the first to
attempt a thorough police reform. By their united efforts a regular corps
was formed, more numerous, better conditioned, better paid, clad in
uniform, and classified as follows:
(1.) The _Kavasses_, doing duty in the capital and attached to embassies
and other foreign offices.
(2.) The _Seymen_, doing police duty at Constantinople.
(3.) The _Zaptiehs_, foot police for the service of the district
administration.
(4.) The _Soubaris_, mounted police, charged with the superintendence
of public safety; with the office of receiving the taxes from the
villages and transmitting them to the authorities; and with the duty of
accompanying overland mails, travellers, etc.
(5.) The _Bekchis_, or rural police, placed at the Beklemés or
guard-houses on all the main roads.
(6.) The _Teftish_, or detectives.
The uniform worn by the Kavasses consists of a black cloth coat and
trousers, braided with gold, a belt, and a formidable-looking Turkish
sword and pistol. That of the detectives is similar, but they carry
no arms. The rest of the police wear a uniform similar to that of the
Zouaves, of dark blue _shayak_, braided and turned up with red, a black
leather belt and a cutlass. The Soubaris have long guns, and all wear the
fez. The officers’ uniform is similar to that of the officers’ in the
army. The arms are supplied by the Government, and a new suit of clothes
allowed every year.
When this body was first organized, some attention was paid to
enrolling in it men of respectable character. The increase of pay and
the regularity of the pay-days gave it for some time a better name
than the old force; but, unfortunately, hardly had the people begun to
feel the benefit of the changes created during the reform fever, than
these were set aside to make room for the economical mania that took
possession of the administration on the formation of a new ministry.
This latest epidemic, of the many that have attacked Turkey, was fatal
to the provincial administration in general, and affected the police
in particular. Their numbers were reduced, and pay diminished, and
irregularly distributed. The guard-houses on the highways, which had
been established at the distance of four miles from each other, and
intrusted to _Bekchis_, who were held responsible for the security of
their districts, were abandoned and fell into ruin, or were occupied by
worthless fellows who undertook the duty for a small recompense, which
proving difficult to obtain, these so-called “guards” were compelled to
make up their financial deficits as best they could.
I heard of a fellow of this kind who had taken the post of Bekchi in a
mountain pass as a chiplak, or tattered Albanian, but who after a year
had passed was the owner of 700 goats and a fine house, and was dressed
in all the glory of his national costume.
How did he obtain it? is a question not easily answered if put to a
great many of his class. I do not, myself, find the problem difficult
of solution. These amateur guards would seem to be the connecting link
between the police and the brigands; if, indeed, any such link were
needed.
Conversing, some time ago, with some highly educated Bulgarians, well
versed in the affairs of their country, I was told that the chief causes
of the discontent of their nation were the increase of the taxes, the
harshness with which the payment was enforced upon them by the district
officials, the extortion of the police, and the robberies and crimes
committed by the Circassians. The people complained most bitterly of
the insolent arrogance of the police, which they declared drove them
to desperation, and made them ready to listen to any one who promised
release, rather than continue to submit longer to such evils. There are,
of course, some honest men in the police force who are ready to do their
duty, but the generality are unquestionably immoral and unscrupulous,
and, even if they were honest, their number is too small for the
protection of the millions who depend upon them for their safety.
From time immemorial brigandage has played so prominent a part in both
the political and social condition of Turkey that a description of life
in this country would be incomplete without a few words about this
lucrative profession.
I shall pass over the time, which may still be remembered by some of the
oldest inhabitants, when brigands, mustering in overwhelming forces,
composed of degenerate janissaries and malcontents from all the provinces
of European Turkey, gathered under chieftains like Passvan Oglou and
Ali Pasha of Joannina, defied the authority of the Porte, ravaged and
devastated whole provinces, besieged towns, spread terror and bloodshed
on every side, and left behind them nothing but misery and tears. The
Greek Klephts were not more renowned for their bravery and patriotism
than for the ravages and crimes they committed during and after the war
of Greek independence.
Since that time great changes have taken place in Turkey, and brigandage
lost its ancient power. The thousands that filled its ranks have, in our
day, been reduced to tens. But the evil though deprived of its force,
and even entirely eradicated in some parts of the country, has not been
wholly suppressed.
Of late years, in Turkey, brigandage has ceased to clothe itself in the
garb of politics; it is now represented merely by bands of cut-throats
belonging to all creeds and nationalities. The chiefs, however, and the
backbone of these bands, are Albanians. The number is made up by Greeks,
Turks, and Bulgarians. The Mussulman Albanian takes to brigandage because
he likes it, and willingly makes a profession of it; the others join in
order to evade justice, or to avoid want and misery, or simply to respond
to the dictates of a vicious and criminal disposition. It is generally in
early spring, when the trees have lost their nakedness and the hedges are
covered with green leaves and sweet-smelling blossoms, that this element
of infamy and destruction makes its appearance, taking to the highway
or lurking for its prey among the hills and valleys, and polluting with
its blood-stained feet the freshness and purity of resurgent nature. Its
victims may often be found lying dead on a bed of violets or lilies,
gazed upon by the wild rose that hangs its head and seems to blush for
man’s outrage. Such sights are of every-day occurrence.
The brigands have associates living in the towns with every appearance
of respectability, who furnish them with timely notice when and where a
good piece of business can be done. They have spies who give them warning
when danger is at hand, and they often find protectors in high places to
help them to escape the arm of the law. As for food, the flocks of the
terror-stricken Christian shepherds are at their mercy, and the peasant,
trembling for the safety of his home, dares not refuse to satisfy them
with bread and wine. He dares not give notice to the authorities of
the presence of those marauders, as that would expose him to their
vengeance, and he would pay for his temerity with his life. But should
the authorities suspect a countryman of having furnished provision or
other necessaries to the brigands, he is forthwith prosecuted and cast
into prison as their associate and a participator in their spoils. These
are the causes that breed and rear brigandage in Turkey in defiance
of laws and of the power of the authorities. The police regulations,
theoretically excellent, are practically useless, and may be looked upon
as one of the principal reasons of the continuance of brigandage, a
scourge on the inhabitants and a disgrace to the administration.
When a band of brigands has taken up its quarters in a district, the
country round is continually kept on the _qui vive_ by its repeated
crimes and depredations. A force of _Soubaris_ (mounted police) is sent
in chase, but the laxity with which their duty is generally discharged,
the neglect of proper precautions to insure success, and the usual futile
termination of such expeditions, are often caused by unwillingness to
risk a dangerous encounter, or by interested motives for letting off the
brigands.
The inhabitants, on the other hand, suffer in any case by the pursuit,
for, when it proves fruitless, it does not save them from danger, and
only aggravates the enemy; and when the chase is successful, the expenses
of having these armed men and their horses quartered upon them, besides
the suspicions and injuries to which they are often exposed under the
pretence of having direct or indirect communication with the brigands,
are so great as to render the remedy almost worse than the evil, and
induce them to petition the authorities to withdraw the Soubaris sent for
their protection.
If these policemen are headed by an honest and courageous chief, as
occasionally happens, and he sets to work earnestly to do his duty,
success is almost certain, and the brigands are either captured,
destroyed, or dispersed. Those who are caught are disarmed, handcuffed,
and, if numerous and of a desperate character, chained in couples and
marched off to prison. Still the hardy freebooters are not dispirited,
for if they are wealthy, or the proofs of their crime are not
transparently clear, their chances of escape, especially in the interior,
are not small, and bribery affords them a ready means of regaining their
liberty.
When brigands disperse or retire in winter from the field of action, they
find shelter in a well-protected refuge. Such places are easily found
in the country _chiftliks_ of influential beys, who, from motives of
self-preservation or ignorance of their guests’ antecedents, allow their
Albanian guards to harbor the malefactors who venture to seek shelter
under their roof.
The severe laws formerly existing in Turkey for the punishment of crime,
whereby mutilation was ordained in certain cases, are no longer in use.
Crime, according to its extent and the circumstances that surround it,
is punishable by imprisonment for a certain period, or condemnation to
death; the sentence, however, is seldom put into execution except in very
bad cases, or when the authorities are desirous of making an example
of severity in the town. When a long and careful procedure has taken
place before both the civil and religious courts, the Kadi decrees the
sentence, which must be presented to the Sultan for his sanction before
it can be carried out. The culprit is strung up to some shop-front in the
most frequented part of the bazar, or decapitated, and his head exposed,
sometimes for three days, in the market-place.
I have heard many stories of the outrages of brigands during my long
residence in remote and semi-barbarous parts of the country. I have even
been in close contact with some, and on a friendly footing, and once
escaped from their pursuit only thanks to the swiftness of a powerful
horse. On two other occasions, yielding to necessity and in the interests
of self-preservation, I accepted the services of two or three Albanians
who were suspected of being cut-throats, instead of the Government escort.
They were fine, hardy fellows, with deep scars on their faces, that
attested the lease upon which they held their life and the manner in
which they had disputed it with others. They were reputed to be as
venturesome in crime as they were ready to sacrifice their lives, if need
were, for the preservation of those intrusted to their care. I penetrated
into deep gorges with these men, and stopped in isolated and ill-reputed
khans, and throughout the night slept as securely as if I had been in
my own home. The worst of men, like the wildest of beasts, has his good
side; the secret of finding this out lies in striking the right chord;
put the Albanian on his honor, and he will never desert you or betray
your trust.
The attacks made by brigands vary according to the locality, the nature
of the enterprise, and the result desired. Should the attack be upon a
caravan of peasants returning home from market or elsewhere, they are
waylaid, stripped of all they possess, cruelly beaten, wounded, and
sometimes killed. When the assault is directed against a person that has
been singled out for them either for his wealth or other purposes, the
assault made upon him and his escort is always of a murderous nature,
terminating in the inflictions of cruel wounds or death.
The long gun of the Albanian or the yataghans of his equally dreaded
companions are ever suspended over the heads or the wealthy Chorbadjis:
when the slightest opportunity is afforded they assault the villages,
rob, murder, and carry off hostages in the persons of young men or
boys—the sons of people who are sufficiently wealthy to redeem them by
the payment of large ransoms.
Such attacks are of not unfrequent occurrence, especially in troubled
times, when the ends of justice are rarely attained in the punishment of
the criminals or the recovery of lost property.
_Kheradjis_, the brave and trustworthy fellows who undertake to convey
the goods of the merchants from town to town on the backs of their horses
and mules, and the Tatar couriers, who are intrusted with the transport
of sums of money, are great temptations to brigands. The last attack on a
Kheradji I heard of took place last summer when he and his companion, an
Albanian Mohammedan, had quitted one of the smaller towns in the Vilayet
of Salonika, conveying a considerable sum of money concealed in the
sacks of corn with which his animals were laden. While on the road, and
a short distance from their destination, they were suddenly attacked by
two brigands, who wounded the Christian Kheradji, and, after a struggle,
succeeded in disarming the Mohammedan. They then searched the persons of
the two men, and not finding the expected booty proceeded to cut open
the sacks and abstract the money, after which they made off, leaving the
unfortunate Kheradjis to find their way back to the town they had left,
and to which both were strangers.
Next morning the Albanian presented himself before the Medjliss, or
local court, to deposit his complaint; on looking round he started, and
pointing to one of the members of the Bench exclaimed, “By Allah and
Mohammed, I swear that here is one of the two brigands, that attacked us
yesterday! If any one doubts my word let this man’s house be searched,
and a jacket with a torn sleeve will be found, to attest the truth of
my accusation!” The culprit, in the midst of the general surprise and
confusion, made his escape. Search was made in his house, and the jacket
described by the Kheradji found, but the owner has not since been heard
of.
Another robbery of a far more daring and serious nature was attempted
by a gang of Albanians in the autumn of 1876 in the town of Vodena.
The assailants, seven in number, had been frequently noticed lurking
in the woods and gardens that lie in the beautiful plain by which this
picturesque town is surrounded. The brigands had marked out the house of
one of the wealthy Chorbadjis as the object of their attack. This man
possessed a certain amount of education, and had taken the precaution of
building a house sufficiently solid to protect himself and family and
to secure his treasure. The building was not large but well protected,
and surrounded by a large court-yard with high walls and a strong gate.
The house-door was very solid, and furnished with triple bolts; and the
windows, opening on a veranda, were well barred. The robbers, having
planned their attack and posted a sentinel at the only open end of the
street, proceeded to attack the gate. Finding it impossible to break it
open, they undermined it, and entered the yard. The first barrier thus
passed, and persuaded that an attempt on the house-door would prove
fruitless, they placed a ladder which they found against the veranda,
supposing that where the Chorbadji and his wife slumbered there would
their treasure be. They set to work at the window of this chamber,
attempting to demolish the iron bars.
The night was dark and stormy and the rain fell heavily, but the
unconscious slumberers were not awakened for some time. At length
the wife of the Chorbadji, startled by the unaccustomed noise at the
window, aroused her husband and acquainted him with what was going on.
His coolness and courage were quite equal to the occasion, and after a
short consultation with his wife he decided upon using the fire-arms
that hung against the wall. It was a terrible moment for both. Standing
a little on one side, and protected by the darkness of the room, they
could see several men trying to force the bars. To face these men openly
was certain death, and it was hard to get a good aim at them. He decided
finally to attempt a shot, first calling out in a determined voice, “Who
goes there? Let him leave the spot, or he is a dead man!”
This appeal, however, instead of having the desired effect, stimulated
the energy of the brigands, who, forming into two bands, now attacked the
door of the house as well, and were making strenuous efforts to open it.
The Chorbadji, cautiously advancing towards the side of the window, and
screened by the projecting walls, fired his pistol and shot one of the
Albanians dead who stood on the ladder; another mounted, and a second
shot stretched him wounded on the floor of the veranda. The rest, whose
shots into the room proved ineffective, abandoned the window and went to
the door, at which they continued pounding with the fury of fiends, but
as yet to no effect.
In the mean time the brave couple, freed from the immediate vicinity of
their enemies, struck a light, and while the husband was pouring his fire
upon them the wife loaded his pistols. A girl who slept in the next room
opened her window and called loudly for help, but was nearly paying for
her rashness with her life, as one of the brigands in the yard fired at
her, and the ball struck the iron bar against which her head was pressed,
but glanced off.
The Albanians, after some further efforts, began to fear the consequences
of the alarm the affray was beginning to excite in the neighborhood, and
bethought themselves of making good their retreat. But previously to
doing so they cut off the head of their dead comrade to avoid detection,
and carried it away with them, together with their wounded. A few weeks
subsequently the assault was renewed, but the owner was well prepared to
receive and repel it, without, however, being able to obtain definite
peace and security for his home.
The Albanians, doubly incensed against him for the loss of their comrade
and their disappointment at not having been able to effect their purpose,
sent threatening messages to the Chorbadji, and claimed 160_l._ for the
widow and children of the slain brigand, or in lieu thereof himself to
pay the debt with his life. The poor man, being hard pressed, appealed
to the Kaimakam, or sub-governor of the town, for protection; but this
dignitary, being an Albanian, old and void of energy, and incapable of
bringing the culprits to justice, offered his services as peacemaker
between the two parties, and proposed a compromise for half that sum.
The Chorbadji refused to pay anything, and the Albanians renewed their
threats. The persecuted man in the mean time had to remain in-doors on
the pretext of ill-health, and only expects to be able to regain his
liberty when affairs settle and better times come.
Among the many sad cases of children and youths being carried off from
the villages, which have become so prevalent during these disordered
times, I may relate one which happened last year, in the district
of Caterina, at the foot of Mount Olympus. The victim was a fine
promising young Greek of two-and-twenty, an only son, doted upon by a
grief-stricken mother, whose husband had been killed by brigands. This
youth was suddenly attacked as he was returning home, carried off, and
never more heard of. The unfortunate mother, distracted with grief, and
prompted by mingled hope and despair, wandered up to the mountains, and
for days was seen by the shepherds roaming about and calling for her son.
It was thought that he had been put to death in consequence of his father
having killed one of the brigands that had attacked him.
I have not included the Circassians as members of this general fraternity
of brigands, because they form a distinct set, who, ever since their
arrival in this country, have been notorious for theft and crime and
outrage.
Although political brigandage has ceased to exercise its former influence
in the country, it has in a small degree again made its appearance as an
inseparable incident of war and internal trouble. A few bands, mustering
from thirty to fifty men, have lately made their appearance in different
parts of European Turkey. They are composed of Greek desperadoes,
supposed to be the agents of an Ἑταιρεία, or secret society of violent
Greek patriots holding extreme views. Their object in maintaining these
_Klephts_ in different localities is that of having them in readiness
in case of an insurrection among the discontented peasantry. One or two
of these bands have been stationed since last spring in the district
of Caterina. They have not been known to molest any one; but their
presence somewhat kept in check the Albanian brigands and prevented them
devastating the Greek villages. The Klephts obtained their provisions
from the peasants, for which they regularly and scrupulously paid. The
_Eteria_ that supports these individuals is disapproved of by the Greek
authorities, who consider it an element of disorder and trouble.