PRELIMINARY NEGOTIATIONS IN CONNECTION WITH THE REPATRIATION
AND INTERNMENT OF PRISONERS OF WAR
In the early autumn of 1915 I came to London in connection with certain
details of work in Switzerland. During this visit I had the pleasure of
meeting Lord Kitchener for the first and, alas! for the last time. I had
received orders to report myself to him at the War Office, and at the
appointed hour, punctual to the minute, a member of his Staff informed
me that he was ready to see me. Lord Kitchener received me very
cordially, and plunging into business at once, said he wished to hear my
views concerning certain matters dealing with the prospective internment
of British prisoners of war in Switzerland, regarding which there was
some uncertainty at Headquarters. He then proceeded to give me his own
views with some emphasis and at considerable length. After hearing, in
answer, what I had to say, he remarked:— "What you tell me is most
interesting. You have treated the question at an entirely different
angle; I had no idea of the Swiss point of view, and am glad to know
that it confirms my own. I will get you in a shorthand clerk, to whom
you can dictate what you have just told me. It can then be signed before
you leave. I shall be seeing the Cabinet this afternoon, and will
present your statement to them." On my suggesting he would have a more
carefully compiled statement if I could quietly prepare it, he said:
"No, I want it at once; the sooner I get it the better." In an hour's
time the statement was in his hands. I know not whether the method
adopted by Lord Kitchener in this interview was characteristic of him,
but from that standpoint it may be worth recording. My general
impression was that of an imposing personality and a great driving
force, full of vitality and youth. His manner was altogether charming,
and I can well imagine him to have inspired enthusiasm amongst those
brought into close contact with him.
Whether this interview had anything at all to do with my later
appointment is problematic; but at the end of December, 1915, after a
tenure of eighteen months of the Military Attachéship, I was relieved by
Colonel Wyndham, 60th Rifles, who had seen service and been wounded in
France, and on May 14, 1916, I was appointed "Officer in charge of the
arrangements for the British Interned in Switzerland."
The first idea of internment of prisoners of war in a neutral country
appears to have been suggested by Monsieur Louis de Tscharner in the
Swiss Press nearly a year before the outbreak of war. In an article
dated September, 1913, the writer suggested, curiously enough, the
conclusion of a Convention between Switzerland and the neighbouring
States relative to internment, though why or how the idea happened to
occur to him does not appear. He proposed that these States should
engage themselves to respect Swiss neutrality, and to provision her
during the period of war, whilst Switzerland should, in exchange, take
charge of the wounded, and, upon their return to health, restore them to
their countries of origin. This new and interesting suggestion became
the subject of numerous articles and was much discussed at the time, but
the conclusion of a bargain, with a view to obtaining respect for Swiss
neutrality in exchange for services rendered, was not agreeable to Swiss
national pride, and the subject was allowed to drop.
The following preliminary negotiations embrace two distinct questions:
Direct Repatriation and Internment in Switzerland, which, in the
process, intersect each other. I give them, therefore, in chronological
order.
Shortly after the outbreak of hostilities, the question of the direct
repatriation of prisoners of war was brought forward by the Swiss
Federal Council at the instance of the International Committee of the
Swiss Red Cross, and the French and German Governments were addressed
with a view to a direct exchange of such wounded prisoners as could no
longer be made available for military service ("grands blessés"). A
similar proposal also emanated from the Holy See which did much to
promote an understanding between these Governments, and an agreement was
reached in February, 1915, as a result of which between March, 1915, and
November, 1916, 2,343 German and 8,668 French "grands blessés" were
transported through Switzerland to their own countries.
No sooner had this repatriation of the "grands blessés" commenced, than
the idea of internment in Switzerland was revived, and in January, 1915,
Monsieur Ador, the venerable President of the International Committee of
the Red Cross, approached Monsieur Millerand, the French Minister of
War, on the subject. He suggested the advisability of hospitalizing in
Switzerland prisoners "petits blessés," wounded or suffering in a less
degree than the "grands blessés"; all those, in short, who might benefit
by the care they would receive at the hands of his Government. His
suggestion was favourably received, and conversations at once ensued
between the Federal Council and the French and German diplomatic
representatives at Berne, with more special reference to men suffering
from tuberculosis.
These conversations had originally in view the internment of Officers
and N.C.Os. only. It was not till May, 1915, that the men came also into
question. At that date, le Comte Charles Santucci, Envoy of the Holy
See, submitted a project to the Federal Council at Berne suggesting that
the scope of the internment should be broadened, so as to include all
ranks, whether Officers, N.C.Os., or men; and not only the tuberculous,
but numerous other categories of sick and wounded. He had in view always
an equal number of either side.
The Council declared its readiness to devote itself to the realization
of this enlarged programme, and thereupon opened negotiations with the
interested Governments. These were both long and delicate. The first
difficulty which presented itself concerned the guardianship of the
Interned. The Council were averse to the immobilization of a part of
their forces for that purpose, and asked what guarantee the captor State
would have that its prisoners would not seek an early opportunity for
escape. This difficulty was settled by the Council, who made the
proposal that the belligerent States should agree to return to
Switzerland all prisoners of war who might escape to their own
countries, and a settlement was agreed upon in this sense.
The next point for decision was as to the numbers of the Interned; on
what basis was this to be established? Should it be on the principle of
rank for rank and head for head, or be based on categories of
disablement without regard to equality of number? France showed itself
favourable to the latter principle, Germany to the former. It was only
in the month of October, 1915, that Germany declared itself in accord
with the project for internment, but refused to admit the principle of
categories, and maintained its view as regards the equality of numbers.
In November, Mgr. Marchetti, Delegate of the Holy See, with a view to
inspiring confidence in Germany in the principle of the categories,
intervened with the proposal that neutral Commissions of medical
officers should proceed to the camps and be made responsible for the
selection of the prisoners for internment. At last, in December, an
agreement was reached between Switzerland, France, and Germany, whereby
the principle of categories without regard to equality of numbers was
accepted. The establishment of neutral Commissions of medical officers
was also agreed upon.
At the end of December, Monsieur Hoffmann, then President of the Swiss
Confederation, posed the question of the internment of civilians, and
made a proposition in this sense which was favourably received.
In January, 1916, the Chief of the Swiss Political Department was able
to announce to the Federal Council that the negotiations on the subject
of the "petits blessés" had reached a practical result, and the
Department made a proposal for the immediate internment of 1,000 Germans
and 1,000 French by way of trial. The tuberculous were to come first,
but if these numbers were not reached, then the balance was to be made
up with the sick of other categories. The organization and direction of
the internment was placed in the hands of Colonel Hauser, principal
medical officer of the Swiss Army, and on the 12th of January, 1916,
that officer was able to announce the creation of a special branch of
the sanitary service, with a central office at Berne, for internment
purposes.
Already, by February 14, 883 French, including 104 officers, and 364
Germans, including 7 officers, had reached Switzerland, and had been
located in the regions of Montana, Leysin, and the Quatre-Cantons, etc.
These first arrivals had been designated by doctors of the captor
States, and after a further examination at Lyons and Constance by a
Control Commission, had been definitely nominated and passed on to
Switzerland.
Although in agreement on the principle of Internment, two points of
capital importance yet remained to be fixed:—
1. The list of disabilities on which the internment was to be based.
2. The organization of the Itinerant Commissions of Swiss doctors, whose
duty it was to visit France and Germany and designate candidates for
internment.
With regard to 1, the first list of 12 categories drawn up in January,
1916, was increased to 20 categories in February. In June and July,
1916, the list was again the subject of discussion by an International
Conference at Berne, and the categories were then finally fixed at 18.
With regard to 2, the proposals made by the Council for the appointment
of ten Sanitary Commissions for each country, composed of two Swiss
doctors reinforced by a third, an officer of the captor States, who
should have the place of President, with power to examine and designate
prisoners for despatch to Lyons or Constance, as the case might be, for
a final inspection by a Board of Control, was accepted by the French and
German diplomatic representatives at Berne, in February, 1916. On the
21st of February the Political Department announced the approaching
departure of the Itinerant Commissions.
On the termination of these negotiations, the Swiss Government invited
Great Britain and Germany to become parties thereto, offering to give
the same hospitality to their prisoners of war as to those of France and
Germany. This offer was accepted, and in May, 1916, the agreement, as
drawn up between France and Germany, was also made applicable to Great
Britain and Germany.
No time was lost in carrying out the intentions foreshadowed. Already,
in March, 1916, the first Itinerant Swiss Commissions set out on their
visit to the camps in France and Germany, and during March, April, and
May, were busily engaged in examining such prisoners as were said to be
suffering from the disabilities set forth in the various categories.
By the time I reached Berne on the 14th of May, 1916, to take up my
duties as "Officer in charge of British Interned in Switzerland," the
work of these Commissions was drawing to a close, and Colonel Hauser
(Chief Medical Officer, Swiss Army) informed me of the concentration at
Lyons and Constance of French, German, and Belgian prisoners of war who
had been designated by the Itinerant Commissions for further examination
by the Boards of Control at those places. Amongst these were several
hundred British officers and men, and he suggested that he might effect
their transfer from Constance to Switzerland within a fortnight, if it
were possible for me to be in readiness for them; otherwise they must
await their turn, which would not come until a month later. The
alternative decided me to close with the offer, and to make what
arrangements I could in the few days at my disposal.
The three most important questions to be dealt with prior to the arrival
of the men were equipment, medical comforts, and choice of localities.
As regards the equipment of the men, I had already taken steps to ensure
the despatch from British Headquarters in France of everything
necessary, but owing to pressure on the French railways, no positive
assurances could be given me as to the exact date of delivery. Judging
by the condition of those French and Belgian prisoners who had already
arrived in Switzerland, I knew that the state of our men would be
equally deplorable, and I was anxious that they should be able to
exchange their worn-out and probably vermin-infested garments without
any delay. It was only too likely, also, that the first arrivals would
consist of the badly wounded and tuberculous, men who would be in urgent
need of sick and home comforts—not that the Swiss would not have all
essential medicines and comforts at their disposal, but they could not
have in any abundance the comforts and requisites familiar to our
soldiers.
Such being the conditions, I addressed myself to the "British Legation
Red Cross Organization," and was much relieved to find that Mrs. Grant
Duff had not only laid in stocks of medical comforts, but had prepared
her staff for any sudden call I might make upon her for underclothing or
hospital garments. The various groups in Switzerland forming part of her
organization were set to work, and within the fortnight sufficient
underclothing was made up to meet the requirements of 500 men, and
hospital garments for 200 sick. As it turned out, the regulation kit was
delivered just in time to have it ready for issue, so that the men were
outfitted from head to foot on arrival, the fullest use being made of
the Red Cross clothing.
I had in the interval visited the camps at Château d'Oex and Leysin. I
was met at Château d'Oex by the Swiss military and civil authorities,
great pleasure being manifested by both at the prospect of entertaining
British troops. This health resort is too well known to need any
description. It suffices to say that it is situated at an altitude of
1,066 metres in one of the most beautiful valleys of Switzerland, and
has a reputation as a sports centre second only to that of Gstaad, a few
hundred feet higher in the same valley. The near proximity to the Lake
of Geneva, with which it is in touch by means of a mountain railway,
makes it a favourite resort of Swiss and foreign visitors. Excellent
accommodation had already been bespoken by Captain Dr. de la Chaux
(Swiss Army), who had been appointed to take charge of the camp, all the
smaller hotels and pensions being reserved for our officers and men.
Unfortunately, no hotel sufficiently large to accommodate all the
officers under one roof was available, as the two main hotels, the
"Grand" and the "Rosat," had expressed their inability to lodge officers
at the regulation price of frs. 6 per diem. Their managers very
naturally preferred to cater for the better paying visitor. Apart from
this, no exception could be taken to the class of accommodation provided.
Having satisfied myself of the suitability of Château d'Oex, with its
outlying villages of Rougemont and Rossinières, as a camping place for
the Interned, I now passed on to Leysin via Montreux and the Rhone
Valley, and mounting up by its electric railway, reached the beautiful
plateau of meadow lands, on which so many hotels and châlets have been
built expressly for the treatment of consumptives. A medical staff of
distinguished specialists is maintained there in association with the
hotels, the organization as a whole being that of a combined huge
hospital. In peace time it is crowded with patients from all quarters of
the globe, but at the time of my visit very few civilians remained, and
the doctors were busily engaged in adapting its resources to the use of
its new military clientèle. The doctors had donned their uniforms as
officers of the Swiss Army, and the place was rapidly assuming the
aspect of a small garrison town. Many of the hotels were already
occupied by French and Belgian soldiers, of whom, sad to say, there were
already 1,200 in hospital. Swiss soldiers were also in evidence, and I
here became aware for the first time of the fact that the Swiss as a
people are far from being immune to tuberculosis.
Arrangements were already being made for the accommodation of 200
British officers and men, Colonel Hauser having calculated that about
that number of consumptives would be likely to arrive with the first
party of British. No one could pass through Leysin without being
impressed, as I was, by the beauty of the surroundings, the detailed
perfection of its organization, and the purposeful construction of its
hotels and châlets built so as to receive every ray of sunshine. Nothing
struck me so much as the optimistic spirit which appeared to prevail
amongst all classes of the sick alike; every one seemed easily moved to
joy and laughter, ready to amuse and be amused, and I left with the
feeling that of all people none were so brave as the patients of Leysin.
Where this spirit prevailed, our men could not help but thrive, and any
anxiety I may have had on their account was completely dispelled by my
first visit to this sanatorium.