exercised their talents would admit of no debate at all, if once the
question were made definite. For the ground for debate lies in the
difference in interpretation of the question and not in the facts
themselves. For example: If a cannon ball were to be fired off by some
mechanical device a million miles from where there was any ear to
hear, would there be any sound? The lack of definiteness here which
permits difference of opinion lies in the word "sound." If we add
after the word "sound" the phrase, "in the sense of a conscious
auditory sensation," the answer would obviously be, No, since there
can be no auditory sensation without an ear to hear it. If, on the
other hand, instead of the above phrase we add, "in the sense of
wave-vibrations in the air," the answer will obviously be, Yes, since
the wave-vibrations in the air do not depend on the presence of an
ear to be affected by them.
Likewise, in the question, If a man starts to walk around a squirrel
which is clinging to the limb of a tree, and if, as the man circles
the tree, the squirrel also circles the tree so that he constantly
faces the man, when the man has gone completely around the tree, has
he gone around the squirrel? Here the indefiniteness lies in the
meaning of to "go around." With this indefiniteness remedied, there is
no longer any possibility of difference of opinion.
Indefiniteness may come from the use of certain words that from their
very nature are indefinite in meaning. Such are the verbs _be_, _do_,
_have_, _become_, _happen_, and the prepositions _of_ and _about_.
Examples of indefiniteness growing out of such colorless words are
found in the following questions, which are types of many asked in our
schools daily:--
What does water _do_ when heated? (Expands, evaporates,
boils.)
What _happens_ when it lightnings? (Thunder, discharge of
electricity, flash.)
What must immigrants coming into this country _have_?
(Money, freedom from disease, character.)
What did Arnold _become_? (A traitor, a British general, an
outcast, a repentant man.)
What _is_ the cow? (A mammal, a quadruped, a producer of
milk, butter, and beef; an herbivorous animal.)
What _about_ the Monroe Doctrine? (A dozen different
things.)
What _of_ the animals in the temperate zone?
Questions may be so general as to be indefinite. The teacher asks,
"Where is Chicago?" The class may answer, "In Illinois on Lake
Michigan; in North America; in Cook County." The teacher should know
just what answer he desires, and then ask, "In what State; on what
continent; on what lake; or in what county?"
Other illustrations of vagueness coming from the use of words of too
general a meaning are found in such questions as, What _kind_ of man
was George Washington?
_When_ does a person need food?
_How_ does tobacco grow?
_What_ do birds like?
All indefinite questions deserve and usually receive an indefinite
answer, and hence lead to and encourage guessing. If the answers to
such questions as the above are not indefinite, they must be purely
memoriter, merely reproducing the words of the text without
comprehension of any real meaning.
Indefinite questioning usually comes from a lack of clear thinking on
the part of the questioner. The teacher himself does not know
precisely what he means to ask, and hence cannot be definite. It is
safe to say that the teacher's questions covering a subject will never
be any more clear or definite than the subject itself is in his mind.
Indeed it is hard for one to be wholly definite in questioning even
when he is a perfect master of his subject. Certainly, then, eternal
vigilance will be the price of clearness and definiteness on the part
of the young teacher who is as yet striving for mastery of what he is
teaching.
7. _Secondary principles of good questioning_
Besides the foregoing fundamental principles underlying the art of
questioning, there are a few secondary principles, some of which are
of hardly less importance:--
1. Questions should be asked naturally, and in a conversational tone,
and not explosively _demanded_ of pupils.
2. Usually the question should be addressed to the entire class and,
after all have had a moment to think, some one then designated to
answer. The reason for this is obvious. If the one who is to answer is
designated before the question is asked, the incentive to the rest of
the class to think the answer is greatly lessened.
3. No regular order should be followed in calling on pupils. If such
an order is established, the lazy and uninterested ones have a
tendency to remain inactive until called upon. By the hit-and-miss
method of calling no one knows at what moment he may be the next one,
hence there is a strong incentive to attend to the lesson. It is also
desirable to call on a pupil occasionally the second time very soon
after he has previously been called upon. This prevents him from
thinking that as soon as he has recited once he can then safely relax
his attention.
4. Inattentive or mischievous pupils should be the mark for frequent
questions. If it comes to be known that any inattention is sure to
bring questions to the pupil at fault, the battle for attention is
half won. There is a strong tendency on the part of the teacher to ask
for the answer to a question from those whose eyes show that they are
attentive and ready with an answer. While this readiness and attention
should be rewarded by giving an opportunity to answer, it must not
lead the teacher to neglect those who may need the question more than
the more ready ones. The questions should be impartially distributed
among the bright and the dull pupils.
5. It is highly important that questions shall be asked so that they
demand thought in answering, and usually so that the answer must be
given in a full statement. Seldom should a question be asked in such
form that a simple Yes or No will answer it. This does not require
sufficient thought on the part of the pupil, it permits guess-work,
and fails to cultivate ability in expression. Answers that may be
given in a word or two, or by Yes or No, may be accepted in rapid
drill or review work, and also in the inductive questioning used in
developing a new subject, but should be used very sparingly in other
places in the recitation.
6. The "pumping" question should not be used. In this type of
question, the teacher formulates the answer and leaves only the key
word for the pupil to supply. The teacher sometimes goes so far as to
suggest the necessary word by pronouncing the first syllable or two of
it. A dialogue like the following was heard in one school:--
Q. "Columbus was an ----?"
A. "Explorer."
Q. "No, he was an It----?"
A. "Oh, an Italian."
Such an attempt at teaching would be amusing, were it not so serious
for the child.
8. _The treatment of answers_
The teacher's treatment of the answers given is of hardly less
importance than the formulation of the questions themselves. It is to
be remembered that the recitation is an interchange of thought and
expression between teacher and class. To this end, the response must
be mutual. Not alone when the question is being asked is the teacher
to be animated and interested, but likewise while the answer is being
given. It is neither good pedagogy nor good manners for a teacher to
sit unresponsive and inattentive when a pupil is reciting. Not that
the teacher needs always to comment on an answer, or say that it is
correct; it is rather a matter of manner, of attention and interest to
the answer. We find it embarrassing either in a recitation or out of
it to talk to a person who seems not to be listening.
Right at this point, however, there lurks an insidious danger. It
comes easily and naturally to one to give some sign of assent or
disapproval as to the correctness of the answer while it is being
spoken. The slightest inclination of the head, the dropping of the
eyelids, or a certain expression of the face, comes to be read by the
pupil as a signboard to guide him in his statements. This is, of
course, all wrong. The teacher should give absolutely no sign while
the answer is going on. Thus to help the child leads him to depend on
the teacher instead of relying on his own knowledge. It leads to
guessing, and so skillful does this sometimes become that a bright but
unprepared pupil is able to steer through a recitation guided by the
unsuspecting teacher.
Answers should not be repeated by the teacher. This is a very common
fault, and a habit that is usually acquired before the teacher is
aware of it. The tendency to repeat answers probably arises at first
from a mental unreadiness on the part of the teacher. He has not his
next question quite ready, and so bridges over the interval by saying
over the answer just given by the pupil. It is a method of gaining
time, but really finally results in great loss of time in the
recitation. By actual count, many teachers have been found to repeat
as many as 75% of the answers given in the recitation. Besides the
great waste of time, the repetition of answers is a source of
distraction and annoyance to pupils. No one enjoys having his words
said over after him constantly. Of course answers may sometimes need
to be repeated to emphasize some important point. But when repetition
has become a habit, no emphasis is gained by the repetition.
Finally, answers should be required in good English, clear and
definite, like the questions. Pupils who say, "An improper fraction is
'where' the numerator is greater than the denominator"; "A compound
sentence is 'when' it has two or more independent clauses," should be
led to restate their answers in clear and correct language.
IV
CONDITIONS NECESSARY TO A GOOD RECITATION
We have now discussed the aim of the recitation, its methods, and the
principles governing the art of questioning. But no matter how well
defined the aim for the recitation, no matter how excellent its
method, no matter how skilled the teacher may be in the art of
questioning, these things alone cannot make a good recitation. Certain
other fundamental conditions must obtain if the recitation is to be a
success. Let us now discuss the more important of these conditions.
1. _Freedom from distractions_
Distractions of any nature result in a double waste. First, a waste of
power through preventing concentration and continuity of thought. Try
as hard as one may, he cannot secure the best results from his mental
effort, if his stream of thought is being broken in upon. The loss by
this process is comparable to that involved in running a train of
cars, stopping it every ten rods instead of every ten or every one
hundred miles. But this form of waste is not all. There is also a
serious waste of interest and enthusiasm resulting from interrupted
recitations. Every teacher has at times felt the sudden drop in
attention and interest on the part of the class after some
interruption which took the minds of the class off the subject. Try as
hard as the teacher may, it is impossible to go back to the same level
of efficiency after such a break. The following show some of the chief
sources of distractions:--
_a. Distractions by the teacher._--Strange as it may seem, many
teachers are to be criticised on this point. Any striking feature or
peculiarity of manner, dress, or carriage which attracts the attention
of the class is a distraction. A loud or ill-modulated voice, tones
too low or indistinct to be heard well, the habit of walking up and
down the aisles or back and forth before the class, assuming awkward
positions standing or sitting before the class--these are all
personal factors which the teacher needs to keep constantly under
surveillance.
The teacher may also distract the class by answering questions asked
by the pupils at their seats, or by rebuking misdemeanors seen among
those not in the recitation. Most of such interruptions are wholly
unnecessary, and could be avoided by a little foresight and
management. The lesson should be so clearly assigned that the pupils
can have no excuse to ask later about the assignment, and then there
should be a penalty for forgetting it. The drinks of water should be
had and the errands attended to between classes. The pencils should be
supplied and sharpened before the session begins. The mischievous
culprits should be taught that it is a serious offense to interrupt a
recitation. The teacher who permits these distractions by the school
has not yet learned the secret of good management, and could hardly
advertise his inefficiency in this regard any more effectively than by
permitting such interruptions to continue.
It is also possible for the teacher to distract the person reciting
by interrupting when there is a slight pause to think of the next
point, or a hesitation before pronouncing a word. Teachers sometimes
even interrupt a pupil who is reciting and themselves offer
explanations, make remarks, or continue the discussion, leaving the
child standing and not knowing whether he is excused or not. Of course
this is bad manners on the part of the teacher, and it is even worse
pedagogy. It is not encouraging to the pupil to feel that he may be
interrupted at any moment, and few can think clearly or recite well
when expecting such interruptions. The pupil should not expect to be
allowed to think out a lesson or a point when he is reciting, which he
should have thought out before coming to class. On the other hand, the
teacher must remember that the child's mind is working on what to him
is new and difficult matter, and hence cannot move as rapidly as the
teacher's.
_b. Distractions by the class._--Inattention, restlessness, and
mischief are great sources of distraction from the class themselves.
All these things have a tendency to be contagious, and in any case
always break in upon the train of thought of the recitation. Because
of this the teacher _must_ win the inattentive and restless, and
_must_ check the restless, if he would save his recitation.
Not infrequently, in the more elementary classes, a certain kind of
distraction is fostered and encouraged by the teacher with the aim of
securing the attention of the whole class to the one who is reciting.
This form of distraction consists in having the whole class watch the
one who is reciting, and, if they observe an error in the recitation,
at once raise their hands, when the one reciting must stop. This is a
mistake from almost every standpoint, and has very little to redeem
it. It may result in closer attention on the part of the class; but
the motive which prompts the attention is bad. It leads to elation and
rejoicing over the mistakes and failures of another, and it centres
attention on the mistakes rather than on the facts to be brought out.
Attention should be trained so that it will not have to depend on this
kind of motive, and the memory should be trained to note and hold a
correction until the one reciting has finished. Further, it is a most
serious distraction to the one who is reciting to be expecting that a
forest of hands may at any moment be wildly waving about his ears,
gleefully announcing that he has made an error. Condemnation of this
method of securing attention can hardly be too severe.
_c. Distractions by the school._--In any busy school there is bound to
be more or less of hum and confusion. In many schools, however, there
is much more than is warranted. It is true that children get tired of
sitting still for an entire session, and that they find relief in
going for a drink, or going to the dictionary, or on some other errand
about the room. In some schools, one or more pupils may be found
walking about the room at almost any time of the day, and not
infrequently several are on errands at the same time. This, as
previously noted, is usually a fault in management on the part of the
teacher. The larger part of these interruptions can just as well be
saved by a little foresight and firmness.
Some teachers even leave the class which they are hearing to answer
questions or give help to pupils in the school who have not been
trained to wait for their requests until the class is dismissed.
Usually, only a very small percentage of these questions should have
been asked at all, or would have been with the proper management of
the school. And all the necessary questions and requests should almost
without exception be held for the interval between recitations. The
school should be taught that nothing short of the direst necessity
will warrant asking a question or making a request during a
recitation.
Likewise in the case of misdemeanors. The class which is reciting
should not be interrupted for minor misdemeanors which occur during
the recitation. This does not mean that the misdemeanor is to go by
unnoticed. On the contrary, the settlement for it may be all the more
severe for having to wait until the class is dismissed.
_d. Physical distractions._--Distractions from the physical
environment may be of several kinds.
Not infrequently, especially in the older schoolhouses, the seats are
so placed with reference to windows that the light strikes the eyes of
the pupils, instead of the pages of the books; or it may be that a
stray sunbeam strikes athwart the class and dazzles the eyes. It need
hardly be suggested that no such distraction as this should go
unremedied.
In the rural schools the recitation seats are often near the stove,
where the temperature becomes unbearably hot when the stove must be
generously fired to heat the remainder of the room. Not infrequently
the ventilation is bad, and the room is filled with foul air, from
which the major part of the oxygen has been exhausted. No matter how
good the intentions of the class or how zealous the teacher, such
conditions will kill the recitation.
Whatever may be the cause of physical discomfort or unrest should be
remedied. One's body should be so comfortable and healthy that it does
not attract attention to itself, except when needing food or other
care, and it is the duty of the school to do all possible to bring
this condition about.
2. _Interest and enthusiasm_
Interest is the foundation of all mental activity. Its very nature is
to lead to thought and action. Grown ardent, interest becomes
enthusiasm, "without which," says Emerson, "nothing great was ever
accomplished." On the other hand, the absence of interest leaves the
pupil lifeless and inert mentally, his work a bore and achievement
impossible. Interest is, therefore, a first consideration in the
recitation.
Interest is contagious. No one ever saw an interested and enthusiastic
teacher with a dull and lifeless class. Nor can interest and
enthusiasm on the part of a class continue in the presence of a
mechanical and lifeless teacher. The teacher is the model, and he sets
the standard and pace for his class. Unconsciously the pupils come,
under the influence of the teacher's personality, to reflect his type
of mind and attitude toward the work of the school. The teacher's
interest and vivacity in the recitation depend on many factors, some
of which are largely under his own control.
_a. The teacher's command of the subject-matter of the recitation._--A
teacher whose grasp of the lesson is doubtful, who does not feel sure
that he is a master of all its points, who fears that questions may be
asked that he cannot answer or points raised that he cannot explain,
can hardly possess an attitude of true interest toward the recitation.
His mind is too full of worry and strain and embarrassment. He lacks
the sense of ease and freedom which comes from a feeling of mastery.
Command of the subject-matter of the recitation depends, _first_ on
the teacher's general mastery of the branch, and, _second_, on being
freshly prepared upon it. It behooves every young teacher, therefore,
to strive for mastery as he teaches.
But no matter how good the preliminary preparation, this cannot take
the place of the fresh daily review, which gives the mind a new
readiness and grasp on the subject. Let the teachers who feel that
their recitations are slow and dull, seek the cause first of all in
their own lack of preparation in one of the two lines mentioned.
_b. The teacher's attitude toward his work._--If the teacher looks
upon teaching as a mechanical process; if he looks on the recitation
as "hearing the class recite"; if he realizes nothing of the
opportunities and responsibilities connected with teaching children,
then he can command little interest and no enthusiasm. If, on the
other hand, teaching is to the teacher a joy; if he loves to watch the
minds of children unfold; if he rejoices in his opportunities and
responsibilities as a teacher, then he is sure to develop an interest
which will soon intensify with enthusiasm.
_c. The teacher's health._--All have experienced the mental depression
and lack of interest in things which comes from over-fatigue. The most
interesting occupation palls on us when we are fagged, or when our
vitality is low from derangement of health. A case of indigestion may
sweep us out of our usual cheery mood into a mood of discouragement
and pessimism. Frayed nerves and an ill-nourished or exhausted brain
are fatal to enthusiasm.
Teaching is found to be a very trying occupation on the general
health, and particularly on the nervous system. Many girls break down
or develop a chronic nervous trouble in a few years in the schoolroom.
The combined work and worry prove too much for their strength; and not
infrequently, also, the teacher who boards and carries a cold luncheon
to school fails to secure the right kind of food. This is especially
true in the rural schools. Farmers have enough to eat, but often the
food suitable for men engaged in heavy manual labor is wholly unsuited
for one who works with the brain and does not have a large amount of
out-door exercise.
Nor do teachers always secure enough pure air. The air of schoolrooms
is usually vitiated to such a degree that one on coming in from the
out-door air can detect a foul odor. But the air of a room ceases to
be fit to breathe long before an odor can be detected from its
impurities.
These are some of the chief factors which are proving so fatal to the
health of many of our teachers, and to interest and enthusiasm on the
part of the teacher in his work. Both for the sake of his health and
his work, every teacher should seek to control these three factors as
far as possible. Strain and worry and wear of nerves can be greatly
lessened by careful planning of work, by good organization and careful
management, and by exercise of the will to prohibit worry over matters
large or small when worry will not help solve them. The teacher can in
some degree determine what food he will eat, even if it means a change
of boarding-place. And surely every teacher can control the supply of
fresh air for the schoolroom and his bedroom, and this is perhaps the
most important of all.
_d. Experience._--The young teacher, without experience, may from
sheer embarrassment and lack of mastery fail to show the enthusiasm
which he feels, for embarrassment of any kind and enthusiasm do not
thrive well together. But if the teacher is really fundamentally
interested in his teaching, the enthusiasm will soon come. And better
a thousand times the young teacher who is earnestly fighting for
freedom and mastery in the recitation, than the old teacher who has
grown wearied of the routine and has made out of the recitation a
machine process.
3. _Well-mastered lessons_
Probably the worst of all drawbacks to good recitations is poorly
prepared lessons. One of the greatest criticisms to which our
educational system is open is that teachers try to teach and pupils
try to recite lessons which are badly or indifferently prepared by
both. There is nothing more stupefying to the mind, or more fatal to
interest in school work than the halting, stumbling, ineffective
recitations heard in many schools. Teachers who try to teach lessons
with which they are not thoroughly familiar are but blind leaders of
the blind, and both they and their pupils are sure to fall into the
ditch.
_a. Preparation by the teacher._--The teacher is the key to the
situation. If he himself lacks in preparation, he can neither lead nor
compel his pupils to the preparation of their lessons. He sets the
standard. A stream does not rise higher than its source.
The teacher's preparation has two different aspects: (1) The general
fundamental knowledge of the subject as a whole obtained by previous
study; and (2) the daily preparation by study, thought, or reading for
the recitation.