[Illustration:ARABIA
and the SURROUNDING COUNTRIES
to illustrate
THE LIFE OF MOHAMMET
AND THE ANNALS OF
THE EARLY CALIPHATE
By Sir William Muir, K.C.S.I., LL.D., D.C.L.
WILLIAM MUIR
ANNALS OF
THE
EARLY CALIPHATE
FROM THE DEATH OF MAHOMET
TO THE
OMEYYAD AND ABBASIDE DYNASTIES
A.H. XI-LXI (A.D. 632–680)
FROM ORIGINAL SOURCES.
O
P
AMSTERDAM
ORIENTAL PRESS
1968
REPRINT 1968 OF THE EDITION LONDON 1883.
PRINTED IN THE NETHERLANDS.
PREFACE.
This work is a continuation of the ‘LIFE OF MAHOMET.’ Taking up the
thread from his death and burial, it tells the story of the spread
of the Religion which he founded, and seeks to trace the special
causes--national, tribal, and spiritual--which moulded the Faith,
created its expansive power, and guided its onward progress. The object
is, in short, to float the bark of ISLAM over the rapids and devious
currents of its early course until, becoming more or less subject to
ordinary human influences, it emerges on the great stream of time. I
have, therefore, given the first four CALIPHATES in full detail; I
have endeavoured to explain the ascendency of the OMEYYAD house; and
then, briefly showing how the ABBASSIDE dynasty rose upon its ruins, my
purpose being ended, I close the book. Thereafter the history of ISLAM
spreads itself out into the history of the world.
The materials for the work will be understood by the reader as he
goes along. They are purely Arabian. Christian authorities there
are absolutely none to speak of. We depend entirely upon Mahometan
tradition; and that in a form very different from what we have been
accustomed to in the Life of Mahomet. The substance of tradition
becomes, after the PROPHET’S death, more of a general outline;
altogether wanting (excepting some of the special episodes) in that
profuse detail with which the life of Mahomet is overlaid.
Such as it is, however, the story can be worked out broadly with
consistency, and the progress of the Moslem arms and faith, as a whole,
depicted truthfully. The great treasury of tradition on which the
historian must draw is the Annals of TABARI, happily styled by Gibbon
the Livy of the Arabians, who flourished in the third century of the
Hegira. Unfortunately his work has hitherto been accessible to me, in
its original form, only as far as the great battle of Câdesîya, in the
fourteenth year of the Hegira--that is, three years after the Prophet’s
death.[1] The materials, however, so laboriously collected by Tabari,
have been copiously used by later writers, especially by IBN AL ATHÎR
(d. A.H. 630), whose History has been mainly followed in these Annals,
from the point at which Tabari, as at present available, ends. I have
not neglected other sources, such as BELÂDZORI (3rd cent.) and IBN
KHALDÛN, a later writer. In all essential points I believe that the
picture which I have endeavoured to draw of the rise and spread of the
Faith may be accepted with confidence.
I have received much help from the invaluable work of DR. WEIL,[2]
whose literary acumen and candour are equalled only by his marvellous
industry and research. I have also freely made use of M. CAUSSIN
DE PERCEVAL’S admirable _Essai sur l’Histoire des Arabes_; but it
unfortunately ends with the Caliphate of Omar. On the general condition
of early Mussulman society I have found the scholarly volumes of H. VON
KREMER most valuable.[3]
I have followed the same system of rendering names as in the ‘Life of
Mahomet’ (adopted mainly from Caussin de Perceval), excepting in such
received forms as Bussorah, Mecca, &c.; namely:
[Arabic] is represented by _th_.
[Arabic] „ „ „ _j_.
[Arabic] „ „ „ _kh_.
[Arabic] „ „ „ _dz_.
[Arabic] „ „ „ _z_.
[Arabic] „ „ „ _dh_.
[Arabic] „ „ „ _tz_.
[Arabic] by a sharp accent, as _á_, _ó_.
[Arabic] is represented by _gh_.
[Arabic] „ „ „ _c_ or _ck_.
[Arabic] „ „ „ _k_.
In quoting from the ‘Life of Mahomet,’ I refer to the Second Edition in
one volume, unless the First Edition in four volumes is specified.
I am indebted for the map which illustrates the campaigns, to Mr.
Trelawney Saunders, whose close acquaintance with the geography of
Syria and Chaldæa peculiarly qualifies him to identify many of the
sites, routes, &c.
The reader must remember that the Mussulman year is a purely lunar
one, being eleven days shorter than ours, so that passing through the
solar cycle it gains a year in about every thirty-three years.
At the death of Mahomet, in the eleventh year of the Hegira, Moharram
(the first month of the Arabian year) began on the 29th of March, so
that the corresponding months of the European calendar fell at that
period as in the following table:
Arabian Months. Corresponding Months
Moharram, A.H. XI. April, A.D. 632.
Safar May „
Rabî I. June „
Rabî II. July „
Jumâd I. August „
Jumâd II. September „
Rajab October „
Shábân November „
Ramadhân (Ramzân) December „
Shawwâl January, A.D. 633.
Dzul Cáda February „
Dzul Hijj March „
To keep the notation distinct, I have ordinarily marked the years of
the Hegira by Roman numerals.
W. M.
_November 1882._
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
PAGE
ELECTION OF ABU BEKR 1
A.H. XI. A.D. 632.
CHAPTER II.
EXPEDITION OF OSAMA TO THE SYRIAN BORDER 8
A.H. XI. A.D. 632.
CHAPTER III.
MEDINA THREATENED.
A.H. XI. JUNE AND JULY, A.D. 632.
Attack on Medîna repulsed 11
CHAPTER IV.
RETURN OF OSAMA--EXPEDITIONS FORMED AGAINST THE
APOSTATE TRIBES THROUGHOUT ARABIA.
A.H. XI. SEPT.--OCT. A.D. 632.
Abu Bekr discomfits the rebels at Rabadza--Expeditions to
reclaim the apostate tribes 16
CHAPTER V.
CAMPAIGN OF KHALID AGAINST THE FALSE PROPHET TOLEIHA.
A.H. XI. NOV. A.D. 632.
Khâlid’s expedition against Toleiha--Khâlid defeats
Toleiha--Omm Siml discomfited by Khâlid--Abu Bekr burns a
freebooter alive 20
CHAPTER VI.
STORY OF MALIK IBN NOWEIRA.
A.H. XI. A.D. 632.
Mâlik ibn Noweira joins Sajâh the Prophetess--Is put to
death--Khâlid marries his widow 30
CHAPTER VII.
BATTLE OF YEMAMA.
END OF A.H. XI. BEGINNING OF 633 A.D.
The False Prophet Moseilama--Battle of Yemâma--The ‘Garden
of Death’ 38
CHAPTER VIII.
CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE REBELS IN THE EAST AND SOUTH
OF ARABIA.
A.H. XI. A.D. 632–3.
Bahrein reduced--Reduction of Omân and Mâhra--Rebellion
in Yemen--Reduction of Yemen--Reduction of
Hadhramaut--Authority re-established in the South 47
CHAPTER IX.
ENROLMENT OF THE BEDOUIN TRIBES FOR WAR BEYOND
ARABIA.
Arabia aroused by the war-cry from without--All slaves of
Arab blood set free--Death of Fâtima 60
CHAPTER X.
CAMPAIGN OF KHALID IN IRAC.
A.H. XII. A.D. 633.
State of Persia--Mesopotamia and the Syrian Desert--Irâc
Araby described--Khâlid’s victories over the Persians--The
River of Blood--Hîra capitulates--Hîra remains
Christian--Khâlid’s administration in Irâc--Khâlid takes
Anbâr and Ain Tamar--Dûma stormed by Khâlid--Expeditions
against Bedouins in Irâc--Khâlid’s pilgrimage incognito to
Mecca 66
CHAPTER XI.
CAMPAIGN IN SYRIA--BATTLE OF WACUSA ON THE YERMUK.
A.H. XIII. A.D. 634.
Defeat of Khâlid ibn Saîd in Syria--Reinforcements
sent to Syria--Roman army opposes the Moslems on the
Yermûk--Indecisive skirmishing with Romans--Khâlid
transferred to Syria--Khâlid’s journey across the
Desert--Roman and Moslem armies compared--Khâlid takes
command--Great battle of Wacûsa on the Yermûk--Roman army
totally defeated 92
CHAPTER XII.
EVENTS IN IRAC--MOTHANNA AND THE PERSIANS--NEED
OF REINFORCEMENTS.
Moharram--Jumâd, A.H. XIII. March--August, A.D. 634.
Mothanna asks Abu Bekr for reinforcements 112
CHAPTER XIII.
SICKNESS AND DEATH OF ABU BEKR.
Jumâd II., A.H. XIII. August, A.D. 634.
Abu Bekr visits Mecca on pilgrimage--Abu Bekr appoints Omar
his successor--Death and burial of Abu Bekr--Character of
Abu Bekr 115
CHAPTER XIV.
ACCESSION OF OMAR--REINFORCEMENTS FOR IRAC--CAMPAIGN
THERE UNDER ABU OBEID AND MOTHANNA.
Jumâd II., A.H. XIII.--Moharram, A.H. XIV.
August, A.D. 634–March, A.D. 635.
Omar raises a new levy for Irâc--Rustem sends a Persian
army against Abu Obeid--Battle of the Bridge--Moslems
routed--Fresh levies ordered to Irâc--Mothanna’s victory at
Boweib--Character of Mothanna 125
CHAPTER XV.
CAMPAIGN IN SYRIA--TAKING OF DAMASCUS--BATTLE OF FIHL.
A.H. XIV. A.D. 635.
Syria east of the Jordan--Khâlid deposed: Abu Obeida
succeeds him--Siege of Damascus--Storm and capitulation
of Damascus--Cathedral of St. John the Baptist--Battle of
Fihl--Progress of Moslem conquest on the Jordan 141
CHAPTER XVI.
YEZDEGIRD SUCCEEDS TO THE THRONE OF PERSIA--BATTLE
OF CADESIYA.
A.H. XIV. A.D. 635.
Yezdegird, King of Persia--Sád, commander-in-chief in
Irâc--Death of Mothanna--Sád encamps at Câdesîya--Rustem
advances on Câdesîya--Rustem crosses the river by a
dam--Battle of Câdesîya. First day--Attack of the
elephants--Second and third days--Night of Clangour--Defeat
of Persians--Omar receives tidings of the victory 155
CHAPTER XVII.
EVENTS FOLLOWING THE BATTLE OF CADESIYA--CAPTURE
OF MEDAIN.
A.H. XV., XVI. A.D. 636–7.
Advance upon Medâin--Western suburb of Medâin
taken--Capture of Medâin--Rich spoil of Medâin 178
CHAPTER XVIII.
BATTLE OF JALOLA--REDUCTION OF MESOPOTAMIA--KUFA
AND BUSSORAH FOUNDED.
A.H. XVI. A.D. 637.
Great booty taken at Jalôla--Operations in Mesopotamia
and the Delta of the Euphrates--Kûfa and Bussorah--Land
settled with native cultivators--Factious spirit at Kûfa
and Bussorah 187
CHAPTER XIX.
CAMPAIGN IN NORTHERN SYRIA.
A.H. XV. A.D. 636.
Northern Syria reduced--Heraclius retires to
Constantinople--Story of Jabala, Prince of the Beni
Ghassân 198
CHAPTER XX.
CONQUEST OF PALESTINE.
A.H. XV. A.D. 636.
Invasion of Palestine--Jerusalem capitulates to Omar--Omar
visits Jerusalem--Causes facilitating conquest of
Syria--Humiliation of Jews and Christians--‘Ordinance of
Omar’ 205
CHAPTER XXI.
RISING IN NORTHERN SYRIA.
A.H. XVII. A.D. 638.
Byzantine attack on Northern Syria--Campaign in Asia
Minor--Khâlid brought to trial--Khâlid dies in neglect 215
CHAPTER XXII.
EXPULSION OF JEWS AND CHRISTIANS FROM ARABIA--THE CIVIL LIST
OF OMAR--SLAVES OF ARAB BLOOD MADE FREE.
A.H. XIV., XV. A.D. 635, 636.
Expulsion of Christians from Najrân, and of Jews from
Kheibar--Dewân, or Civil List, of Omar--Omar perpetuates
military organisation--The Corân, how compiled 223
CHAPTER XXIII.
FAMINE AND PLAGUE.
A.H. XVIII. A.D. 639.
Omar visits Syria after the Plague--Muâvia, Governor of
Syria 232
CHAPTER XXIV.
CONQUEST Of EGYPT.
A.H. XX. A.D. 641.
Alexandria taken--Fostât founded--Canal from the Nile to
the Red Sea--Second siege of Alexandria 239
CHAPTER XXV.
ADVANCE ON THE SOUTHERN BORDER OF PERSIA--HORMUZAN
TAKEN PRISONER.
A.H. XVI.--XX. A.D. 637–641.
Unsuccessful attack on Persepolis--Capture of Râm Hormuz,
Tostar, and Sûs--Hormuzân sent prisoner to Medîna--Embraces
Islam 249
CHAPTER XXVI.
CONQUEST OF PERSIA.
A.H. XXI., XXII. A.D. 642, 643.
Yezdegird attacks the Moslems--Battle of Nehâvend--Persian
provinces reduced--Miracle at the siege of Darâbgird 255
CHAPTER XXVII.
THE LATER YEARS OF OMAR’S REIGN--DOMESTIC EVENTS.
A.H. XVII.-XXIII. A.D. 638–644.
Grand Square formed around the Káaba--Moghîra arraigned
for adultery--Abu Mûsa, Governor of Bussorah--Moghîra,
Governor of Kûfa--Deterioration of social life--Luxury,
intemperance, and dissipation--Simplicity of Omar’s
life--Death of Abu Sofiân and other ‘Companions’ 262
CHAPTER XXVIII.
DEATH OF OMAR.
A.H. XXIII. A.D. 644.
Omar stabbed by a Persian slave--Omar appoints
Electors--Death of Omar--Character and reign of Omar 278
CHAPTER XXIX.
ELECTION OF OTHMAN.
DZUL HIJJ, A.H. XXIII.--MOHARRAM, A.H. XXIX.
NOVEMBER, A.D. 644.
The six Electors--Conclave of the Electors--Othmân elected
Caliph--Hormuzân slain by Omar’s son 286
CHAPTER XXX.
CALIPHATE OF OTHMÂN--GENERAL REVIEW.
A.H. XXIV.-XXXV. A.D. 645–656.
Causes of Othmân’s unpopularity--Persia, Syria, Asia Minor,
and Armenia--Conquests in Northern Africa--Naval victory
off Alexandria 294
CHAPTER XXXI.
DOMESTIC EVENTS DURING THE CALIPHATE OF OTHMÂN
HIS GROWING UNPOPULARITY.
Change of governors at Kûfa--Change of governors
at Bussorah--Revision of Corân--Story of Abu Dzarr
Ghifary--Unlawful amusements checked--Othmân’s increasing
unpopularity--Othmân marries Nâila 303
CHAPTER XXXII.
DANGEROUS FACTION AT KUFA--GROWING DISAFFECTION.
A.H. XXXII.-XXXIV. A.D. 653–655.
Emeute at Kûfa--Saîd expelled from Kûfa--Aly expostulates
with Othmân--Othmân appeals to the people 316
CHAPTER XXXIII.
THE OUTLOOK DARKENS.
A.H. XXXIV., XXXV. A.D. 655.
Complainants invited to come forward--Conference of
governors at Medîna 324
CHAPTER XXXIV.
THE PLOT RIPENS--CONSPIRATORS ATTACK MEDINA--DEATH
OF OTHMAN.
A.H. XXXV. A.D. 656.
Conspirators attack Medîna--Altercation of conspirators
with Othmân--Tumult in the Great Mosque--Othmân besieged in
his palace--The blockade--Death of Othmân--Burial of Othmân 329
CHAPTER XXXV.
THE ELECTION OF ALY.
END OF A.H. XXXV. JUNE, A.D. 656.
Aly will not punish the regicides--Aly appoints new
governors--Muâvia’s defiant attitude 342
CHAPTER XXXVI.
REBELLION AT BUSSORAH.
A.H. XXXVI. A.D. 656.
Ayesha at Mecca--Rebellion of Ayesha, Zobeir, and
Talha--Rebel army marches from Mecca to Bussorah--Pursued
by Aly--Ayesha’s alarm--Zobeir and Talha occupy Bussorah 351
CHAPTER XXXVII.
BATTLE OF THE CAMEL.
JUMAD II., A.H. XXXVI. DECEMBER, A.D. 656.
Aly advances on Bussorah--Negotiations with Zobeir and
Talha--Regicides bring on engagement--Battle of the
Camel--The insurgents defeated--Ayesha retires to Medîna 359
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
ALY TRANSFERS HIS SEAT OF GOVERNMENT TO KUFA.
AFFAIRS IN EGYPT.
A.H. XXXVI. A.D. 656, 657.
Cays, Governor of Egypt, deposed--Mohammed son of Abu Bekr
appointed Governor of Egypt--Amru joins Muâvia--Muâvia and
Aly 369
CHAPTER XXXIX.
BATTLE OF SIFFIN.
A.H. XXXVI., XXXVII. A.D. 657.
Aly marches against Muâvia--Fighting at Siffîn--Battle of
Siffîn--Combat closed by reference to arbitration--The
armies break up 376
CHAPTER XL.
THE KHAREJITES, OR THEOCRATIC FACTION, REBEL
AGAINST ALY 388
A.H. XXXVI. A.D. 657.
CHAPTER XLI.
DECISION OF THE UMPIRES.
A.H. XXXVII. A.D. 658.
The Umpires meet--The decision deposing Aly 391
CHAPTER XLII.
THE KHAREJITES, OR THEOCRATIC SEPARATISTS, DEFEATED
AT NEHRWAN.
A.H. XXXVII. A.D. 658.
Hostile attitude of Khârejites--Second campaign against
Syria projected--Army diverted by Khârejites--Khârejites
defeated 395
CHAPTER XLIII.
REVOLT OF EGYPT.
A.H. XXXVIII. A.D. 658.
Aly abandons the war on Syria--Aly loses Egypt 401
CHAPTER XLIV.
THE REMAINDER OF ALY’S REIGN.
A.H. XXXVIII.-XL. A.D. 658–660.
Khârejite émeutes--Syrian expeditions against Aly--Troubles
of Aly--Peace between Aly and Muâvia 404
CHAPTER XLV.
ASSASSINATION OF ALY.
A.H. XL. A.D. 661.
Conspiracy against Aly, Muâvia, and Amru--Muâvia and Amru
escape--Assassination of Aly--Character of Aly 411
CHAPTER XLVI.
HASAN SUCCEEDS ALY.--ABDICATES IN FAVOUR OF MUAVIA.
A.H. XL., XLI. A.D. 661.
Hasan abdicates the Caliphate--Muâvia sole Caliph 418
CHAPTER XLVII.
SOME BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.
A.H. XL.--L.
Amru, Moghîra, and Ziâd--Muâvia acknowledges Ziâd as his
brother 422
CHAPTER XLVIII.
YEZID PROCLAIMED HEIR APPARENT--HEREDITARY NOMINATION
BECOMES A PRECEDENT.
A.H. LVI. A.D. 676.
Precedents of succession--Yezîd declared Heir
Apparent--Precedent for future successions 427
CHAPTER XLIX.
YEZID AND THE TRAGEDY AT KERBALA.
A.H. LXI. A.D. 680.
Yezîd succeeds to the Caliphate--Hosein sets out
for Kûfa--Hosein stopped at Kerbala--The tragedy of
Kerbala--Death of Hosein--‘The Moharram’ 433
CHAPTER L.
THE OMEYYAD AND ABBASSIDE DYNASTIES, AND CONCLUSION.
Rebellion of Ibn Zobeir, Mukhtâr, and Khârejites--Abd al
Malik and Welîd--Omeyyad dynasty--Abbasside dynasty--The
Abbassides--Al Mâmûn--The Motázilites--Golden Age under
Abbassides--Fall of the Caliphate--Early influences
which still survive--Soonnies and Shîyas--Islam
stationary--Causes of decadence--Conclusion 443
INDEX 461
* * * * *
_Errata_
Page 72, line 14, _for_ Hâtim, son of Adî, _read_ Adî, son of
Hâtim. Page 241, line 15, _for_ Khâlid _read_ Amru.
ANNALS
OF
THE EARLY CALIPHATE.
CHAPTER I.
ELECTION OF ABU BEKR.
A.H. XI. A.D. 632.
[Sidenote: Death of Mahomet, 13 Rabi I. A.H. XI., June 8, A.D. 632.]
At eventide of a summer day in the eleventh year of the Hegira, three
chief ‘Companions’ of Mahomet might be seen issuing in haste from the
Great Mosque at Medîna, where, close by in the chamber of Ayesha, his
favourite wife, the Prophet of Arabia lay dead.[4] They were Abu Bekr,
Omar, and Abu Obeida. I will first describe each briefly, and then
explain the object of their errand.
[Sidenote: ABU BEKR.]
ABU BEKR, now threescore years of age, was somewhat short in
stature, of a spare frame, rounded back, and stooping gait. His face
was thin, complexion smooth and fair, nose aquiline and sharp, with
other features delicate; the forehead high; the eyes deep-seated and
far apart; the veins well marked. His scanty hair and beard, now for
many years white, was dyed red. The countenance was still in old age
handsome; and the expression mild, but wise and resolute. To him faith
in the Prophet had become a second nature, and, now that his Master
was gone, the disciple lived but to fulfil his will. It was this that
nerved a disposition naturally soft and yielding, and made Abu Bekr,
THE TRUE,[5] of all the followers of Mahomet, the firmest and
most resolute.
[Sidenote: OMAR.]
OMAR, fifteen years younger, differed both in frame and temperament.
Broad-shouldered and tall, he towered above the crowd. Though somewhat
dark in complexion, the face was fresh and ruddy. He was now bald; and
his beard was dyed like his friend’s. His stride was long, and his
presence commanding. Naturally hasty and passionate, he would twist his
moustache when angry and draw it downwards to his mouth. But time had
mellowed temper; and, beneath an imperious manner, he was bland and
courteous. Their attachment to Mahomet had, on these two friends, an
effect exactly opposite. That which braced the soft nature of Abu Bekr
served to abate the vehemence of Omar. Both stood in a like relation to
the Prophet, each having given a daughter to him in marriage; Haphsa,
Omar’s daughter, was one of Mahomet’s favourite wives; but Ayesha, the
child of Abu Bekr, was queen in his affections to the end.
[Sidenote: ABU OBEIDA.]
On these two men at this moment hung the future of Islam. The third,
who now accompanied them, ABU OBEIDA, was between them in
age. He was thin, tall, and sinewy; bald, and with little beard. Mild,
unassuming, and unwarlike, he was yet destined to take a leading part
in the conquest of Syria.
* * * * *
[Sidenote: Abu Bekr and Omar in the Great Mosque.]
It was the afternoon of the day on which, but an hour or two before,
Mahomet had breathed his last. The event had come unexpectedly at the
end. Abu Bekr, thinking the Prophet better, had shortly before retired
to his house in the suburbs of the city. Called back in haste, he
entered Ayesha’s chamber, and kissed the face of his departed friend,
saying:--
[Sidenote: Men of Medîna would elect a chief of their own.]
‘Sweet wert thou in life; and sweet thou art in death.’ The mosque was
filled with a crowd excited by the voice of Omar, who wildly proclaimed
that the Prophet was not dead, but in a trance; and that, like Moses,
he would surely return to them again. Abu Bekr, issuing from the
chamber (which opened directly from the court of the mosque), put his
friend aside with these memorable words:--_Whoso worshippeth Mahomet,
let him know that Mahomet is dead indeed; but whoso worshippeth God,
let him know that God liveth and dieth not._ He added passages from
the Corân, in which the Prophet had said that he would die; and Omar,
hearing them as if he had never heard them before, was speechless.
The multitude quieted down before the solemn words of Abu Bekr. But
just then a messenger hurried up with the report, that the citizens of
Medîna--the ANSÂR, had assembled to choose for themselves a
chief. The moment was critical. The unity of the faith was at stake. A
divided power would fall to pieces, and all might be lost. The mantle
of the Prophet must fall upon one successor, and on one alone. The
sovereignty of Islam demanded an undivided Caliphate; and Arabia would
acknowledge no master but from amongst the Coreish. The die must be
cast, and at once.
[Sidenote: Stormy scene in the hall of the citizens.]
Such, no doubt, were the thoughts which occurred to Omar and Abu
Bekr on receiving intelligence of the elective conclave; and so,
alarmed at the danger, they hastened to the spot, accompanied by Abu
Obeida, if haply they might nip it in the bud. On the way they met
two friendly citizens coming from the assembly, who warned them of
the risk they ran; but, notwithstanding, they hurried on. The men of
Medîna meanwhile, gathered in one of their rude halls, were bent upon
an independent course. ‘We have sheltered this nest of strangers,’
they cried. ‘It is by our good swords they have been able to plant the
Faith. The Chief of Medîna shall be from amongst ourselves.’ And they
had already fixed their choice on Sád ibn Obâda, leader of the Beni
Khazraj, one of ‘the Twelve’ at ‘the Pledge of Acaba,’ who, sick of a
fever, lay covered up at the further end of the hall. At this moment
the three Companions entered but just in time, for had the Citizens
elected Sád and pledged their troth to him, Medîna might have been
irretrievably compromised. Omar, with his native vehemence, was about
to speak, when Abu Bekr bade him to be silent, and anticipated him, as
Omar used in after days to say, with the same arguments he himself had
thought of, and even better. ‘Every word,’ said Abu Bekr, calmly and
firmly, ‘which the Citizens had uttered in their own praise was true,
but in noble birth and influence the Coreish were paramount, and to
none but them would Arabia yield obedience.’ ‘Then,’ cried the men of
Medîna, ‘let there be one chief from amongst you and one from amongst
us.’ ‘Away with you!’ exclaimed Omar; ‘two cannot stand together’;
and even Sád from beneath his covering muttered that to divide the
power would weaken it. High words ensued. Hobâb, on the side of Sád,
cried out, ‘Hear him not! Attend to me, for I am the _well-rubbed
Palm-stem_.[6] If they refuse, expel them from the city. I am the
Roaring Lion of the desert, and will devour them up.’ ‘The Lord destroy
thee!’ cried Omar; and Hobâb returned the words. The altercation
gaining in heat and bitterness, Abu Bekr saw that it must be stopped
at any risk; so stepping forward he said: ‘Ye see these two’--and he
pointed to Omar and Abu Obeida--‘Choose ye now whichever of them ye
will, and salute him as your Chief.’ ‘Nay,’ cried both at once, ‘Thou
hast already, at the Prophet’s bidding, led the prayers; thou art our
Chief. Stretch forth thine hand.’ He did so, and they struck their
hand on his in token of allegiance.[7] Others began to follow their
example. ‘Wilt thou cut thine own kinsman’s throat?’ cried Hobâb to
a Khazrajite about to take the pledge. ‘Not so,’ he answered; ‘I only
yield the right to whom the right is due.’ Whilst they yet hesitated,
the Beni Aus, jealous of the rival tribe and of Sád its nominee,
spake among themselves: ‘If this man be chosen, the rule will be for
ever with the Beni Khazraj. Let us salute Abu Bekr as our Chief.’[8]
[Sidenote: Abu Bekr elected Caliph.]The example once set, group after
group advanced to place their hand on that of Abu Bekr, till none was
left but Sád, who still lay covered in the corner. Acknowledged thus
by the men of Medîna, there could be no doubt of Abu Bekr’s acceptance
by the Coreish and all the Refugees.[9] He was one of themselves, and
the Prophet, by appointing him to take his place, when laid aside, at
the daily prayers, had in a manner indicated him as his vicegerent.
And so homage was done on all sides to Abu Bekr. He was saluted as the
‘CALIPH,’ or ‘_Successor_ of the Prophet.’
[Sidenote: Burial of the Prophet.]
The night was occupied in preparing the dead for sepulture. The body
was washed and laid out, and the grave dug in Ayesha’s apartment,
where Mahomet had breathed his last. On the morrow the citizens, men,
women, and children, thronged the chamber to look once more upon their
Prophet’s face. And then the body was reverently committed to the dust.
[Sidenote: Abu Bekr’s inaugural address.]
The funeral being over, and the court of the Great Mosque still crowded
with the mourners, Abu Bekr ascended the pulpit, and, sitting down, was
saluted as Caliph by acclamation. Then he arose, and said: ‘O people!
Now I am Chief over you, albeit not the best amongst you. If I do
well, support me; if ill, then set me right. Follow the true, wherein
is faithfulness; eschew the false, wherein is treachery. The weaker
amongst you shall be as the stronger with me, until that I shall have
redressed his wrong; and the stronger shall be as the weaker, until, if
the Lord will, I shall have taken from him that which he hath wrested.
Leave not off to fight in the ways of the Lord; whosoever leaveth off,
him verily shall the Lord abase. Obey me wherein I obey the Lord and
his Prophet; when I disobey, then obey me not. Now, arise to prayer,
and the Lord be with you!’ The assembly stood up for prayer, and Abu
Bekr, for the first time as Caliph, filled the place of Mahomet.
[Sidenote: Sád declines to swear fealty; and also (probably) Aly for a
time.]
Besides Sád, there were few, if any, who refused to do homage to Abu
Bekr. According to most authorities, Aly declined to do so until the
death of Fâtima his wife, six months afterwards. Zobeir and Talha are
also mentioned, but doubtfully.[10] Sád persisted in his refusal; he
even threatened to empty his quiver against the usurpers, and then
fight against them with his retainers. ‘Let him alone,’ was the advice
of those around the Caliph; ‘he is but a single man, and his secession
will not signify; but if force be used against him, then his tribe will
fight.’ The advice approved itself to Abu Bekr’s forbearing spirit. Sád
kept aloof, and never appeared at court or in the mosque. When Omar
succeeded to the Caliphate, he presented himself with these words, ‘I
love thee not, O Omar!’ and, disappearing, eventually died in Syria.
[Sidenote: The succession, how far provided for by Mahomet; and the
precedent now established.]
With Mahomet ceased the theocratic power which, as a prophet, he
had exercised; but the kingly functions, as ruler over all Islam,
descended to his successor. According to Arabian notions, such a ruler
was, like the Chieftain of a tribe, the head and representative of
the people, and his nomination was incomplete till confirmed by their
homage. Omar, we are told, in after days declared that the irregular
election of Abu Bekr (referring apparently to the scene enacted in
the hall) should not be drawn into a precedent. It was, he said,
an event the happiest in its consequences for Islam, but justified
only by the urgency of the moment. What might have been the issue
if any son of Mahomet had survived, it is useless to speculate. But
certainly the hereditary descent of kingly power was foreign to the
sentiment of Arabia. As matters stood, Mahomet seems to have shrunk
from anticipating the contingency of his death, and made no preparation
for what should follow. But in so far as we may suppose him to have
felt his illness mortal and his death impending, the nomination of Abu
Bekr to conduct the public prayers (the acknowledged mark of chief or
delegated authority) may be held the natural indication of his wish
that he should succeed.[11] Apart from the counter-claim of the men of
Medîna, there was, in point of fact, neither doubt nor hesitancy in the
election, and the counter-claim died away almost as soon as made. The
notion of divine right, or even of preferential claim, resting in the
Prophet’s family, was the growth of a later age.