Animal food alone is ill adapted to form the whole of our aliment. The
inquiries of physiologists have determined, that animal food is highly
stimulant, and like all other stimulants, after the excitement has been
brought to its acmé, debility must by necessity succeed. This, however,
is not so much the case where fresh meat is used as when the meat is
salted; but this may be, because our examples, with regard to fresh
meat, are less marked than in the case of salted provision. For few
instances occur in which fresh meat forms the whole food, exclusive
altogether of fruits or other vegetable aliment. Salted meat often
constitutes a great proportion of the food in long sea voyages, in the
long dreary winters in Lapland, and amongst the inhabitants of besieged
towns.
When this practice is continued for any length of time, oppression and
langour begin to be felt, indigestion is brought on, and hurried
breathing and a quick pulse on taking the slightest exercise, the gums
become soft and spongy, the breath becomes fœtid, and the limbs swoln.
Such are the dreadful effects produced by salted provisions, when a
proper proportion of vegetable food is not used along with them.
The fact is, that nations, whose food is entirely vegetable, are less
active and energetic than those whose diet is more nutritive. The
inhabitants of Ireland, in the most humble walks of life, for example,
who live almost exclusively on potatoes, are said to be more indolent
and sluggish, when compared with their neighbours in England, who would
think such diet to be no better than a prison allowance of bread and
water.
In the East, where rice forms the great article of food with some
tribes, the people are far from being robust or able to undergo much
fatigue in labour or in war. The striking fact, that the English
soldiers and sailors surpass all those of other nations in bravery and
hardihood, is sufficient, we think, to demonstrate the effect of a
considerable proportion of animal food.--For, though it be said, that a
great number of our soldiers are Irishmen, yet our argument holds good,
since, all these when in the army, or navy, live exactly in the same
manner as the English themselves. The change of diet, indeed, is in
these brave men very obvious; for the Irish and Scots soldiers are
often more hardy than the English; not as it is supposed because they
have been innured to greater hardships in their youth, but because their
diet being more generous than it was at that period, its effects become
more obvious than in those who have always had animal food.
When we examine the structure of the digestive organs of the inferior
animals which live wholly on vegetable food, we find that they are very
differently constituted from man, and much more so from the animals of
prey. If the organs for digestion of the ruminant animals are more
complicated, it should seem to follow, that vegetable aliment is more
difficult to digest; otherwise, nature, who never works in vain, would
not have provided for them such a series of stomachs. Hence we infer,
that since man has not this apparatus peculiar to ruminant animals, it
must be plain that nature did not intend him to live exclusively on
vegetables. If we consider the human teeth, we shall be led to the same
conclusion, for they are not either like the teeth of ruminant animals
or those of beasts of prey, but intermediate between the two. We have
_incisor_ teeth like animals of the order glires: such as the hare, the
rabbit, and the guinea-pig; _canin_ teeth like those of the order feræ:
such as the dog, the tiger, and the lion; and _grinders_, like
herbivorous quadrupeds: such as the horse, the sheep, and the cow.
Food, then, composed of animal and vegetable substances, seems to be the
best adapted for our organs of mastication and digestion, though it
would not be easy to say precisely what proportions of these are most
agreeable to the intentions of nature. We may safely conclude, however,
that the vegetable food ought to exceed the animal in quantity. The
direction given by Dr. Fothergill is the most judicious we have met
with. “I have only” says he “one short caution to give. Those who think
it necessary to pay any attention to their health at table, should take
care that the quantity of bread, of meat, of pudding, and of greens,
should not compose each of them a meal, as if some were only thrown in
to make weight; but they should carefully observe, that the sum of all
together do not exceed due bounds, or encroach upon the first feeling of
satiety.”
OBSERVATIONS ON THE VARIOUS KINDS OF ANIMAL SUBSTANCES COMMONLY USED FOR
FOOD.
Of the different classes of animals used for food, quadrupeds compose
the greatest proportion, and there is no part of their bodies which does
not contain nutritive parts, and that has not been used as food in some
way or other. Even bones affords an alimentary jelly fit for human food.
The largest portion of our aliment, however, is derived from the
voluntary muscles of animals, or what is more strictly called, the
flesh, consisting of all the red fibrous substance which covers the
bones. It should seem that this is both the most nourishing and the most
easily digested of animal substances. The red colour arises from the
blood of minute vessels which run in every direction among the fibres;
but whether this is the cause of the red muscle being more nutritious is
not well ascertained. Thence the flesh of quadrupeds is more largely
consumed than of any other class of animals; and, indeed, those in
common use in most parts of Europe possesses all the alimentary
properties in the highest perfection. All animal flesh seems more or
less stimulating; and, in general, the more so the darker its colour
is--but it does not absolutely follow that it is also more nutritious.
There is a considerable difference in the qualities of muscular flesh,
according to the size of the animal, and also according to its activity.
The small mountain sheep, for example, which has to encounter fatigue
to procure its food, has flesh of a different quality and flavour from
the large and lazy creature, which feeds luxuriously and fattens
rapidly, in the rich pastures of the plain country. The beef of the
western islands also, is more esteemed, on account of the same
circumstance, than that of the fat and brawny oxen which we see in the
London market. It is for this reason, we have no doubt, that the flesh
of the horse, the rhinocerus, and elephant, is not used as food except
in cases when other food is not to be procured. In the circumstance of
activity altering the qualities of flesh, we may be allowed to instance
the superiority of venison to beef, in flavour and tenderness, and
easiness of digestion.
The age of animals is another circumstance which has great influence on
the qualities of their flesh. The flesh of young animals is composed of
less rigid fibres, and has fewer vessels which carry red blood running
through it, and besides, it has less of the peculiar flavour of its
particular species than the flesh of older animals. Gelatine is more
abundant in the young, and fibrin in the old; hence the former is more
bland and tender. Veal and lamb, for example, are more tender and
gelatinous than beef or mutton; sucking pigs, chickens, and ducklings,
are also much more delicate than the grown animals. The beef of an old
cow, however well fed, is quite tough and unpalatable, while that of a
very young heifer is much relished. Although, however, very young
animals be so much more tender, yet they are insipid and flabby.
In the case of pork, age is not required, as in other sorts of butcher
meat, to mellow the fibre. It is an aliment containing much
nourishment; but to some palates its flavour is disagreeable, though by
most people it is relished. It was much used by the ancient athletæ, as
half raw beef steaks are now by our men of the fancy.
Sucking pigs are killed when three weeks old; and for pork, pigs are
killed from six to twelve months old. It requires them to be older for
making brawn. The flesh of young venison is not so good as when four
years old or more; though that of the fawn is very tender and succulent.
But even in the fœtal state, the flesh of animals, if recently taken
from a healthy mother, may be used. In the London market the fœtus of
the cow is regularly sold to the pastry-cooks for the purpose of making
mock turtle soup, of which it often forms the principal portion.
Veal, however, is reckoned not so good when killed before it be eight
or ten weeks old. The most remarkable quality of flesh of this kind is,
its almost wholly dissolving in boiling water, forming in the warm state
a bland and gelatinous soup, and when cold, concreting into a tremulous
transparent jelly. It is less animalized, or more properly speaking,
contains less animal fibre than almost any other flesh; hence its
tendency to become ascescent when made into broth and jelly, which is
not the case with beef or mutton broth. The parts of older animals,
which contain a larger portion of gelatine, are in this respect similar
to young flesh. Cow-heel and sheep’s-head are well known instances. It
may be remarked that such food is less nutritious, and unless very much
boiled, is less digestible than muscular flesh; but as it is also more
light and less stimulating, it is frequently given to delicate people
who cannot take any thing stronger.
Tripe is intermediate between what we have just described and the
muscular flesh of grown animals, insomuch as there is in the stomach of
ruminant animals a considerable proportion of vessels, transmitting red
blood, and of muscular fibres, and accordingly it is to be inferred that
tripe is more nutritive; it is certain it is more palatable and savory.
As to other parts of animals, which are abundantly furnished with red
blood, though destitute of muscle, we cannot speak so decidedly. Some of
the glands are coarse and rank flavoured, from the peculiar secretions
which they produce, and are only used by poor persons; others are
esteemed as delicacies, and seem not to be unwholesome. As examples of
the latter, we may mention _sweet bread_ or _pancreas_, one of the
glands belonging to the digestive organs; and the liver of some species
of birds, and of young quadrupeds.
The liver of the goose reckoned a great delicacy in Sicily, and they
have there a a method of enlarging this organ while the bird is alive,
but it is so cruel, that Brydon, who mentions it, declines giving the
particulars, lest our epicures in England should have the inhumanity to
give it a trial. The spleen is an instance of the former case, being
strongly ill flavoured.
Another circumstance which produces difference of quality in flesh, is
the sex of the animal, the genital organs having in this respect a very
remarkable influence, as appears from the effect of destroying these by
castration. This renders the flesh of the male similar, and in some
cases, as in mutton, superior to that of the female, which is always
more tender, and of finer fibre than that of the uncastrated male. By
destroying also the ovaries of the females, their flesh is rendered more
delicate, though this operation is not often practised. The sow is the
animal which is most usually operated upon with this view; the flesh of
the uncastrated boar is very coarse and bad. Even in calves the
difference is observable, and veal is greatly improved by castrating the
males. The same practice greatly improves fowl, as in capons. Venison is
rank, tough, lean, and ill flavoured, and not fit to be eaten when
killed during the rutting season, in September and October; and salmon,
when about to spawn, are also bad, and prohibited, we believe, by our
laws, to be caught or sold.
The mode of feeding animals, designed for the table, has also great
influence on the quality of the flesh, so much so, that nice judges can
distinguish whether mutton, if from the same breed of sheep, has been
fed on grass or on turnips; and can tell, still more accurately, on
tasting the fat of pork, whether the pigs have been fed on sour skimmed
milk, brewers grains, or pease flour. It was the practice sometime ago,
but now almost laid aside, to feed calves and oxen on oil cake. This did
certainly fatten them, but the fat was rather rancid in most cases, and
never of good flavour. The truth seems to be, that, though generally,
the lean of fat animals is the most tender and palatable, yet that this
is not so much the case when the fat is rapidly produced by artificial
management in the feeding.
Sheep become very rapidly fat in the first stage of the rot, in
consequence, perhaps, of their desire for food being greatly increased
by the disease; and, taking advantage of this, it is said that some
butchers are in the practice of producing rot artificially, which is
certainly very blameable. Some amateurs of mutton are fond of such as
has died of a sort of colic, called in the North _braxy_, that produces
a very peculiar flavour in the meat, which is always, however, roasted,
and never stewed or boiled. Such tastes are, to say the least of them,
surely unnatural.
It is, perhaps, owing to the different quality and quantity of food, as
much as any thing, that the season of the year has an effect upon the
flesh of animals; the heat or cold of the weather, and in some cases,
the periodical return of sexual attachment, must also be taken int to
be out of seasono account. In the instances of veal and lamb, the words,
_in season, and out of season_, refer, perhaps, more to plenty and
scarceness than to any quality in the meat; for as soon as any thing is
so plentiful in the market as to cause a fall in the price, and bring it
within reach of the poor, then the wealthy classes pronounce it to be
_out of season_.
This is the case with some sorts of birds which migrate at certain times
of the year, the woodcock for example, and are on that account to be
valued when they can be procured. Such as breed here, the solan goose
for example, can be procured in the young state before they take their
flight to their unknown retreat.
It has been roundly asserted, that there is no bird, and no part of any
birds, which may not be safely used as food. Many species, however, are
very oily, tough, or bad flavoured, and it is not at least very
desirable to eat any animal which feeds on prey or carrion; even though
this did not, as it does, taint their flesh. The qualities of the flesh
of birds differ very much, both in the several species, and in
particular parts of the same bird.
The flesh of birds which live on grain, is for the most part preferred
to those which feed on insects or fish.
The pheasant, the turkey, as well as partridge, and moor game, are more
esteemed than goose, duck, or woodcock.
Many of the water birds, however, are preferred, though from the nature
of their food, they are apt to taste strongly of fish, and to become too
fat and oily: to remedy these defects, skilful cooks sometimes bury
them under ground for some days, and carefully remove all the skin, and
as much as possible of the fat and oil from the inside, before dressing
them.
Of the several sorts of birds, those of larger size are coarser and more
tough than the smaller sorts; bustards, and larks, and ortolans, for
example, than swans, or turkeys, and geese. This difference is also
rendered greater in proportion to their age.
With regard to the particular parts of the same birds, the flesh of the
wing, and the part of the breast nearest the wing, consisting of the
muscles exerted in flying, are more dry, tender, and of a whiter colour
than the muscles of the leg. This, however, is not the case with black
game, in which the more superficial of these muscles are dark-coloured,
while those deeper seated are pale; and the same is sometimes seen in
other birds. The belly and the muscles of the thigh, when young enough,
or when long kept and properly cooked, are both palatable, juicy, and
sufficiently tender. The tendons of these muscles, however, are very
tough, and at a certain age become cartilaginous and even bony.
Birds in a domestic state do not readily become fat, if allowed to go at
large; for this purpose, they should be confined in coops, and supplied
with as much wholesome food as they can eat. Poulterers even cram them
with food. Domestic water fowls, must, while fattening, be kept from the
water, otherwise they will acquire a strong fishy taste, and besides,
will always remain lean. In general, over fatness may be considered as a
sort of oleagenous dropsy, and seldom or never is met with in a state of
nature.
All the soft parts of fish contain gelatine and fibrous substance, and
are, consequently, in the edible sorts, nutritious. The fibrous portions
are not, except in a few species, red, like the muscular flesh of land
animals, but white and opake when dressed. If cooked fish looks bluish
and semi-transparent, it is not in season. It is fortunate for us, that
few if any poisonous fish are found in our seas, being chiefly confined
to the tropics.
The roe of the greater number of fishes is eaten: caviar is the roe of
the sturgeon.
Cods sounds, or the swim bladder of the larger cod, are reckoned a great
delicacy when properly preserved. It is not usual for the skin of any
animal to be eaten, though the skin of some sorts of fish which are
pulpy and gelatinous are relished--as the skin of calves head is used
for mock turtle soup. The flavour of fish depends greatly on their
food, which, it is supposed, is the main cause of the difference between
fresh and salt water fish, and between the same sorts of fish taken in
different lakes and rivers, and on different parts of the coast.
Some shell fish, such as muscles and cockles, are occasionally found to
disagree with some particular constitutions, but it is not true that
this arises from their feeding on copper banks; some say, that it is
from the persons eating the beard or fibres, by which the muscles attach
themselves to the rocks, which is not, we think, probable.
The limpet (_Patella vulgata_), the periwinkle (_turbo littoreus_) and
whilk (_murex antiquus_), are used as food, boiled by the common people
in various districts of this country.
The crustaceous shellfish of sufficient size, are very generally
esculent. These chiefly belong to the family of _Cancer_. Hence, several
species of crabs, both short and long tailed, are eaten. The lobster,
the crawfish, the shrimp, and the prawn belong to this class.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE VARIOUS KINDS OF VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES COMMONLY USED
FOR FOOD.
The vegetable substances used for food are, if we include fruits, much
more numerous than those derived from the animal kingdom. The chief of
these, however, are the different sorts of grain and pulse, the _farina_
or flour of which, contains a large proportion of starch, gluten, and
mucilage, and but little woody fibre, and is consequently highly
nutritious, and easily digested. To this class of plants we are also
indebted for the food of the animals whose flesh is most generally used.
In pulse, as well as in rye and oats, there is, besides the principles
just mentioned, a considerable portion of sugar, which adds to their
nutritive qualities.
We would class the different sorts of nuts, next to grain and pulse, in
the proportion of nutriment which they afford; starch and mucilage are
their chief elements, but these are combined with a kind of oil which is
not of easy digestion, and makes them disagree with most people when too
liberally used. Almonds, filberts, walnuts, and cocoa, are the nuts in
most request. Chocolate is a preparation of this kind, which is very
nutritious to those with whom it agrees.
Next to grain, pulse, and nuts, we may place the farinaceous roots,
potatoes, carrots, parsnips, and Jerusalem artichokes. Of these, the
first, contains the most nourishment, which depends on the great
proportion of starch with which it abounds. Other pot-herbs possess
little nourishment. Cabbage and greens, for example, are chiefly
composed of fibre, mucilage, and water, and the same is true of onions,
leeks, celery, lettuce, and broccoli.
Of fruits, those which are most farinaceous and mucilaginous, and which
are sweet from the sugar contained in them, are the most nutritious. The
pear should seem to answer this description the nearest, but experience
proves that this fruit is of less easy digestion than the apple, whose
greater acidity corrects the heavy quality of the saccharine matter with
which the pear abounds.