CHAPTER II

The attempt is made in Philipinas to subject the religious who are

parish priests to the visitation of the bishops.

§ I

Relation of the practice that has always been followed in the spiritual

administration of the islands; and what happened when the attempt

was made to change it.

Year 1656

[In 1654 the first mutterings of the storm caused by the visitation of

the regulars by the bishops break in the Philippines. The dates of the

arrival of the various orders are given; and the narrative continues:]

719.... Those holy orders, each one doing its share, declared pitiless

war against paganism, and achieved signal victories in that war,

destroying the idols of Belial and planting solidly the health-giving

sign of the cross; so that whatever is conquered in the islands is

due to their fervent zeal. For they planted the faith, and watered

that land with blood so that it might produce fruit abundantly; and

God was the cause of so wonderful an increase. The system that they

have always followed in the spiritual administration of the missions

and villages which they have formed at the cost of their sweat is

the same as that observed in América in the beginning by various

apostolic privileges. In the provincial chapters held by each order,

they appoint as superiors of the houses established in the villages

of Indians who are already converted, those religious who are fit to

exercise the office of cura by their learning, their morals, and other

qualities. The same is also done in regard to the residences of the

active missions, where those thus appointed continue the preaching to

and conversion of the heathen, with very perceptible progress. Both

the former and the latter exercise the ministries to which they

are destined, without need of other approbation than that of the

definitors--who entrust to these heads of houses the administration

of the sacraments and the spiritual cultivation of those souls, in

the respective territory where the convent is located, a superior

being elected for each convent. This is done independently of the

bishops. Likewise the definitors of each order in their meetings

appoint various of the most learned and experienced men, to whom is

entrusted and delegated the faculty of giving dispensation in regard

to the obstacles of marriage, and the exercise of other favors and

privileges contained in the pontifical briefs. Those powers are never

exercised if the diocesans are intra duas dietas, [31] without their

permission and approbation; and always this is done [only] in cases

of evident necessity.

720. The provincials visit their provinces annually; and the said

religious not only in what concerns their profession and regular

observance, but also in what relates to their activities as curas. The

diocesan prelates appoint their outside vicars for those territories

which are in charge of the orders. They almost always avail themselves

of those same religious for that, because of the great lack of secular

priests. The religious submit to the visitation of the diocesan in

matters touching the erection of chaplaincies, charitable works, the

inspection of wills, and confraternities that are not exempt. They

resist only what includes the violation of their privileges granted

by the supreme pontiffs to the said holy orders for the purpose of

the propagation of the faith in regions so distant. Such privileges,

although not used in other parts of the Indias, ought to be maintained

in Philipinas, for reasons that will be stated below. This is what

has been observed from the discovery of the said islands until the

present time; and the contrary has not been ordered by the king as

patron, by the royal Council of the Indias, or by the apostolic see,

although they have had full knowledge of the cause. This method has

been practiced, both before and since the Council of Trent; and there

has been no change in it--not even since the year 1652, when special

provision regarding it was made for Nueva España and Perú; and it

was ordered that the missionary religious of those provinces should

receive collation and canonical institution from the ordinaries of

those countries, in order to continue their exercise as curas; and

that consequently they must submit to the visitation and correction

of the bishops in officio officiando et quoad curam animarum. [32] But

however thoroughly that was placed in execution in those kingdoms, it

could not be carried out in the Philipinas Islands; for there even the

reasons which influenced the exemption of the regulars are in force.

721. It is true that the bishops have always made the strongest efforts

to subject the parish priests who are religious to their jurisdiction;

but they have never been able to succeed in it, for the religious are

unwilling to accept the charge with that burden. The first bishop

of Manila and of all the islands, Don Fray Domingo de Salazar,

tried to establish that subjection. The Observantine Augustinian

fathers and the Franciscans made use of the means which prudence

dictated, in order to quiet their scrupulous consciences. Seeing

that nothing [else] was sufficient, they resigned their missions

before the governor, as vice-patron, protesting that they would care

for the conversion of the heathen, but that they could not keep

the parochial administration of those who were converted, without

the enjoyment of all their privileges. Therefore, his Excellency

was forced to desist from his attempt, as he had no seculars to

whom to entrust that administration. In 1654, the attempt was made

to establish in Philipinas the practice recently adopted in the

kingdoms of Perú and Nueva España by petition of the fiscal of the

royal Audiencia. That body ordered that plan to be carried out, by

a decree of October 22; and since the chapters of the two provinces

of the order, the calced and discalced, were to be held in April of

55, that decree was communicated to them, with the warning that if

they were not obedient they would be deprived of their missions, and

the missionaries of the emoluments which had been assigned them for

their suitable support. All the orders opposed that change, following

logical methods in their defense, and averse to seeing the necessity

of abandoning their missions. But at last, as there was no other way,

the venerable fathers-provincial were reduced to handing over to the

governor and bishops all the ministries in their charge, so that,

as the former was the vice-patron and the latter were the ordinaries,

they might appoint whomever they wished to the curacies.

722. That resignation was handed to the fiscal, and in view of

it, in order that the most suitable provision might be made, with

full knowledge, he asked that writs be made out--first, to show how

many secular clergy were in the four bishoprics; second, so that the

officials of the royal treasury might attest the amount of the stipends

paid to the religious employed in the missions, and third, so that

the provincials might send the names of their subordinates employed in

the missions. That was ordered by a decree of May 10 in the said year

1655. It resulted that, in all, 254 religious were occupied in 252

missions; that the royal treasury only paid stipends corresponding to

141 missionaries; and that there were only 59 suitable secular priests

in all the islands. The fiscal, seeing that according to the report

the procedure that had been taken could not be maintained, in order

to obviate the inconveniences that would ensue to the natives and

inhabitants of those dominions if the religious were withdrawn from

the villages, petitioned on January 4, 1656, that without innovation

the orders be maintained in the missions, until it should be proved

that there was a sufficient supply of secular priests to take care of

them; and that they be assisted with the usual emoluments. He asked

and charged the reverend fathers-provincial to look after the spiritual

administration with their accustomed zeal. The royal Audiencia having

so ordered in toto by an act of February 17, the holy orders returned

very willingly to apply their shoulders to the work. Those acts

were sent to the royal Council of the Indias. The cause having been

discussed there, in view of the reports of the governor (which were

throughout favorable to the orders), and of the manifestos presented

by the orders in justification of their rights, the documents were

approved on October 23, 1666, and the result was to make no innovation

in what had been decided, and it does not appear that any other decree

was enacted against the observance and practice that the religious

have always maintained in those islands. Therefore the archbishop,

having claimed that the appointments for the missions devolved on him

by the form of canonical collation in cases where his Majesty did

not make use of the privilege which belonged to him as patron; and

endeavoring by that means to deprive the orders of the right which

they possess of making those appointments without the intervention

of his Excellency: the royal Council by a decree of September 26,

1687, ordered that the matter be continued in the form in which it

had been administered until then, and that no change be permitted.

723. Shortly after the archbishop of Manila, Don Diego Camacho, making

use of the most powerful means, attempted to subject the religious to

his approbation, visitation, and correction in officio officiando. For

that purpose he had recourse to his Holiness, to whom in the year 1697,

he represented that there were many religious in the islands employed

in more than seven hundred parishes, who had refused and were refusing

to receive the visitation and correction of the diocesans; and he asked

that they be compelled to receive such visitation. Upon seeing that,

his Holiness Clement XI decided (January 30, 1705) that the right

of visiting the parochial regulars belonged to the said archbishop

and other bishops; but he made no mention of the other points which

had been referred to him, and which were also under dispute. This

appears from the brief despatched in this regard. This brief having

been presented in the Council of the Indias, it appears that it was

confirmed on April 22 of the same year. The said archbishop ordered

it to be executed (October 26, 1707) with the most strenuous efforts;

but he encountered in this such dissensions and disturbances that it

is considered advisable to omit the relation thereof. It was necessary

to resign the ministries once more, the superiors [of the orders]

protesting that they would never agree to such a subjection, and

that the archbishop could make appointments to the curacies as he

wished. By that means his Excellency was so balked that, the cause

having been fully proved, the evidence received, and the proofs

adduced by both parties, the petition introduced by the orders was

allowed on March 30, 1708; and it was ordered that the necessary

official statements be given them. The authority of the governor

was interposed extra-judicially, and he ordered that the religious

should occupy the abandoned curacies, and that there should be no

change. The archbishop himself, who had put forward that claim,

was obliged to confess that he could not put it into practice.

724. It was sufficiently clear by that alone that the holy orders have

more than enough reason for the independence from the bishops that they

enjoy in their parochial ministry. For if they did not have in their

primitive being the causes and motives for the apostolic privileges

which exempted them, even from that of the ordinaries, it would not

have been possible for them to maintain themselves so long with that

prerogative which could not subsist in the kingdoms of América. But,

since there are some persons who, as their understanding is on a

par with their bodily senses, register events on the surface only

without going within for the reasons (from which the report has been

originated and spread through Europa, that the orders of Philipinas

have seized all the authority without other reason than because they

wish it so), I am compelled to vindicate them from so atrocious a

calumny by making known some of the reasons why they have made (as

they still do) so strong a resistance to this subjection. I shall

first discuss all the orders in common, and then our reformed branch

in particular. But I give warning that I do not intend to transform my

history into formal charges. Adequate apologetic writings, founded on

law, have been scattered through those holy families to demonstrate the

exemption that attends them. Quite recently, in the former year 1734,

a formal statement was presented in the royal Council by twenty-three

graduates of the famous University of Salamanca (confirmed by eight

who are not regulars) in which their testimonies agree in affirming

that the religious act according to the dictates of conscience in

administering the curacies without subjecting themselves to the

bishops. Some add that they are bound in conscience to resist this

subjection, as it is an imposition on the regular religious. Therefore,

I shall treat that matter simply as an historian, taking for granted

the right which, according to various apostolic privileges, supports

them in not subjecting themselves to the bishops; and, in case the

latter attempt this, in abandoning the ministries.

§ II

Some of the arguments that support the orders in Philipinas in not

submitting to the visitation of the ordinaries in regard to the

ministries.

725. That various supreme pontiffs, especially St. Pius V, conceded to

the regulars of the Indias the privilege of obtaining their ministries

with complete independence from the bishops, no one is so bold as to

deny. The motive for that concession was the lack of secular priests

in those countries. Consequently, the question (or doubt) as to

whether that indult is or is not to be observed is not one of law,

but one of pure fact. Its solution depends on ascertaining whether

there are in those regions a sufficient number of clergy suitable

to serve their parishes and exercise the care of souls. For, in case

there are, it is not denied that that duty belongs to the seculars;

for it is the peculiar duty of the religious to devote themselves to

God in the retirement of their cloisters. If, on this hypothesis,

the regulars should desire or be permitted to take charge of the

said spiritual administration, they ought to submit to the bishops

in officio officiando for then the cause of that indult would not

exist. The fact of the exemption having ceased for the great part in

the kingdoms of Nueva España and Perú, did not arise from the said

privileges having been revoked (for they are not, especially that

of St. Pius V) but only and necessarily because the impelling cause

for conceding such exemption did not actually exist. For, in those

kingdoms, the number of secular ecclesiastics increased so greatly

that enough of them were found to administer the holy sacraments to

their inhabitants. Since the motive has ceased, the privilege cannot

endure. Now then, I suppose that there are more than two millions

of people in the Philipinas Islands who confess the name of Christ,

through the influence of the fervent zeal of the religious. In the year

1655, as was stated in the preceding paragraph, for two hundred and

fifty-two missions in charge of the orders there were only fifty-nine

secular priests. In 1705, when that subjection was attempted so

earnestly by Archbishop Don Diego Camacho, the parishes were extended

by his deposition to the number of more than seven hundred. For those

parishes, according to the certification of the secretary of that

prelate, only sixty-seven secular priests were found in his diocese;

and of those only ten were suitable for administering the missions,

as the rest were occupied in the duties of necessary residence. At

present, the number of seculars is not much greater nor will it ever

be--partly because those of Europa do not have any inducement to go

to those islands, and partly because, since the Spaniards there are so

few, there cannot be many persons sprung from these kingdoms who rise

to the priesthood; further, because the Indians are generally unfit for

that holy ministry. In view of all the above, who does not see that

the orders avail themselves of their right in resisting the burden

of the visitation which the bishops are trying to impose on them?

726. Nor does it avail the opposition that Pope Clement XI determined

and declared, at the petition of the said archbishop, on January 30,

1705, "that the right of visiting the regulars in what concerns

the care of souls and the administration of the holy sacraments

belongs to the archbishop of Manila and the other bishops of the

Philipinas Islands." For besides the defects of misrepresentation and

surreptitious measures [obrepcion y subrepcion] which were then made

manifest, contained in that brief, the said pontifical declaration,

whether it be conceived as a law, as an order, or as a sentence,

cannot fail to be appealed from. This is what the orders did,

appealing to his Holiness, alleging before the archbishop who put

the brief into execution the motives which, according to law, they

rightfully had for resisting that visitation. In order to establish

the truth that the religious had many arguments in their favor, it is

not necessary to adduce other proof than what results from the fact

that the said archbishop, who was the person most interested, desisted

from the execution of the brief. Other diocesans of the islands who,

notwithstanding the above-cited brief, have tolerated and tolerate the

exemption of the orders for no other reason than the actual scarcity

of secular priests, have authorized that procedure. Therefore, they

practically admit that the indult of St. Pius remains in force, and

that the mandate of Clement XI is impossible whenever the religious

abandon the curacies.

727. Besides, the same fact that the said metropolitan did not put

into execution the above-cited brief of Clement XI as its nature

and authority demanded, gave one to understand either that it was

notoriously surreptitious, or especially grievous and productive of

some scandal, or of irreparable injury to the Catholic religion;

for only through such motives can the mandates of the pope be

suspended. If the first be correct, it is an implied or virtual

declaration that the said order is null and void; therefore,

the regulars can legally proceed with the administration of the

missions without subjecting themselves to the ordinaries, making use

of their former privileges. If the second or third--his illustrious

Lordship having offered in that same act in which he provided for the

suspension of the brief, to inform the pope of the predominant reasons

that determined him to supersede the said brief--in the meantime,

until the said information shall reach him, and the effect that is

produced by it on his Holiness's mind shall be made known to the

religious, the fact that they avail themselves of their privileges

in the administration of the parishes cannot be imputed to them as

guilt. The reason for that is, that they cannot believe that that

prelate will neglect to inform his Holiness of the motives why he

did not proceed with the execution [of the brief]. The fact that the

Roman court has not made any new provision in regard to that matter

shows that, just as in virtue of the allegations of the regulars

the said archbishop found it necessary not to carry his pretension

farther, so likewise the supreme pontiff has tacitly approved and has

left the religious with the exemption that they enjoyed before the

above-mentioned brief. Therefore, in regard to either law, they will

safely be able to proceed with the administration of the churches in

their charge without the intervention of the bishops.

728. Much less can the said brief of Clement XI stand in regard

to the decree that "the regulars cannot resign from the missions

or parishes under penalty of censures, loss of benefices, and

other arbitrary penalties." For this clause alone is sufficient to

persuade one that the representations that were made to obtain that

decision from the pope were not ruled by truth. For had his Holiness

well understood all the circumstances, how could he have issued an

order from which would follow the inference of injuries terrible and

irremediable to the holy orders? If those religious, in so far as

they are curas, were to become subject to the bishops, they would

not hold their curacies as a reward after serving his Majesty so

much, but would regard their position as lower than that of those

who remain free from responsibility in their communities. For the

latter have no other obligation than to obey their superior or his

two subordinates, so that there can never be any contrariety in the

orders or any doubt for the religious of what he is to do; while

the former, after all their anxiety, have to study very carefully

over obeying their legitimate superiors and in keeping the bishops

content (which, as will be said, would both be impossible things),

whence must originate many disturbances and much restlessness. And

if it is intolerable that he who serves his king with faithfulness be

not rewarded, the order would be inverted on this occasion; for after

so much labor they could only succeed in multiplying subjections, and

be less free in their ministries. The orders would receive as their

reward the abolition of the exemption which the holy see conceded to

them as a recompense for the noble fruits which they have gathered

in the universal Church by their virtue and holiness--preserving it

fresh and beautiful by watering it with the blood of so many martyrs,

by which they made it illustrious; and increasing it with new worlds,

provinces, and millions of children whom they have subjected to it,

of which the histories are full. They will be obliged to place in the

curacies those who solicit them the most urgently, importuning by means

from which the more retiring and the more worthy shrink. They will

expose their religious to danger even after they have well fulfilled

the obligations of their ministries, in case that they are not to

the liking of the ordinary--besides many other annoyances which will

inevitably come upon the regulars. And if the orders have no other

means to avoid that and the rest which will be stated below than to

resign their missions, how could the benign pontiff oblige them to

stay therein if he knew those circumstances fully?

729. It cannot be denied that the office of parish priest even with

the exemption from the ordinary is altogether accessory, and a heavy

responsibility superadded to the religious estate. For in order that

they might administer in the said form, an apostolic dispensation

has been necessary which is founded on grave reasons--and that with

attention to only what the religious estate demands from him who has

entered it, according to what is taught by common law and the doctrine

of the saints. If that method of administering with exemption from

the ordinary is changed, and the regular who has charge of a parish

should as such become subject to the correction and visitation of

the ordinary, and in other respects to the heads of his order, it is

certain that it would be an innovation so great that they would be

quite changed in their respect for public opinion, and in their mode

of life; and the religious would be like a man cleft in two, those

in some houses being subject to one superior and those in others

to another, all of different hierarchies, and with the dangerous

consequences that will be stated. Will the piety of the pope bind

the religious to so great a cross?

730. Let us suppose (as is feasible) that the bishop were to become

displeased with any order, or with any missionary. In such case

he could maintain or remove the missionary against the will of his

provincial by very specious pretexts. If necessary, he could even

threaten the latter with censures, in order to make him submit to

his authority. How fecund a source of perdition and total ruin that

would be for the orders, any one can conceive; but only those who

have experience in those islands could perfectly comprehend it. Let

the regulars of América tell how they have to tolerate it through

compulsion. If a religious is found lacking, and the offense has

the appearance on one side of belonging to morals and life and on

the other to the office of cura, the poor missionary is left in the

sane position as those goods which the law styles mostrencos [i.e.,

goods which have no known owner], and shall belong to the first one

who seizes them; and even he is in much worse condition, because

of the contests that must necessarily ensue. For, if the provincial

commences to form a process and it comes afterward to the notice of the

ordinary, the latter will issue an act--and, if it should be necessary,

a censure--ordering the said provincial to quash the entire process,

to deliver it to him, and to desist from the cause by saying that he

alone has the power to try it. The provincial appeals to the judge

delegated by his Holiness and he, as he has entire jurisdiction of

the case, commands the ordinary with the warning of censure to leave

the cause alone and deliver up the acts. The latter not obeying,

the matter may be carried to such an extreme that two ecclesiastical

prelates excommunicate each other, and threaten each other with

interdict and the cessation of divine service. This is not fancy,

for that has happened in like case in Manila. That is the greatest

danger since, because of the great distance, redress moves with

very dilatory steps. But in the meanwhile the suits concerning the

religious are proceeding from tribunal to tribunal, contrary to the

clearly expressed privileges of his exemption.

731. But let us suppose that the regular parish priest is unworthy

to persevere in his mission because of secret sins, and that, even

if he remain in it, he may run some risk of his salvation. The

provincial learns of the matter secretly. In such a case, justice

requires two things--one, the punishment of the guilty person; and

the other, that the delinquent shall not lose his reputation by the

declaration of his fault. Charity urges him to remove his subordinate

from danger. If that regular administers without canonical institution

and subjection to the ordinary, everything will be settled very easily,

and justice and charity will be satisfied without any infamy to the

criminal or any dishonor to the order. But if he is subject to the

ordinary, the provincial cannot remove him by his own authority; but

he must have recourse to the ordinary himself, and to the vice-patron,

and then those two agree on the removal. In that case, what can the

provincial say to them? If he should say that he will impart to them

in all secrecy the [nature of the] crime of his subject, that means

is harsh and less safe. The ordinary and the governor, as the father

and the master, may correct and punish the faults of their inferiors

without the least wound to their honor; and must a provincial do so by

dis-accrediting his subordinate with the heads of the community? If

it is decided that the superior do not tell the kind of crime, but

that he asseverate in general terms that there is cause to remove the

religious from that place, the trouble is not avoided. First, they may

think that he speaks thus in order to go ahead with his oldtime custom;

second, because even though the cause of removing him be not a fault,

it can easily be alleged to be one, and the fact that he does not offer

more explanation in that case comes to be the same as manifesting

its gravity by his silence. Finally, honor is very delicate and is

lessened by rumor and suspicion. Since God made the religious exempt

from the secular judges, and the apostolic see exempted them from

the ordinaries, the religious, when they have not professed as curas,

will find themselves without courage to assume that charge with so many

dangers and burdens. And will the apostolic see force them to that?

732. The fact that common law decides that the regular parish priest,

as such, is subject to the visit of the ordinary furnishes no argument

against my statement. For, leaving aside the fact that the supreme

pontiff may abolish such a law--as in fact was done by Pius V, after

the holy Council of Trent, while Urban VIII confirmed this action

afterward; and various statements of the most eminent cardinals

favor this when there is a lack of secular priests as happens in the

Philipinas--it is answered that common law which orders such subjection

is only in point when they wish to persevere in being parish priests;

but does not order that they be so under compulsion. If a secular

priest to whom the curacy has been given permanently by canonical

institution can resign it, and the law does not therefor disqualify

him, why cannot the regulars make that same resignation in order not

to live with the risks from having so many superiors? The regulars

are not curas for justice, but for charity, and they have taken

charge of the missions for lack of other ministers. They do not

administer them through right of proprietorship, but are removable

at will. Consequently, they can be deprived of those missions even

though they live like saints. Is it possible that when the will of

another is sufficient to remove them from their curacies, their own

volition will not suffice with the knowledge of the dangers which

will follow from such a charge? Further, is the regular incapable

of being a proper parish priest, or is he not? If he is, why, if the

secular cura is perpetual--so that, if he does not become unworthy,

neither the ordinary nor the vice-patron can remove him--will not the

regular also remain a cura, supposing the incumbrance of collation and

canonical institution? Why does that institution give all favorable

things to the secular and deprive the regular of all relief? It

imposes upon the regular the duty of feeding the sheep. It binds him

to the territory, so that the provincial cannot remove him without

the consent of the vice-patron and of the ordinary. He loses in great

measure the privilege of the exemption, and with those duties does

not have the comfort of being secure in his curacy, for he does not

hold it for life. Neither is he master of the emoluments which the

parish yields, unless it be imagined that he be dispensed from his

vow of poverty. Consequently, he only gets the burdens by reason of

the collation, and nothing to his advantage. If it be said that he

is not capable of being a parish priest, why the pledge in this new

form of administration?

733. Those who are striving for the subjection of the regulars

as parish priests generally oppose the fact that that form of

administration has been introduced into América, and that therefore it

might serve as an example for the Philipinas Islands. But that argument

is not convincing, and contains many remarkable disparities. First,

because there are plenty of secular priests in Peru and Nueva España;

therefore the bishops rightly compelled the religious either to abandon

the administration of the parishes, or to submit to the visitation. For

the motive of the privilege of St. Pius V was lacking, not by any

revocation that he made of it, but because its force had ceased,

its object not being realized. Second, because no one will say that

the orders of América were obliged to remain in the charge of souls,

with the insupportable burden of the visitations. On the contrary,

they agreed to it willingly in order not to abandon the parishes. The

fact that they consented to it there is no proof that they have to do

the same in Philipinas. Third, because the experience of what happened

in Mexico and Perú in regard to the diminution of strict observance

by the regulars, which originated beyond doubt from that subjection,

ought to open the eyes of the superiors of orders in Philipinas to

prevent such harm in their houses. This is not to cast blame on those

who are now enjoying the curacies in this manner in the said kingdoms;

we ought to consider them all as very excellent religious. But it

is an undoubted fact that, with the practice by which the missions

are maintained, in a manner almost perpetual, the provincials not

being able to dispose of their subordinates with complete liberty,

that oldtime strict observance which was planted in those provinces

at their first erection has been greatly obscured. Human nature

is easily inclined to what promotes liberty; and as St. Bernard

teaches, the same ones who love retirement because of their austere

training in the rigors of the order from childhood, when they come

to taste the life that is not so well regulated, desire, procure,

and solicit it. Nothing of that has been seen hitherto in Philipinas,

where, however much they have the parishes in charge, the holy orders

flourish in the most strict observance--for no other reason than that,

if a religious sins, the remedy is quite near at hand since it is

administered solely by the head of the order.

734. Fourth, because there are things more to be wondered at than to

be followed. Although the religious orders are alike, we see that,

while the Church is also one and the same, one person elects one

condition which the other does not adopt. From the same order some go

to the Indias, and others do not go. Then why cannot the same thing

happen in regard to being parish priests subject to the ordinary? Let

the histories of the Indias be read. All of them consider earnestly

whether the religious are to be curas of souls, and much more whether

they are to be curas of justice. Resolutions of entire provinces will

be found on the question whether they should abandon the missions;

generals and illustrious men of the same orders will be found who

approved it; and the reader will find bitter complaints for having

admitted such a burden, recognizing it as the seminary of interminable

discords. For, if those on the mainland, seeing a furious hurricane

on the sea which is dashing the ships to pieces and endangering the

lives of those who are sailing, fear to embark, how much should

the regulars in Philipinas take warning from the new practice in

América? How can one wonder that they follow the example of those

who abandoned the missions joyfully, rather than of those who now

live sorrowfully because they adopted the new method? The fact is,

that no one can take it ill that each one procures what he thinks

best so long as he uses means that are not unlawful in order to get

it. This is what the religious are doing in the present case, taking

care that no detriment follows to their estate and profession. For,

before the souls of others, one ought to watch over his own. Let

it not be (as says St. Paul) that we, preaching to others, behold

ourselves in the irreparable danger of becoming reprobates.

735. Fifth, because the provinces of Philipinas are not, nor can

they be, like those of América, but are as distinct as they are

separate. The latter include, besides the ministries, many community

convents where there are plenty of religious, who greatly exceed

the parish priests in number. The former have but one convent apiece

in Manila, which enjoys an adequate community as do the convents of

Europa. The other houses are located in the villages of the Indians

where those who have charge of the spiritual administration live, and

there is no more community at times than the head of the house alone;

and at the most he has one or two associates, if they are considered

necessary for the exercise of the duties of the mission. Since that

is true, an undeniable inconvenience will follow, namely: if they

are subjected to the visitation and correction of the bishops all can

call themselves not regulars--those outside, because they are parish

priests; and those of Manila, because they have to go to take the

places of the others in case of absence, sickness, or death. They

cannot be excused from that by either the actual definitors of the

outgoing provincials, and all to have to be employed if there is a

lack of ministers. Since the provinces are composed of them almost

entirely, and the consent of the ordinary and the vice-patron would

be necessary for their removal, there would be some provinces which

would have the name of religious government and in reality would be

under the secular government, dependent on those two wills, to which

they would make no vow of obedience. It is a fact that it would be

a real change which those religious would have to endure, from free

and unhindered evangelical ministers to seculars bound in justice to

the care of souls. Can it be considered ill that they resist so great

a transformation, and leave the missions if they find no other way?

736. Sixth, and last, because in América the practice of presenting

three religious for each mission in the form ordered by the king can

be easily observed, as there are many religious. But that presentation

is mortally impossible in Philipinas because of the great scarcity of

religious. For although the orders make the most painstaking efforts

to get them from España, they succeed in this with difficulty. For

lack of workers, they are often obliged to entrust the administration

of many villages to one person, and sometimes to abandon districts in

toto. Then how can three be presented for each ministry when there

is scarcely one for each mission? Besides, since there are so many

languages, there is no order which does not minister in four or five

languages; and although all of them apply themselves to the study

of the languages, few attain them so perfectly that they can explain

entirely the height of the mysteries of our holy faith; and since there

are so many missions, what order can present three times the number of

ministers who will worthily serve the missions? Let us suppose a case

also where there would be a sufficient number of capable religious. On

that account there would be no assurance of better results; for

of the three who would be presented, it is possible that the least

capable would be chosen, as there would be no accurate information

of his being less competent. That would be known better within his

own order, where by continual intercourse it is learned who is most

suitable for the ministry. Besides that, there might be a religious

whom it would be proper to retire because of his demerits, but by

virtue of the fact that the prelates have to present three religious

for each mission, they are obliged to include him in the presentation

for the sole purpose of completing the number. Who will prevent a

froward one from slandering the electors, discrediting the worthy,

and gaining the favor of friends and relatives by putting forth all

his efforts to attain the desired liberty in order to escape from the

observance and the cloister? Oh, beginning so full of troubles! If

one had to describe all the troubles, it would be necessary to use

much paper. Let the above suffice, so that it may be recognized that

the reason why the holy orders resist subjection to the bishops is

not so much for the sake of preserving their authority, as because

they see the grave dangers that must ensue for them. Finally, they

exercise their right in that, of which no one can complain, for they

are doing wrong to no one.

§ III

Continuation of the matter of the preceding section, with especial

bearing on our discalced Recollect branch.

737. The reasons thus far advanced touch all the orders in common. Let

us now pass on to speak of our own in particular. There is no doubt

that St. Pius V conceded the above-mentioned exemption to the regulars

because they were employed in the conversion of the Indians, and so

that they might proceed in their apostolic missions. That reason is

clearly expressed in the bull; consequently, whenever it is found to

exist, the orders ought to be maintained in the possession of that

grace so long as it is not annulled by express revocation. Hence it

is that, until the present, the bishops have not attempted to subject

the missionaries who are laboring to allure the heathen to our holy

faith and withdraw them from the darkness of their infidelity; for in

order to effect those ends they acknowledge in its force the privilege

of St. Pius V. I agree then that all the missions held by our holy

reformed branch in the said islands ought to be considered as active

missions, where the religious, although as parish priests they minister

spiritually to those already converted, exercise also the arduous

employ of missionaries, as the villages are surrounded by infidels,

whose conversion they secure by the most diligent efforts. Therefore,

the parishes of our jurisdiction ought to be considered not as villages

of converts [doctrinas] already formed, where the only care is to

administer the holy sacraments, but as new conquests where the flock

of Christ is continually increased by apostolic attempts.

738. There are at present one hundred and five villages (besides

those called active missions, which do not enter into this account)

at present in the charge of our holy discalced branch, and they

lie in more than twenty islands. In the principal island of Luzón,

where the city of Manila is located, the order administers fifteen

villages; in that of Mindanao, the second in size, thirty-four;

in that of Parágua and others of the Calamianes, twelve; in that of

Mindóro, twenty-four; in that of Romblón and its outlying islands,

eleven; and in that of Masbáte and its intermediate islands, nine. It

is seldom that one of those villages has no infidel inhabitants;

and the religious are kept quite busy in converting them. For

beginning with the island of Luzón and the mountains of Zambáles,

the villages of Marivélez, Cabcáben, Móron, and Bagác are surrounded

by blacks who are there called "de Monte" [i.e., "of the mountain"]

[33] who are being constantly converted to our holy faith, for they

are of a very peaceful disposition. Súbic is a new conquest, where

various Indians are settling who wander about and are forgotten by the

Christianity of those districts. The settlements that follow from that

point to Bolináo are so near to the black Zambals and Aetas that,

when the latter revolt, one cannot go there without running great

risk of his life. But when peace makes them tractable, some souls

are obtained for God. The villages of Uguit and Babáyan, which have

recently been founded in this century with the converted blacks and

wild Indians, [Zimarrónes] clearly attest that fact. In Mindanao

the territory conquered by our religious, namely, the district of

Cagayáng and the province of Carágha, ought to be considered as the

rose among the thorns, oppressed by Moros, Mindanáos, and Malanáos,

and by infidel Tagabalóyes and Manóbos. Of those peoples, the former

keep the evangelical ministers in continual fear, because of their

persecutions; the latter keep us in a perpetual mission for converting

them to our holy Catholic faith. As proof of the great and continual

advance of Christianity there, it suffices to state that at the end

of the last century the tributes which those who have been subdued

paid to the king did not equal the expenses occasioned to the royal

treasury by the maintenance of the said province; in the year 1720,

the expenses and collections were equal; but now the royal income

exceeds the expenses necessary for conservation. [34] Since the

expenses have not decreased--for there is always the same number

of infantry forces in the presidios of Tándag, Catél, and Lináo,

to which all the expense is reduced--it is inferred that the royal

tributes have increased, and consequently the number of Christians.

739. There are so many heathen in the islands of Calamiánes, especially

in the island of Parágua, that at least one hundred heathens will be

found for each Christian. In the island of Mindóro only the coasts are

conquered, and heathen fill all the interior of the island. The same

success as I said was obtained in the province of Carágha has also been

secured in the above two provinces; although a very notable decrease

of Christianity has taken place in them because of the invasions

of the Moros of which I shall speak later. The island of Zibuyán,

whose mountains are peopled by infidels--who, as they are exceedingly

obstinate in regard to conversion, give us considerable anxiety,

although some converts are obtained among them--is located in the

Romblón district. The island of Mæstre de Campo, formerly peopled

by Indians who were almost all apostates from religion, has now in

great part embraced the faith through the efforts of the religious,

who scarcely ten years ago founded a new village peopled by families

of the said Indians. It is not many years since the wild Indians

[Zimarrónes] were feared in the island of Masbáte but these are now so

few, through the persuasions of the religious, that one can cross the

island without danger. The villages have increased greatly with the

people who have been reduced to a Christian life and civilization. The

village of Camasóso is a new colony peopled by that before indomitable

people; and the same has happened in the island of Burías. Now then,

I ask, since this is so (and it is a fact, and one that can be proved

whenever necessary), in what are these ministries or curacies different

from those in Nueva España and Perú, when St. Pius V conceded the

exemption of the regulars? What difference is there between those

missions or parishes and those founded in the Philipinas Islands

when they began to be subject to the crown of España? There appears

to be no difference. If the privilege conceded to the religious in

América with those circumstances was considered justifiable, and was

also observed in the said islands at the beginning, our discalced

religious will proceed quite conformably with right in resisting any

change with all their strength, as long as their individual parish

priests are also, as stated, engaged as missionaries.

740. More force is given to this argument if one considers that,

even in carrying on missions in infidel lands, our religious could

not suffer greater hardships than those which they endure in the

said ministries. That it may be seen that this is not imagination,

I shall give a rough outline of what happened recently from the

year 1720 until the present. I shall do it as briefly as possible,

for those regrettable tragedies will occasion great extension to this

history in due time. It is well known that our villages are the most

exposed to the invasions of the Moros; consequently, they always

serve as the theater of war and as the object of disasters. In the

said year, then, they attacked the province of Calamiánes with a

powerful fleet. Landing on the island of Linacapán they burned the

village, convent, and church; outraged the sacred images; and killed

with lance-thrusts the venerable father, Fray Manuel de Jesus Maria,

a native of Lupiana in Alcarria--while another religious who was there

was able to escape miraculously, at the cost of incredible hardships

that he suffered, by hiding in the mountain. In the year 1721 they did

the same thing in the village and island of La-Agutáya, [35] and in

Manàol, which is located in the island of Mindóro. The evangelical

ministers fled thence in a small boat and thus saved their lives,

although after very prolonged hardships; and from there they took

refuge in the mountains, in order to endure, without other relief

than that of God, the discomforts that one can imagine. In the year

1722 the Moros landed on the island of Cúyo, and although they could

not take the redoubt, for the Indians (captained by our religious)

defended it bravely, one can imagine what the latter suffered in a

siege so immeasurably prolonged. In the year 23, the Moros bordering

on the province of Carágha besieged the presidio of Catél. Father

Fray Benito de San Joseph, son of Casál de Cáceres in Estremadura,

who, as its minister, undertook to attend to its defense, was left so

exhausted from the fatigues of war in which no relief came, that after

the retreat of the Moros, he lived but little longer; for he gave up

his soul to God amid the plaudits of victory. Almost at the same time,

in the island of Camiguín, the religious were compelled to hide in

the mountains, where they were besieged by many fears. In Parágua,

they killed father Fray Juan de la Purificacion (a native of Atéa in

the kingdom of Aragon) with an insidious poison. The invasions of the

said Mahometans were continual until the year 30 through Calamiánes

and other districts; for, although they were not seen in large fleets,

a great number of pirates were never lacking, and they caused those

persecuted ministers repeated troubles. But in the above-mentioned

year they had the boldness to assault the presidio of Taytáy [36]

with such swiftness and fury that two of the three religious who

were there succeeded by great good luck, and without any preparation,

in retiring afoot to the mountains; while the other, only saving the

chalices and ciborium, retired to the redoubt where he suffered the

hardships of the siege.

741. In the year 31 they attacked the village of Culión; in 32, that

of Linacapán and all the villages of Parágua, where they committed

innumerable acts of cruelty. In 33 they ruined the village of Calatán;

and father Fray Antonio de Santa Ana (whose death I shall relate

later), had no other opportunity than to flee to the mountain afoot

and naked as he was in his bed, so that one can imagine what he

suffered. In the year 34 they destroyed the villages of Malampáyan,

Dumarán, and Linacapan. Father Fray Domingo de San Agustin, a native

of Aldeguela near Teruel, while escaping to the mountain remained for

five days in a cellar with the water up to his waist without eating

anything else than herbs. As a consequence of that and other hardships

that he suffered on various occasions, various illnesses came upon

him which finally ended his life, he refusing to turn his back on the

evangelical enterprises, although he could have done so. Father Fray

Juan de la Virgen de Moncayo (a native of Añon in Aragon) retiring

first to the redoubt of Taytáy and then to the mountains, as he had

done at other times, became so ill that he surrendered his soul,

though always fighting, in the island of Mindóro. The Moros went to

that island also in the above-mentioned year and attacked several

villages, and the religious remained in the mountains for a long time;

this caused father Fray Joseph de San Agustin (a son of Azarét, in the

said kingdom of Aragon) to contract his last illness, and he retired

to Manila, where he ended the miseries of this life in order to pass

to life eternal. In the year 35 they became masters of the villages of

Parágua, whose Christian faith is little less than lost. In the year

36 they again besieged the presidio of Taytáy; and although it was

possible to defend it at the cost of miracles, in one of the assaults

a bullet took away the life of father Fray Antonio de Santa Ana, a

native of Gandia in the kingdom of Valencia. In the years 37 and 38

the Moros, already masters of the sea, filled Calamiánes and Mindóro

with horror. In the year 39 they had so closed the passage from the

said islands to Manila that for more than six months nothing could be

heard from the religious living in those fields of Christendom. In the

year 40 they went to the coast of Mindóro opposite Luzón, where they

inhumanly killed father Fray Leon de San Joseph (a son of Peraléda in

Castilla) and captured another religious who was going as missionary to

Mindanáo; and it was a miracle that they did not capture all those who

were returning from the chapter-meeting. In that same period, although

I do not know definitely the year, they also landed at Hingoóg, a

village of the province of Carágha; in the island of Camiguín, which

belongs to the alcaldeship of Zibú; and on the coast of Zambáles at

the boundaries of the village of Cabangán. The inference from the

above is that the missionary religious had to hide in the caverns

of the mountains in all districts; to look for their sheep in the

deserts; go without food, or live on herbs of the field; to suffer

the inclemencies of the weather, which is a martyrdom in Philipinas;

and always to flee from one part to another without other relief

by sea or land than fears and fatigues. What is lacking, then,

to those ministers of the evangelical doctrine to enable them to

say that they are toiling in apostolic missions? Now, did those who

began the conquest of América or those of Philipinas endure the more

grievous and continual persecutions? Therefore, if those were worthy

of receiving the exemption, because they were employed at the cost

of their lives in the promulgation of the faith, no change ought to

be introduced in these missions.

742. The procedure of our religious in resisting the subjection

of the ordinaries is justified even more by that which causes the

anxiety of the ministers, if one considers the fact (on which their

resistance is founded) that the proper administration of those souls

is morally impossible. For that we must assume that the king assigns

one missionary to each five hundred tributes or families. But our

districts, especially those of the islands of Luzón, Calamiánes,

and Mindóro, although each does not exceed three hundred tributes;

need each one or two religious in order that they may be looked after

as is necessary for the preaching and for the [spiritual] food of

the holy sacraments. This arises from the fact that each mission

is extended over a distance of twenty or thirty leguas, without

its being possible to make any other arrangement. For although the

reduction into large settlements has been attempted, for the more

suitable spiritual administration it has been impossible to attain

that. On the contrary, whenever it has been attempted, Christianity

has decreased. In the islands of Mindanáo, Romblón, and Masbáte,

the missions have more people, for they contain from six to eight

hundred tributes. But, for the same reason, each one needs three or

four religious; and even that number must be on the road continually

in order to fulfil their obligations as parish priests. Hence it

results (the stipends not being received in proportion to the number

of the religious but in proportion to the tributes), that they have to

maintain three and sometimes four religious with what the king assigns

for one minister. It is endured with the greatest kind of poverty,

and they even lack the necessities for the maintenance of life.

743. I suppose also that, when once the new form of administration

would be established according to the subjection that is claimed,

it would follow that each ministry would have a prior appointed in

the chapters, and a cura assigned by the ordinary with canonical

institution. For this is the observance in América, in order to save

the freedom of the elections in what concerns the regular superiors,

and in order to prevent the religious who are curas from being free

from the vow of obedience. Of these, the parish priest cares for

the administration, the prior looks after matters pertaining to the

regular estate but cannot assist in what pertains to the instruction

[doctrina], for generally he does not know the language. The former

has increased expenses with the visit of the bishop and other matters

relating thereto; and the latter, with the journeys to the chapter

and the visitation of the provincial; and all these expenses must be

paid by the stipends of the mission, for there is no other source

of income. Consequently, it is inferred that it would be necessary

in this case, to reduce the ministries to a new form and assign one

single cura to each five hundred tributes. It would be doing well if

the product of those tributes sufficed for the maintenance of the

two religious, prior and parish priest, with the other unavoidable

and necessary expenses. But if at present two priests scarcely

suffice to administer two hundred families well in our villages,

how could a single one look after five hundred families? Then, if

(and this could be proved with exactness) the children or neophytes

begged the bread of the teaching of the faith, there would be no

one to attend to that need. Therefore, our holy reformed branch

foreseeing so formidable and unavoidable consequences do very well

in abandoning the missions. For there is no reason why they should

load injuries upon themselves which cannot be corrected afterward,

and of which their prelates must render account to God.

744. Let us conclude this matter by stating one other motive for the

justification of our religious in resisting exercise as parish priests,

when one tries to subject them to the visitation and correction of the

bishops. It is a constant fact that the Christianity of the Philipinas

Islands cannot maintain itself unless numerous missions be continually

taken thither from Europa. For there are few sons of Spaniards there

(to whom only the habit can be given), and of those few the smallest

number are inclined to the religious estate. I state then, that in case

of the said subjection it would be impracticable to take missionaries

there, especially those of our holy discalced branch. Consequently,

the administration of the missions could not be cared for, as is

already seen, when affairs are going to the prejudice of the Catholic

faith. In order to prove the aforesaid, we must take it for granted

that each religious causes an expense of practically one thousand

pesos from the time he leaves his convent in España until he sets foot

in Manila--about one-half of which is paid from the royal treasury,

while the remainder is supplied by the order. To realize that sum,

which amounts to huge figures, the ministries contribute with some

voluntary offerings, and the province applies all its incomes and

alms. Compare this now with that alleged in the preceding number,

and it will be seen that in the said case it would not be possible

for the missionary religious to attend to that necessity. For, even at

present, they have to live like beggars in order that they may assist,

taking from their necessary support what they give, so that they may

support that expense. On the other hand, the province would not be

able to employ its incomes in this either, for it would have to use

them in establishing solidly the convents which are not ministries,

There are five of these, namely: in Manila, in Bagumbáya, in Cavíte,

in San Sebastian, and the convent of La Concepcion in Zibú. Of that

number only the first has a community at present, for the others can

scarcely support two religious apiece. But in the said case it would

be indispensable, so that the province might maintain itself as such,

to place communities in the convents and to apply to them the incomes

that it possesses; and on that account it could not attend to the

expenses of the missions.

745. But let us suppose that some funds existed for those expenses. The

trouble remains that the religious of España would not consent to

go to the islands, if they were informed that they had to be curas,

and submit to the bishop in what they have not professed. Thus has

experience shown by what has happened to our province, because no

religious went from these kingdoms from the year 1692 until that of

1710, during which time Archbishop Camacho was attempting to bring

about the subjection. That is a precedent which induces the strong

suspicion that no one could be found who would voluntarily submit to

correction by a strange prelate, and at times be accused and denounced

in a foreign jurisdiction as he had only promised obedience to his own

superiors. Grant that some would be allured, but those would be the

least capable who would be incited by the perverse desire for greater

freedom. As a rule, when a mission for those islands is now proclaimed,

those who volunteer in their desire for the conversion of souls are

so many that one may choose laborers of excellent qualifications; for

their zeal for the propagation of the gospel and for the spiritual

health of those poor Indians impels them. But were that subjection

inaugurated, what timorous religious after that would leave his cell

(a safe port whither to escape during storms) only to serve in the

employ of cura? That is, any change is accompanied by a very great

alteration; and he who attempts to introduce it must be responsible for

all the consequences, in order to prevent and forestall them. Nor is

it prudent not to oppose oneself to the foregoing, when one foresees

the sequel of conclusions so fatal. Therefore, our holy order opposes

itself to the innovation of this subjection, for it considers the

inevitable injuries that must result. In view of that and many other

losses, it acts most holily in abandoning the missions, in order that

they may remain in the full charge of the bishops.

[Chapter iii deals with the life of certain Recollect religious,

of whom the following labored in the Philippines. Jacinto de San

Fulgencio, the son of Vicente Francisco Claramonte, was born in

Cocentayna, and was received in the convent of Valencia January 17,

1614. He joined the mission to the Philippines which was organized

in 1619; and on his arrival at Manila began to study the languages,

becoming fluent in the Tagálog, Zambal, Bisayan, and Calamian. In 1622

he was sent with Juan de San Nicolás to Caraga, where he worked to

good effect. Later, accompanied by one religious and some converts,

he ascended the river for fifty leguas to Lináo, where his labors

were crowned successfully. He was appointed prior of the convent of

San Joseph in Butuan in 1624, where he continued his work, with the

evident approbation of heaven. In 1626 he became prior of Bacoag, and

later was the first prior of Iguaquét. He was the first to preach to

the Caragas, among whom he remained for ten years, during which time

he erected six convents. In Butuan he worked for four years, where he

converted three thousand people and erected three convents. In 1635

he went to the island of Negros, where he converted six thousand

Indians; and the same year was appointed prior of Tándag, where he

brought order out of chaos. In 1638 he was elected definitor, and in

1640 became prior for the second time of Tándag, and vicar-provincial

of Caraga. He was elected procurator to Spain in 1646, and definitor

with vote in the general chapter in that country, which he reached

in March 1649. His mission which he took from Spain reached Manila

in 1652 and consisted of twenty-one religious. In the next chapter

he was again elected procurator, but he died at Manila in 1656. He

had served as chaplain for the Spanish fleets, and as ambassador to

the natives, in addition to his mission work proper.]

[Section ii of chapter v contains an account of the life of Salvador

del Espiritu Santo, who had formerly been an Augustinian of the

Observant branch, but who joined the Recollects. He went to Manila

in 1634 with the desire to go to Japan, learning some little of

that language for that purpose. After much entreaty he obtained

permission from the provincial of the order to go to Japan in 1635,

but he was unable to effect his purpose. He served as prior in

the Cavite convent, was twice superior of the convent of San Juan

Bautista in Bagnumbáya, prior of the Manila convent, twice definitor;

twice visitor of Calamianes and Mindoro. He was elected procurator in

place of Jacinto de San Fulgencio, and after various setbacks arrived

in Mexico in 1657, where he died in December of that same year.]

[Chapter vi deals with the life of Andrés del Espiritu Santo. That

valiant worker was born in Valladolid in January 1585, his father

being Hernando Tanégo. He made his vows in the convent of Portillo

in 1601, and joining the first Philippine mission arrived at the

islands in 1606. There he was sent immediately to the Zambales coast,

where he founded the village of Masinloc, from which as a center he

carried on his work. In 1609 he was elected vicar-provincial, which

office he kept until 1612. He was elected vicar-provincial for the

second time in 1615; and on the completion of that office in 1618,

being elected procurator, he went to Spain for new missionaries,

of whom he obtained a fine band, returning to Manila in 1622. The

following year he was elected vicar-provincial for the third time,

and in 1624 first definitor. The highest office of the province,

namely, that of provincial, came to him in 1626 and at the end of

his provincialate he asked permission to go to Japan, but in vain; he

therefore continued the work among the Philippine missions until 1632,

when he was again elected provincial. In 1635 he was again definitor,

and at the expiration of that office he was appointed prior of the

Manila convent; thence he retired to the Cavite convent where he

worked with the most vigorous men, although worn out by his excessive

toil. He finally retired to the Manila convent, where he died at the

end of 1657 or the beginning of 1658, at the age of 78.]

[Chapter viii records the death, in 1659, of Nicolás de la Madre de

Dios, who had labored in Cagayán, where he had accomplished most in

quieting an insurrection that had broken out under a native heathen

priest called Salúr.]

[Chapter x contains a bull promulgated by Alexander VII, dated August

5, 1660, confirming a decree of the congregation Propaganda fide of

June 28, 1660 (inserted in the bull) forbidding Recollect religious

who had been sent to the Philippines from turning aside on the way

or unnecessarily delaying their journey. The penalty imposed by the

decree is that such fugitives are to be deprived of all active and

passive vote, and can never hold any dignity or honorary charge in the

order. That same year of 1660, a mission left Spain for the islands

but did not arrive there until 1664.]

DESCRIPTION OF FILIPINAS ISLANDS

[After a prolonged address to Fray Diego Zapata, a high official of

the Franciscan order and of the Inquisition, Fray Letona proceeds with

a description of the Philippines in numbered sections. No. 1 states

that it is written for Zapata's information; no. 2, that the voyage

from Acapulco to Manila is more than 2,500 leguas in length. The

course of the ships in that voyage is given in no. 3. Such parts of

this description as are useful for our purpose are here presented

in full; other parts are omitted, in each case stating the nature of

such matter.]

3. Acapulco, in Mexico, which is the eastern port for the South Sea

and for navigations from Nueva España to Filipinas, is in sixteen and

one-half degrees of latitude. If in voyaging from Acapulco to Filipinas

the ships sail in a straight line from the rising toward the setting

sun, from east to west, without change of latitude, they will arrive

at Baler, [37] a village in the northern part of the further coast of

Manila Island, which is in the same latitude as Acapulco. But usually,

as soon as they set sail from Acapulco, they descend to the eleventh

or the tenth parallel in order to find the winds with which they can

navigate; then they again go northward and follow their former course

to a point five hundred leguas from Manila, and one hundred from the

Ladrones Islands--among which they pass, in a latitude of fifteen

degrees. Thence they sail again to lower latitudes, descending to

barely thirteen and one-half degrees--on which line is the Embocadero

of San Bernardino, one hundred leguas from Manila. Thence the voyage

is made between that same island of Manila--which extends as far

as the Embocadero, and remains on the right hand--and other islands

which lie on the left, to the port of Cabite which is two leguas from

Manila. Ordinarily this voyage is made in three months, although the

return trip is usually much longer--sometimes requiring more than

seven months; while in this year, sixty-two, it lasted eight months.

Distribution of these islands

4. Although they are innumerable, hardly more than forty of the

inhabited Filipinas Islands are subject to the monarchy of España. The

first and chief of these, and the head of all, is that of Luzon. It is

large, being almost three hundred and fifty leguas in circumference;

and has more than twenty bays and ports where ships of all sizes

can anchor. It is the frontier [of the islands] toward Great China,

which is a hundred leguas distant from Manila. The island lies between

thirteen and one-half and nineteen degrees of latitude, and it has

the form of a square with two narrow arms--one of which extends from

south to north, the other from west to east.

5. In that which points northward lie, on its western coast, four

distinct conquered provinces. The first and nearest of these on the

bay of Manila (and belonging to the archbishopric of that name), and

in latitude 15°, is Pampanga; it is very populous, and abounds in rice

and other products of the soil; and it contains some gold-placers. Its

natives have the reputation of being the best and bravest, and

most faithful to the royal crown [of all in the island]; they have

a language of their own. On the western outskirts of this province

among its mountains, and within the archbishopric of Manila are some

Negrillos; they are heathen, and natives of the country (which is yet

to be conquered) that is called Zambales. They are very barbarous,

resembling the Chichimecos of Nueva España who eat human flesh.

6. Next at 16° latitude and on the western coast [of Luzon], follows

Pamgasinam; it belongs to the bishopric of Cagayan, and is rich in

gold and other products of the soil. The natives have a language of

their own.

7. Ylocos is a province of the same bishopric, and lies next [to

Pamgasinam] on the same coast; it also abounds in the same products

and is very populous. The natives have their own language. Its

latitude is 17°. In the year 1661, these two provinces rebelled;

they were conquered and pacified with extraordinary valor and skill,

by General Francisco de Esteybar with three hundred soldiers. He

punished thirty persons with death and five hundred with slavery.

8. Cagayan is the last province in this arm of the island, and the most

northern, lying in 18° to 19° latitude. It contains many Indians who

are good soldiers. Here is the city of Nueva Segobia, which has few

Spanish residents. It has a bishop and cathedral; an alcalde-mayor,

and a garrison of Spanish soldiers. This province yields the same

products [as the others], and has a distinct language. Almost opposite

this province, to the northeast (that is, between north and east)

is Xapon, a noted empire. It is distant three hundred leguas, and

this voyage is made in sight of land, that of various islands.

9. This arm of land is almost a hundred leguas long and fifty or

sixty wide; on its eastern coast the province of Baler is conquered

and pacified. The region midland of all these five provinces is

called Ytui, and is peopled by heathen Indians, not yet subdued. On

the south lies Pampanga; northward, Cagayan; to the east, Baler;

to the west, Ylocos and Pangasinan. All these provinces have their

alcaldes-mayor. The ports on the eastern coast are mentioned below

in section 91.

10. In the eastern arm of this island of Luzon there are two provinces;

both abound in rice and other products, and are very populous; and each

one has its own distinct language. The first is Tagalos, which begins

at the city of Manila, and belongs wholly to that archbishopric. It

contains the environs of the city; and the lake of Bay (a freshwater

lake, of many leguas in circumference), and extends along the coasts

of this arm, both northern and southern, more than fifty leguas

in a direct line, southeast and northeast--that is, from Manila to

Silangan, which is an island very near to that of Luzon. There ends

the archbishopric [of Manila]; also the Tagal province (which is

divided into six or eight districts of alcalde-mayor and corregidor)

and the Tagal language.

11. The second and last province of this eastern arm is Camarines,

which has a different language, and belongs to another bishopric. It

begins at the village of Paracali, which is on the northern coast and

has some rich gold mines. It is distant from Manila sixty leguas,

and extends almost forty eastward, as far as the extremity of this

island. Here is the city of Nueva Caceres, where there is a bishopric

and a cathedral, and an alcalde-mayor; the Spanish population

is very small, but there are many Indians, as also in the entire

province. Inland from these two provinces there are some Çimarron

Indians, who are not yet conquered. This arm [of land] is almost a

hundred leguas long, and ten to twenty wide; its northern ports are

mentioned below in section 91.

12. At the center where these two arms of land meet, in the middle

and on the shores of a beautiful bay--closed in from the sea; thirty

leguas in circumference, and eight wide; and everywhere clear,

soundable, and safe--at the mouth and on the banks of the great

river of Bay [i.e., Pasig River] (which, having flowed four leguas

from its own lake, empties into this sea) is built the distinguished

city of Manila, the capital and court of Filipinas. It is, for its

size, the richest in the world; a special account of it will soon

be given. Entrance into this bay is furnished by a passage on its

western side, four leguas in width. In the middle of this passage,

eight leguas from Manila and opposite this city, is an islet called

Maribelez; it is inhabited, and is two leguas in circuit in 14 1/2°

latitude. It serves as a watch-tower to look for foreign ships,

which can be seen fifteen leguas at sea.

13. The "Modern Geographer," which was printed at Amsterdam in four

large volumes in Latin and Castilian, containing the geographical

maps of the world, does not present a map of these islands, although

it gives a special one of the Molucas or Ternate Islands which are

adjacent to the Filipinas. For lack of facilities, I do not insert here

a map of these islands, which I have drawn by hand, with the greatest

exactness, from my personal knowledge. In place thereof, I will write

a description so clear that any geographer can reduce it to a map;

and for greater clearness the above-mentioned island of Maribelez will

be the center of this description--which is divided into four parts

or voyages: to the east, southeast, south, and north, respectively.

14-28. [These paragraphs contain data for the map that Letona would

have made--the location, latitude, size, and names of islands,

with distances and direction by compass. We note a few points of

interest which contain new information. In Mindoro is "El Baradero,

a celebrated bay and a very safe harbor." With the island of Burias

"ends the archbishopric of Manila; the next lands [i.e., Banton]

belong to the bishopric of Zebu." In Catanduanes reside a beneficed

curate and a corregidor. "The interior of Mindanao is still unsubdued;

its natives are heathen in the eastern part, and Mahometan pirates

in the west. They have been reduced to his Majesty's obedience and

to the Church, and among them are four garrisons of Spaniards--one

in the east, at Tandag; two in the north, at Bacilan and Malanao;

and another in the west, at Samboanga. In this island some cinnamon

is collected." "Sanguil, or Calonga, is a small island under a petty

king--who is a Catholic Christian--named Don Juan Buntuan. At his

request, I sent thither in the year 1651 with my credentials and

instructions father Fray Joseph de Truxillo, a deserving son of our

father St. Francis in this convent of La Puebla; ... who, with his

excellent example, preaching, and instruction--aided by his companion

father Fray Mateo Rodriguez, a man of his own spirit--established

and renewed the faith, built a church, and converted and baptized

many infidels, both children and adults." "Macazar is an island

yet to be conquered; its people are Mahometans and heathen, and

are very numerous. It is 180 leguas in circuit; in its eastern part

it has a powerful Mahometan king, who has at his capital factories

from Europa and Assia; and he has the utmost devotion and reverence

for the king our sovereign." The four islands of Bolinao form the

boundary of the archbishopric of Manila; from these extends the

bishopric of Cagayan. The following islands are depopulated (some

of them being mentioned in earlier accounts as having inhabitants):

Ticao, San Bernardino, Maesse de Campo, Cimara, Panaon, and Capones

(fifteen leguas from Maribeles); islets near Luban, Panay, Bantayan,

Mindoro, and Cuyo; and islets between Leyte and Cebú.]

Climate, population, and products

29. The climate of these islands is, for sensible people, for the

most part reasonably healthful and temperate. On the coasts it is

hot; in the mountains it is cool, pleasant, and refreshing. There is

no certain knowledge of the time or source of their settlement. The

nearest mainland is Great China, the eastern end of Assia (one of

the first which were inhabited after the general deluge). On the west

of China is the gulf and kingdom of Bengal, from which (through the

strait of Sincapura) it seems very probable that the first settlers of

these islands came, [38] to judge from the similarity in their color,

customs, and language. They are of average size, light-colored, and

have well-shaped features and much intelligence. They live in high

wooden houses, and support themselves by tilling the soil, fishing,

and other industries. At the time of this writing, there are more

than 600,000 Christians here, vassals of the king our sovereign;

and the Catholic piety of his Majesty maintains them in the holy

faith, although they are 5,000 leguas from his court, at the cost

of immense expenditures from his royal treasury. It appears from

the books of the royal accountancies that his Majesty has, in only

twenty years, expended more than 300,000 ducados in sending religious

to Filipinas--from which it will be seen that incalculable treasure

has been spent for this purpose during only the ninety-eight years

since the islands were discovered.

30. Their products are: Rice in great abundance, which is the

wheat of that country and the usual food of its people, serving

as their bread. Everywhere, whether in mountains or plains, there

is abundant growth of cocoanut palms. These nuts are as large as

average-sized melons, and almost of the same shape; the shell is

hard, and contains a sweet liquid which makes a palatable beverage,

and a meat which is a delicious food. This is the most useful plant

in the world; for not only are food and drink, and wine and oil,

obtained from it, but innumerable other things--comprising all that

is necessary to human life, for the dwellings, food, and clothing

of man. There are plantations of these trees, as in España there are

vineyards--although the former are at less cost and labor. In these

islands there is abundance of salt, fowls, and cattle, besides swine,

deer, and buffaloes; there are also several kinds of beans, and other

vegetables. With these foods not only do the people support themselves,

but the fleets and garrisons, and the ships that make long sea-voyages

are furnished with provisions. On all the coasts, and in all the

rivers and lakes, excellent fish are caught in abundance; and in the

mountains the people gather much honey and wax. In the gardens, they

raise a great deal of delicious fruit, and much garden-stuff. Oranges

and bananas not only grow in abundance, but are of the best quality in

the world. In some of the islands nutmeg, pepper, cloves, and cinnamon

are found. The country is everywhere fertile, and green and pleasant

all the year round; and in some places wheat is sown and harvested.

31. In these islands grows much cotton, from which the people make

Ylocan blankets, lampotes, white cloth, medriñaques, material for hose,

and other useful fabrics. In many (indeed in most) islands are found

amber and civet, and gold mines--these especially in the mountain

ranges of Pangasinam and Paracali, and in Pampanga; consequently;

there is hardly an Indian who does not possess chains and other

articles of gold. Besides these products (which are peculiar to

the country), others are brought to Manila from Great China, Xapon,

and numberless other kingdoms and islands of this archipelago--wheat,

iron, copper, some quicksilver, tin, and lead; cinnamon (from Zeilan),

pepper, cloves, nutmeg, musk, and incense; silks (both raw and woven),

and linens; Chinese earthenware, ivory, and ebony; diamonds, rubies,

and other precious stones; valuable woods; and many uncommon and

delicious fruits. In Manila, gunpowder is manufactured, and excellent

artillery and bells are cast; and various articles are exquisitely

wrought in filigree of gold and silver. All things necessary to human

life [are found there] and even articles of superfluity, ostentation,

pomp, and luxury.

The city of Manila

32. This city was conquered and founded by its first governor on May

19, the day of St. Potenciana the virgin, in the year 1571. It was

built on a site naturally strong on the shore of the sea, and at the

mouth of a great river--which flows four leguas from the lake of Bay,

and here loses itself [in the sea]--on a strip of land formed between

the sea and the river. Thus half of the city, that on the north and

west, is surrounded by water; and the other half, toward the east and

south, by land and a ditch. It is entirely surrounded, almost in a

circular form, by a rampart wall of stone; this is high and strong and

so thick that in some parts it is more than three varas wide, and one

can walk on top of it everywhere. It extends three-quarters of a legua,

and is adorned and furnished with battlements and merlons in modern

style; with towers, cavaliers, and Hankers at intervals; and with two

castles and some bulwarks. It is furnished with excellent artillery,

and a force of six hundred (sometimes more) Spanish soldiers--with

their master-of-camp, sargento-mayor, captains, wardens, and other

military officers. There are five gates and several posterns.

33. The streets of the city are beautifully laid out, and level, like

those of Mexico and Puebla. The main plaza is large, rectangular, and

well proportioned. Its eastern side is occupied by the cathedral;

the southern, by the government building, which is a splendid

palace--large, handsome, and very spacious; it was built by a merchant,

the favorite [39] of a governor, for his own use. The northern side

of the plaza (opposite the palace) contains the cabildo's house,

the jail, and other buildings that belong to private persons (which

also occupy the western side).

34. The houses in the city, before the earthquakes of the years 45

and 58, numbered six hundred (many of which must be by this time

rebuilt), most of them of hewn stone with handsome iron balconies and

rows of windows, and built in costly style. In them resided various

gentlemen and nobles, and two hundred citizens who were merchants

(who themselves form a commonwealth); there were also soldiers,

royal officials, prebends, and other citizens. Much of its material

grandeur and beauty was destroyed by the earthquakes above mentioned,

but it lost not the essential greatness which it has and always has

had as a court and an illustrious commonwealth. In the villages of

Bagunbaya and others of its suburbs there are probably six hundred

houses more--not counting those of the Parian, which number many more

than those of the city and suburbs together. Along the river are a

great many country houses for recreation--some very costly, and all

very convenient and pleasant, with gardens, orchards, and baths.

35. It is the capital of all these islands, with its governor, who is

the captain-general, and president of the royal chancilleria, which is

composed of four auditors and one fiscal who have cognizance of cases

both civil and criminal; then there are the other employes of the

royal Audiencia, and the royal officials with their tribunal. The

jurisdiction [of this audiencia] is the most extensive in the

Spanish monarchy; for it extends to all territories that are

discovered and pacified in that great archipelago (the largest in

the world)--extending more than four hundred leguas in a straight

line, and more than a thousand in circumference--and to all yet to

be discovered and pacified, an immense region. The city has twelve

perpetual regidors, who on the first of January in every year elect

two alcaldes-in-ordinary; these have jurisdiction throughout the

district of the municipality, which has a radius of five leguas.

36. On the eastern side of the city, but outside of it and in front

of its walls, at the distance of a musket-shot is a silk-market which

they call Parian. Usually 15,000 Chinese live there; they are Sangleys,

natives of Great China, and all merchants or artisans. They possess,

allotted among themselves by streets and squares, shops containing

all the kinds of merchandise and all the trades that are necessary in

a community. The place is very orderly and well arranged, and a great

convenience to the citizens. It is [an indication of] their greatness

that although they are so few, they have so many workmen and servants

assigned to their service. The Sangleys live in wooden houses; they

have a governor of their own nation, and a Spanish alcalde-mayor and

the other officers of justice, with a notary; also a jail. They have

a parish church, where the sacraments, the divine word, and burial

are administered to the 4,000 Christians among these Sangleys; the

rest of them are heathen.

37. Accordingly the commerce of this city is extensive, rich, and

unusually profitable; for it is carried on by all these Chinese

and their ships, with those of all the islands above mentioned and

of Tunquin, Cochinchina, Camboja, and Sian--four separate kingdoms,

which lie opposite these islands on the continent of Great China--and

of the gulfs and the numberless kingdoms of Eastern India, Persia,

Bengala, and Ceilan, when there are no wars; and of the empire and

kingdoms of Xapon. The diversity of the peoples, therefore, who are

seen in Manila and its environs is the greatest in the world; for

these include men from all kingdoms and nations--España, Francia,

Ingalaterra, Italia, Flandes, Alemania, Dinamarca, Sueçia, Polonia,

Moscobia; people from all the Indias, both eastern and western; and

Turks, Greeks, Moros, Persians, Tartars, Chinese, Japanese, Africans,

and Asiatics. And hardly is there in the four quarters of the world

a kingdom, province, or nation which has not representatives here, on

account of the voyages that are made hither from all directions--east,

west, north, and south.

38-58. [These sections are devoted to brief biographical notices of

the governors of the islands--information already presented in our

VOL. XVII. Letona says (no. 58) of Diego Fajardo's government:]

In the year 51, the governor withdrew his favor from his petted

favorite, whom, after confiscating his goods (which were many),

he imprisoned in the castle of Santiago--in the same quarters where

(at his own instance, as people say) the five years' captivity of

Governor Corcuera was accomplished. Then Faxardo opened his eyes,

so that he could recognize the serious troubles which result from the

favorite's having great power in the government. "For," Fajardo said,

"he did not regard the vassals of the king with the affection that he

ought; nor did he attend to their welfare, but to his own advantage and

profit." Imitating him, the subordinate officials, he said, "committed

acts of violence in the provinces that they governed, harassing them

with various oppressions, and failing to administer justice to the

poor--levying on them repartimientos of many products that were not

necessary, and at exorbitant prices; and, although the commodity might

be had in another district for half the price, the natives must not

buy it there, but only from the agent of the magistrate, who would

not allow any one else to traffic or trade in all the province. From

these practices," said this gentleman, "arise irreparable injuries

to the poor vassals, and to his Majesty's alcabalas [i.e., excise

taxes]. Nor have those vassals any redress, since the door is closed

to them by the favor shown to the minion." For this same reason,

he gave no office of justice to a relative or servant of his own,

judging that no aggrieved person would dare to utter a complaint on

account of his fear lest the governor would take ill a suit against

his relative or servant. These and other very just opinions were

expressed by this governor during the last year of his rule.

59. [Of Manrique de Lara, Letona says:] "He governed for ten years,

a longer term than that of any predecessor of his. Many of these

he surpassed not only in the period of service, but in his care and

efficiency--personally assisting in the despatch of the armed fleets

(although this had to be done at a distance of twenty leguas from

Manila), and attending to the shipbuilding and the timber-cutting;

crossing seas, rivers, and mountains, and overcoming great dangers and

hardships, in order to serve the commonwealth and his Majesty, and that

the royal revenues might be spent with due faithfulness, and without

oppressing his Majesty's poor vassals. He opened up the commerce of the

kingdoms of Tunquin and Cochinchina, and extended that of Great China;

and he brought to terms the king of Tidore. He repressed the invasions

of the Mindanaos, Xoloans, and Camucones through the instrumentality

of Andres de Zuloeta, a valiant captain--who was sargento-mayor of

Manila, admiral, and commander of the fleet that carries supplies

to Ternate. In the year of 61 there were disturbances in Pampanga,

the finest province in this government, and inhabited by a people who

are valiant and very skilful in the use of arms. This governor with

courage and tact went to Pampanga, and pacified the province without

shedding blood, thus acquiring a great reputation. He subdued also the

provinces of Pangasinan and Ilocos, which had rebelled, he punished

some with death, and others with slavery, bestowing on the rest a

general pardon. This campaign increased the reputation of the Catholic

arms throughout that archipelago, a renown that is still maintained."

The ecclesiastical estate

60. In April of the year 1565, there was founded in Zebu (afterward

being transferred to Manila) the church and ecclesiastical community

of these islands; and its ordinary jurisdiction was allotted to the

superiors of the Order of St. Augustine, who were the founders and

apostles of this kingdom; they held that dignity up to the year of

77, in which it passed to the fathers of the order of our father

St. Francis. It remained in their keeping until the year 82, in

which Don Fray Domingo de Salazar--a Dominican, the first bishop of

all the Filipinas--with a bull from his Holiness Pope Gregory XIII

founded the cathedral of Manila, dedicating it to the most immaculate

Conception of the Virgin. It was established with five dignitaries,

four canonries, and four other prebends; they are appointed by his

Majesty, or ad interim by the governor. The cathedral has a good choir

of singers, also chaplains and many able clerics, and two curas and

two sacristans. It is the only parish church of the city, although

outside in the suburbs there are two others--that of Santiago, and

that of San Antonio--administered by learned and exemplary clergymen.

61. Within the city, on the Plaza de Armas and opposite the castle of

Santiago, is the royal chapel founded by Governor Corcuera. It is a

magnificent church (containing the most holy sacrament), and is richly

adorned with altars, reredos, pulpit, and sacristy ornaments of silver,

with a monstrance of pure gold which is worth 11,000 ducados. It has

a choir, an organ, and a famous chorus of singers; also chaplains,

sacristans, and other ministers, who serve it with much propriety

and pomp. These clergymen are independent of the parish church, and

go through the public streets, wearing their copes and carrying the

cross aloft, to the royal hospital for the bodies of dead soldiers,

which they solemnly convey to the royal chapel for interment.