Russia makes Peace with England, with Sweden, and with
Turkey--Internal preparations--Napoleon leaves Wilna--The
Dwina--Bagrathion's Movements--Battle of Smolensko--Battle of
Borodino--Napoleon enters Moscow--Constancy and Enthusiasm of the
Russians--Conduct of Rostophchin--The burning of Moscow--Kutusoff
refuses to Treat.
While Napoleon was detained in the capital of Lithuania by the confusion
and slowness which marked almost every department of his commissariat at
this great crisis, the enemy employed the unexpected pause to the best
advantage. The Czar signed treaties of strict alliance with England,
Sweden, and the Spanish Cortes, in the middle of July; and the
negotiation with Turkey was urged, under the mediation of England, so
effectually, that a peace with that Power also was proclaimed early in
August. By these means Alexander was enabled to withdraw whatever troops
he had been maintaining on the two flanks of his European dominions, and
bring them all to the assistance of his main army. Admiral Tchichagoff,
at the head of 50,000 soldiers, hitherto opposed to the Turks on the
side of Moldavia, marched towards the left wing of Barclay de Tolly's
force; and the right, which had gradually retired until it reached a
strong camp formed on the river Dwina, was reinforced from Finland,
though not so largely. The enthusiasm of the Russian nation appeared in
the extraordinary rapidity with which supplies of every kind were poured
at the feet of the Czar. From every quarter he received voluntary offers
of men, of money, of whatever might assist in the prosecution of the
war. The Grand Duchess, whose hand Napoleon had solicited, set the
example by raising a regiment on her estate. Moscow offered to equip and
arm 80,000 men. Platoff, the veteran hetman of the Cossacks, promised
his only daughter and 200,000 roubles to the man by whose hand
Buonaparte should fall. Noblemen everywhere raised troops, and displayed
their patriotism by serving in the ranks themselves, and entrusting the
command to experienced officers, chosen by the government. The
peasantry participated in the general enthusiasm, and flocked in from
every province, demanding arms and training. Two hundred thousand
militiamen were called out, and in separate divisions began their march
upon the camp.
Napoleon, having done whatever lay in his power to remedy the disorders
of his commissariat--and this, after all, does not appear to have been
much--at length reappeared in the field. He had now determined to make
St. Petersburg his mark: he counted much on the effects which a
triumphal entry into the capital would produce throughout the country;
and the fleet at Cronstadt was in itself a prize of the utmost
importance. He directed, therefore, all his efforts towards the Dwina,
where the Russian commander-in-chief had now halted on extensive
intrenchments, and Riga. This town, however, was now defended, not only
by Essen, but by the English sailors of Admiral Martin's fleet, and
resisted effectually; and, to the confusion of Napoleon, he was repelled
in three successive attempts to force Barclay's camp at Dunaburg.
He upon this changed his plan of operations, and resolving to march, not
for Petersburg, but for Moscow, threw forward the centre of his army,
under Davoust, with the view of turning Barclay's position, and cutting
off his communications with Bagrathion. That general was compelled by
this movement to pass the Dnieper (or Borysthenes); and Barclay, on
perceiving the object of Davoust's march, broke up from the camp on the
Dwina, and retired upon Vitepsk, where he hoped to be joined by
Bagrathion. Davoust, however, brought Bagrathion to action near Mohilow,
on the 23rd of July; and as the French remained in possession of that
town at the end of the day, the Russians found themselves under the
necessity of altering the line of their retreat. Bagrathion informed
Barclay that he was now marching, not on Vitepsk, but on Smolensko, and
the commander-in-chief felt the necessity of abandoning Vitepsk also.
During three days (the 25th, 26th, and 27th of July), his troops were
engaged with the French at Vitepsk; and, though Napoleon's bulletins
announced three splendid victories, the result was that the Russians
left their position in admirable order, and retired altogether
unmolested on the proposed point of junction. Meantime Regnier, on the
right wing, and Oudinot, on the left, were defeated; the former by
Tormazoff, the latter by Witgenstein, both with severe loss. The Emperor
halted at Vitepsk for several days; "his troops," as the bulletins
admitted, "requiring refreshment." The Russian plan of defence was
already ascertained--and alarming. The country was laid utterly desolate
wherever they retired; every village was burned ere they quitted it: the
enthusiastic peasantry withdrew with the army and swelled its ranks.
Napoleon quitted Vitepsk on the 8th of August, and after a partial
engagement at Krasnoi on the 14th, came in sight of Smolensko, on the
16th. The first and second armies of the Czar (Bagrathion having at
length effected his junction with Barclay), lay behind the river which
flows at the back of this town; but it was occupied in great force.
Three times did Buonaparte attack it, and three times he was repulsed.
During the night the garrison withdrew, and joined the army across the
river--but before they went they committed the city to the flames, and,
the buildings being chiefly of wood, the conflagration, according to the
French bulletin, "resembled in its fury an eruption of Vesuvius."
"Never" (continues the same bulletin) "was war conducted with such
inhumanity: the Russians treat their own country as if it were that of
an enemy." Such was indeed their resolution. They had no desire that the
invader should establish himself in winter quarters at Smolensko. With
the exception of some trivial skirmishes, they retreated unmolested from
Smolensko to Dorogobuz, and thence on Viasma; halting at each of these
towns, and deliberately burning them in the face of the enemy.
It now, however, began to be difficult in the extreme to prevail on the
Russian soldiery to continue their retreat. They had consented to retire
in the beginning solely because they were assured that such was the will
of their _Father_--as they affectionately call their sovereign; but
reinforcements were now joining them daily from the interior, and the
skirmishes which had occurred had so inflamed their spirits, that it
seemed impossible to restrain them much longer. At this period also,
Barclay was appointed to the war-ministry at St. Petersburg, and
Kutusoff, who assumed the command in his stead, was supposed to doubt
whether the system of retreat had not been far enough persisted in. The
new general at length resolved to comply with the clamorous entreaties
of his troops, and fixed on a strong position between Borodino and
Moskwa, on the high road to Moscow, where he determined to await the
attack of Napoleon. It was at Gjatz that the Emperor was informed of
Kutusoff's arrival, and of the universal belief that the Czar had at
length consented to run the hazard of a great battle. A little further
on a Russian officer, on some pretext, appeared with a flag of truce;
his real errand being, no doubt, to witness the state of the invader's
camp. Being brought into Napoleon's presence this man was asked, "What
he should find between Viasma and Moscow?" He answered, "Pultowa."
On the 5th of September, Napoleon came in sight of the position of
Kutusoff, and succeeded in carrying a redoubt in front of it. All the
6th the two armies lay in presence of each other, preparing for the
contest. The Russians were posted on an elevated plain; having a wood on
their right flank, their left on one of the villages, and a deep ravine,
the bed of a small stream, in their front. Extensive field-works covered
every more accessible point of this naturally very strong ground; and in
the centre of the whole line, a gentle eminence was crowned by an
enormous battery, serving as a species of citadel. The Russian army were
120,000 in numbers; nor had Napoleon a greater force in readiness for
his attack. In artillery also the armies were equal. It is supposed that
each had 500 guns in the field. Buonaparte addressed his troops in his
usual style of language: "Soldiers! here is the battle you have longed
for; it is necessary, for it brings us plenty, good winter-quarters, and
a safe return to France. Behave yourselves so that posterity may say of
each of you, _He was in that great battle beneath the walls of Moscow._"
In the Russian camp, meanwhile, the clergy appeared in their richest
vestments, and displaying their holiest images, called on the men to
merit Paradise by devoting themselves in the cause of their country. The
soldiers answered with shouts which were audible throughout all the
enemy's lines.
At four o'clock in the morning of the 7th, the French advanced under
cover of a thick fog, and assaulted at once the centre, the right, and
the left of the position. Such was the impetuosity of the charge that
they drove the Russians from their redoubts; but this was but for a
moment. They rallied under the very line of their enemy's fire, and
instantly re-advanced. Peasants who, till that hour, had never seen war,
and who still wore their usual rustic dress, distinguished only by a
cross sewed on it in front, threw themselves into the thickest of the
combat. As they fell, others rushed on and filled their places. Some
idea may be formed of the obstinacy of the contest from the fact, that
of one division of the Russians which mustered 30,000 in the morning,
only 8000 survived. These men had fought in close order, and unshaken,
under the fire of eighty pieces of artillery. The result of this
terrible day was, that Buonaparte withdrew his troops and abandoned all
hope of forcing his way through the Russians. In no contest by many
degrees so desperate had he hitherto been engaged. Night found either
army on the ground they had occupied at daybreak. The number of guns and
prisoners taken by the French and the Russians was about equal; and of
either host there had fallen not less than 40,000 men. Some accounts
raise the gross number of the slain to 100,000. Such was the victory in
honour of which Napoleon created Marshal Ney _Prince of Moskwa_.
Buonaparte, when advised by his generals, towards the conclusion of the
day, to bring forward his own guard and hazard one final attack at their
head, answered, "And if my guard fail, what means should I have for
renewing the battle to-morrow?" The Russian commander, on the other
hand, appears to have spared nothing to prolong the contest.--During the
night after, his cavalry made several attempts to break into the enemy's
lines; and it was only on receiving the reports of his regimental
officers in the morning, that Kutusoff perceived the necessity of
retiring until he should be further recruited. His army was the mainstay
of his country: on its utter dissolution his master might have found it
very difficult to form another; but while it remained perfect in its
organisation, the patriotic population of the empire were sure to fill
up readily every vacancy in its ranks. Having ascertained then the
extent of his loss, and buried his dead (among whom was the gallant
Bagrathion) with great solemnity,--the Russian slowly and calmly
withdrew from his intrenchments, and marched on Mojaisk. Napoleon was so
fortunate as to be joined exactly at this time by two fresh divisions
from Smolensko, which nearly restored his muster to what it had been
when the battle began; and, thus reinforced, commanded the pursuit to
be vigorously urged. On the 9th, the French van came in sight of the
Russian rear again, and Buonaparte prepared for battle. But next morning
Kutusoff had masked his march so effectually, by scattering clouds of
Cossacks in every direction around the French, that down to the 12th the
invader remained uncertain whether he had retreated on Kalouga, or
directly to the capital. The latter he, at length, found to be the case;
and on the 14th of September Napoleon reached the Hill of Salvation; so
named because from that eminence the Russian traveller obtains his first
view of the ancient metropolis, affectionately called "Mother Moscow,"
and hardly less sacred in his eyes than Jerusalem. The soldiery beheld
with joy and exultation the magnificent extent of the place; its mixture
of Gothic steeples and Oriental domes; the vast and splendid mansions of
the haughty boyards, embosomed in trees; and, high over all the rest,
the huge towers of the Kremlin, at once the palace and the citadel of
the old Czars. The cry of "Moscow! Moscow!" ran through the lines.
Napoleon himself reined in his horse and exclaimed, "Behold at last that
celebrated city!" He added, after a brief pause, "it was time."
Buonaparte had not gazed long on this great capital ere it struck him as
something remarkable that no smoke issued from the chimneys. Neither
appeared there any military on the battlements of the old walls and
towers. There reached him neither message of defiance, nor any
deputation of citizens to present the keys of their town, and recommend
it and themselves to his protection. He was yet marvelling what these
strange circumstances could mean, when Murat, who commanded in the van,
and had pushed on to the gates, came back and informed him that he had
held a parley with Milarodowitch, the general of the Russian rear-guard,
and that, unless two hours were granted for the safe withdrawing of his
troops, he would at once set fire to Moscow. Napoleon immediately
granted the armistice. The two hours elapsed, and still no procession of
nobles or magistrates made its appearance.
On entering the city the French found it deserted by all but the very
lowest and most wretched of its vast population. They soon spread
themselves over its innumerable streets, and commenced the work of
pillage. The magnificent palaces of the Russian boyards, the bazaars of
the merchants, churches and convents, and public buildings of every
description, swarmed with their numbers.
The meanest soldier clothed himself in silk and furs, and drank at his
pleasure the costliest wines. Napoleon, perplexed at the abandonment of
so great a city, had some difficulty in keeping together 30,000 men
under Murat, who followed Milarodowitch, and watched the walls on that
side.
The Emperor, who had retired to rest in a suburban palace, was awakened
at midnight by the cry of _fire_. The chief market-place was in flames;
and some hours elapsed before they could be extinguished by the
exertions of the soldiery. While the fire still blazed, Napoleon
established his quarters in the Kremlin, and wrote, by that fatal light,
a letter to the Czar, containing proposals for peace. The letter was
committed to a prisoner of rank; no answer ever reached Buonaparte.
Next morning found the fire extinguished, and the French officers were
busied throughout the day in selecting houses for their residence. The
flames, however, burst out again as night set in, and under
circumstances which might well fill the mind of the invaders with
astonishment and with alarm. Various detached parts of the city appeared
to be at once on fire; combustibles and matches were discovered in
different places as laid deliberately; the water-pipes were cut: the
wind changed three times in the course of the night, and the flames
always broke out again with new vigour in the quarter from which the
prevailing breeze blew right on the Kremlin. It was sufficiently plain
that Rostophchin, governor of Moscow, had adopted the same plan of
resistance in which Smolensko had already been sacrificed; and his
agents, whenever they fell into the hands of the French, were massacred
without mercy.
A French adventurer, who had been resident for some time in Moscow, gave
an account of Rostophchin's conduct in quitting the city, which might
have prepared Napoleon for some such catastrophe. This person, on
hearing of the approach of his countrymen, had used some expressions
which entitled him to a place in the prisons of Moscow. The day before
Buonaparte entered it, Rostophchin held a last court of justice. This
Frenchman, and a disaffected Russian, were brought before him. The
latter's guilt having been clearly proved, the governor, understanding
his father was in court, said he granted some minutes to the old man to
converse with and bless his son. "Shall I give my blessing to a rebel?"
cried the aged parent--"I hereby give him my curse." Rostophchin ordered
the culprit to be executed, and then turning to the Frenchman, said,
"Your preference of your own people was natural. Take your liberty.
There was but one Russian traitor, and you have witnessed his death."
The governor then set all the malefactors in the numerous jails of
Moscow at liberty, and, abandoning the city to them, withdrew at the
head of the inhabitants, who had for some time been preparing the means
of retreat at his suggestion.
Such was the story of the Frenchman; and every hour brought some new
confirmation of the relentless determination of Rostophchin's
countrymen. Some peasants, brought in from the neighbouring country,
were branded on the arm with the letter N. One of them understanding
that this marked him as the property and adherent of Napoleon, instantly
seized an axe and chopped off his limb. Twelve slaves of Count Woronzow
were taken together and commanded to enlist in the French service, or
suffer death; four of the men folded their arms in silence, and so died.
The French officer in command spared the rest. Such were the anecdotes
which reached Napoleon as he surveyed, from the battlements of the
Kremlin, the raging sea of fire which now swept the capital, east, west,
north, and south. During four days the conflagration endured, and
four-fifths of the city were wholly consumed. "Palaces and temples,"
says the Russian author, Karamsin, "monuments of art and miracles of
luxury, the remains of ages long since past, and the creations of
yesterday, the tombs of ancestors, and the cradles of children, were
indiscriminately destroyed. Nothing was left of Moscow save the memory
of her people, and their deep resolution to avenge her fall."
During two days Napoleon witnessed from the Kremlin the spread of this
fearful devastation, and, in spite of continual showers of sparks and
brands, refused to listen to those who counselled retreat. On the third
night, the equinoctial gale rose, the Kremlin itself took fire, and it
became doubtful whether it would be possible for him to withdraw in
safety; and then he at length rode out of Moscow, through streets in
many parts arched over with flames, and buried, where this was not the
case, in one dense mantle of smoke. "These are indeed Scythians," said
Napoleon. He halted, and fixed his headquarters at Petrowsky, a country
palace of the Czar, about a league distant. But he could not withdraw
his eyes from the rueful spectacle which the burning city presented, and
from time to time repeated the same words, "This bodes great
misfortune."
On the 20th, the flames being at length subdued or exhausted, Napoleon
returned to the Kremlin, well aware how mighty a calamity had befallen
him, but still flattering himself that the resolution of the enemy would
give way on learning the destruction of their ancient and sacred
metropolis. The poor remains of the enormous city still furnished
tolerable lodgings for his army: of provisions there was as yet
abundance; and the invaders, like true Frenchmen, fitted up a theatre,
and witnessed plays acted by performers sent from France; while the
Emperor himself exhibited his equanimity by dating a decree, regulating
the affairs of the Theatre Francais at Paris, from "the imperial
headquarters in the Kremlin." His anxiety to show the French that, even
during his hottest campaigns, his mind continued to be occupied with
them and their domestic administration has already been alluded to.
There was audacious quackery in a stage rescript from Moscow.
Day passed after day and still there came no answer from Alexander:
Buonaparte's situation was becoming hourly more difficult. The news of
the great battle of Salamanca had already reached him: the rumour of
some distant disaster could not be prevented from spreading among the
soldiery. Nearer him, the two flanks of his mighty host had been alike
unsuccessful. The united army of Tormazoff and Tchichagoff, on the
south, and that of Witgenstein, on the north, had obtained decided
advantages over the French generals respectively opposed to them, and
now threatened to close in between Napoleon's central columns and the
magazines in Poland. Witzingerode was at the head of a formidable force
on the road to St. Petersburg; and to the south-west of Moscow lay
Kutusoff, on a very strong position, with an army to which every hour
brought whole bands of enthusiastic recruits. On every side there was
danger; the whole forces of Russia appeared to be gathering around him.
Meantime the season was far advanced; the stern winter of the north was
at hand; and the determined hostility of the peasantry prevented the
smallest supplies of provision from being introduced into the capital.
Had the citizens remained there, the means of subsistence would of
course have continued to be forwarded in the usual methods from the
provinces; but neither boat nor sledge was put in motion after it was
known that Moscow contained no population but the French. The stores, at
first sight so ample, within the city itself, had already begun to fail:
the common soldiers had rich wines and liqueurs in abundance, but no
meat except horse-flesh, and no bread. Daru gave the Emperor what the
latter called "a lion's counsel"; to draw in all his detachments,
convert Moscow into an intrenched camp, kill and salt every horse, and
trust to foraging parties for the rest--in a word, to lay aside all
thoughts of keeping up communication with France, or Germany, or even
Poland; and issue forth from Moscow, with his army entire and refreshed,
in the commencement of the spring. But Napoleon had excellent reasons
for suspecting that were he and his army cut off from all communication,
during six months, with what they had left behind them, the Prussians,
the Austrians, his Rhenish vassals themselves, might throw off the yoke:
while, on the other hand, the Russians could hardly fail, in the course
of so many months, to accumulate, in their own country, a force before
which his isolated army, on re-issuing from their winter quarters, would
appear a mere speck.
Napoleon at length sent Count Lauriston to the headquarters of Kutusoff,
with another letter to Alexander, which the Count was to deliver in
person. Kutusoff received the Frenchman in the midst of all his
generals, and answered with such civility that the envoy doubted not of
success. The end, however, was that the Russian professed himself
altogether unable to entertain any negotiation, or even to sanction the
journey of any French messenger--such being, he said, the last and most
express orders of his Prince. He offered to send on Napoleon's letter to
St. Petersburg, by one of his own aides-de-camp; and to this Lauriston
was obliged to agree. This interview occurred on the 6th of October: no
answer from St. Petersburg could be expected sooner than the 26th. There
had already been one fall of snow. To retreat after having a second time
written to the Czar, would appear like the confession of inability to
remain. The difficulties and dangers attendant on a longer sojourn in
the ruined capital have already been mentioned; and they were increasing
with fearful rapidity every hour. It was under such circumstances that
Napoleon lingered on in the Kremlin until the 19th of October; and it
seems probable that he would have lingered even more days there, had he
not received the tidings of a new reverse, near at hand, and which
effectually stirred him. His attendants have not hesitated to say that,
from the time when he entered Russia, his mind had seemed to be in a
state of indecision and lethargy, when compared with what they had been
accustomed to witness in previous campaigns. From this hour his decision
and activity (if indeed they had ever been obscured) appear to have been
displayed abundantly.
Murat had, without Napoleon's command, and indeed in opposition to his
wishes, established a strange species of armistice with Kutusoff, under
articles which provided that three hours' notice must precede any
regular affair between the two armies confronted to each other, but
allowed the petty warfare of the Cossacks and other light troops to
proceed without interruption on either flank. This suited Kutusoff's
purpose; for it in effect left him in full possession of the means to
avoid a general action until he chose to hazard one, and yet offered no
interruption to the measures by which he and his nation were
deliberately and systematically straitening the supplies of the invader.
Napoleon alleged that Murat had entered on the compact from the desire
of gratifying his own vanity, by galloping about on a neutral ground,
and attracting the admiration of both armies, but especially of the
Cossacks, by his horsemanship, and the brilliant, if not fantastic,
dresses in which it was at all times his delight to exhibit his fine
person. But King Joachim never displayed his foppery so willingly as on
the field of battle: he committed only, on a smaller scale, the same
error which detained his master in the Kremlin.