[Footnote: From a paper read before the Birmingham Architectural
Association, Jan 30, 1883]
By WILLIAM HENMAN, A.R.I.B.A.
My intention is to bring to your notice some of the many causes which
result in unhealthy dwellings, particularly those of the middle classes
of society. The same defects, it is true, are to be found in the palace
and the mansion, and also in the artisan's cottage; but in the former
cost is not so much a matter of consideration, and in the latter, the
requirements and appliances being less, the evils are minimized. It is
in the houses of the middle classes, I mean those of a rental at from
£50 to £150 per annum, that the evils of careless building and want
of sanitary precautions become most apparent. Until recently sanitary
science was but little studied, and many things were done a few years
since which even the self-interest of a speculative builder would not do
nowadays, nor would be permitted to do by the local sanitary authority.
Yet houses built in those times are still inhabited, and in many cases
sickness and even death are the result. But it is with shame I must
confess that, notwithstanding the advance which sanitary science has
made, and the excellent appliances to be obtained, many a house is now
built, not only by the speculative builder, but designed by professed
architects, and in spite of sanitary authorities and their by-laws,
which, in important particulars are far from perfect, are unhealthy, and
cannot be truly called sweet homes.
Architects and builders have much to contend with. The perverseness of
man and the powers of nature at times appear to combine for the express
purpose of frustrating their endeavors to attain sanitary perfection.
Successfully to combat these opposing forces, two things are above all
necessary, viz 1, a more perfect insight into the laws of nature, and a
judicious use of serviceable appliances on the part of the architect;
and, 2, greater knowledge, care, and trustworthiness on the part of
workmen employed. With the first there will be less of that blind
following of what has been done before by others, and by the latter the
architect who has carefully thought out the details of his sanitary work
will be enabled to have his ideas carried out in an intelligent manner.
Several cases have come under my notice, where, by reckless carelessness
or dense ignorance on the part of workmen, dwellings which might have
been sweet and comfortable if the architect's ideas and instructions had
been carried out, were in course of time proved to be in an unsanitary
condition. The defects, having been covered up out sight, were only made
known in some cases after illness or death had attacked members of the
household.
In order that we may have thoroughly sweet homes, we must consider the
localities in which they are to be situated, and the soil on which they
are to rest. It is an admitted fact that certain localities are more
generally healthy than others, yet circumstances often beyond their
control compel men to live in those less healthy. Something may, in
the course of time, be done to improve such districts by planting,
subdrainage, and the like. Then, as regards the soil; our earth has
been in existence many an age, generation after generation has come and
passed away, leaving behind accumulations of matter on its surface, both
animal and vegetable, and although natural causes are ever at the work
of purification, there is no doubt such accumulations are in many cases
highly injurious to health, not only in a general way, but particularly
if around, and worse still, under our dwellings. However healthy a
district is considered to be, it is never safe to leave the top soil
inclosed within the walls of our houses; and in many cases the subsoil
should be covered with a layer of cement concrete, and at times with
asphalt on the concrete. For if the subsoil be damp, moisture will rise;
if it be porous, offensive matter may percolate through. It is my belief
that much of the cold dampness felt in so many houses is caused by
moisture rising from the ground inclosed _within_ the outer walls.
Cellars are in many cases abominations. Up the cellar steps is a
favorite means of entrance for sickness and death. Light and air, which
are so essential for health and life, are shut out. If cellars are
necessary, they should be constructed with damp proof walls and floors;
light should be freely admitted; every part must be well ventilated,
and, above all, no drain of any description should be taken in. If they
be constructed so that water cannot find its way through either walls or
floors, where is the necessity of a drain? Surely the floors can be
kept clean by the use of so small an amount of water that it would be
ridiculous specially to provide a drain.
The next important but oft neglected precaution is to have a good damp
course over the _whole_ of the walls, internal as well as external. I
know that for the sake of saving a few pounds (most likely that they may
be frittered away in senseless, showy features) it often happens, that
if even a damp course is provided in the outer walls, it is dispensed
with in the interior walls. This can only be done with impunity on
really dry ground, but in too many cases damp finds its way up, and, to
say the least, disfigures the walls. Here I would pause to ask: What is
the primary reason for building houses? I would answer that, in this
country at least, it is in order to protect ourselves from wind and
weather. After going to great expense and trouble to exclude cold and
wet by means of walls and roofs, should we not take as much pains to
prevent them using from below and attacking us in a more insidious
manner? Various materials may be used as damp courses. Glazed
earthenware perforated slabs are perhaps the best, when expense is no
object. I generally employ a course of slates, breaking joint with a
good bed of cement above and below; it answers well, and is not very
expensive. If the ground is irregular, a layer of asphalt is more easily
applied. Gas tar and sand are sometimes used, but it deteriorates and
cannot be depended upon for any length of time. The damp course should
invariably be placed _above_ the level of the ground around the
building, and _below_ the ground floor joists. If a basement story is
necessary, the outer walls below the ground should be either built
hollow, or coated externally with some substance through which wet
cannot penetrate. Above the damp course, the walls of our houses must
be constructed of materials which will keep out wind and weather. Very
porous materials should be avoided, because, even if the wet does not
actually find its way through, so much is absorbed during rainy weather
that in the process of drying much cold is produced by evaporation. The
fact should be constantly remembered, viz., that evaporation causes
cold. It can easily be proved by dropping a little ether upon the bulb
of a thermometer, when it will be seen how quickly the mercury falls,
and the same effect takes place in a less degree by the evaporation of
water. Seeing, then, that evaporation from so small a surface can
lower temperature so many degrees, consider what must be the effect of
evaporation from the extensive surfaces of walls inclosing our houses.
This experiment (thermometer with bulb inclosed in linen) enables me as
well to illustrate that curious law of nature which necessitates the
introduction of a damp course in the walls of our buildings; it is known
as capillary or molecular attraction, and breaks through that more
powerful law of gravitation, which in a general way compels fluids to
find their own level. You will notice that the piece of linen over the
bulb of the thermometer, having been first moistened, continues moist,
although only its lower end is in water, the latter being drawn up by
capillary attraction; or we have here an illustration more to the point:
a brick which simply stands with its lower end in water, and you can
plainly see how the damp has risen.
From these illustrations you will see how necessary it is that the brick
and stone used for outer walls should be as far as possible impervious
to wet; but more than that, it is necessary the jointing should be
non-absorbent, and the less porous the stone or brick, the better able
must the jointing be to keep out wet, for this reason, that when rain is
beating against a wall, it either runs down or becomes absorbed. If both
brick and mortar, or stone and mortar be porous, it becomes absorbed; if
all are non-porous, it runs down until it finds a projection, and then
drops off; but if the brick or stone is non-porous, and the mortar
porous, the wet runs down the brick or stone until it arrives at the
joint, and is then sucked inward. It being almost impossible to obtain
materials quite waterproof, suitable for external walls, other means
must be employed for keeping our homes dry and comfortable. Well built
hollow walls are good. Stone walls, unless very thick, should be lined
with brick, a cavity being left between. A material called Hygeian Rock
Building Composition has lately been introduced, which will, I believe,
be found of great utility, and, if properly applied, should insure a dry
house. A cavity of one-half an inch is left between the outer and inner
portion of the wall, whether of brick or stone, which, as the building
rises, is run in with the material made liquid by heat; and not only is
the wall waterproofed thereby, but also greatly strengthened. It may
also be used as a damp course.
Good, dry walls are of little use without good roofs, and for a
comfortable house the roofs should not only be watertight and
weathertight, but also, if I may use the term, heat-tight. There can be
no doubt that many houses are cold and chilly, in consequence of the
rapid radiation of heat through the thin roofs, if not through thin and
badly constructed walls. Under both tiles and slates, but particularly
under the latter, there should be some non-conducting substance, such
as boarding, or felt, or pugging. Then, in cold weather heat will be
retained; in hot weather it will be excluded. Roofs should be of a
suitable pitch, so that neither rain nor snow can find its way in in
windy weather. Great care must be taken in laying gutters and flats.
With them it is important that the boarding should be well laid in
narrow widths, and in the direction of the fall; otherwise the boards
cockle and form ridges and furrows in which wet will rest, and in time
decay the metal.
After having secured a sound waterproof roof, proper provision must be
made for conveying therefrom the water which of necessity falls on it in
the form of rain. All eaves spouting should be of ample size, and the
rain water down pipes should be placed at frequent intervals and of
suitable diameter. The outlets from the eaves spouting should not be
contracted, although it is advisable to cover them with a wire grating
to prevent their becoming choked with dead leaves, otherwise the water
will overflow and probably find its way through the walls. All joints
to the eaves spouting, and particularly to the rain-water down pipes,
should be made watertight, or there is great danger, when they are
connected with the soil drains, that sewer gas will escape at the joints
and find its way into the house at windows and doors. There should be a
siphon trap at the bottom of each down pipe, unless it is employed as a
ventilator to the drains, and then the greatest care should be exercised
to insure perfect jointings, and that the outlet be well above all
windows. Eaves spouting and rain-water down pipes should be periodically
examined and cleaned out. They ought to be painted inside as well as
out, or else they will quickly decay, and if of iron they will rust,
flake off, and become stopped.
It is impossible to have a sweet home where there is continual dampness.
By its presence chemical action and decay are set up in many substances
which would remain in a quiescent state so long as they continued dry.
Wood will rot; so will wall papers, the paste used in hanging them,
and the size in distemper, however good they have been in the first
instance; then it is that injurious exhalations are thrown off, and the
evil is doubtless very greatly increased if the materials are bad in
themselves. Quickly grown and sappy timber, sour paste, stale size, and
wall papers containing injurious pigments are more easily attacked, and
far more likely to fill the house with bad smells and a subtile poison.
Plaster to ceilings and walls is quickly damaged by wet, and if improper
materials, such as road drift, be used in its composition, it may become
most unsavory and injurious to health. The materials for plaster cannot
be too carefully selected, for if organic matter be present, the result
is the formation of nitrates and the like, which combine with lime and
produce deliquescent salts, viz, those which attract moisture. Then,
however impervious to wet the walls, etc., may be, signs of dampness
will be noticed wherever there is a humid atmosphere, and similar evils
will result as if wet had penetrated from the exterior. Organic matter
coming into contact with plaster, and even the exhalations from human
beings and animals, will in time produce similar effects. Hence stables,
water closets, and rooms which are frequently crowded with people,
unless always properly ventilated, will show signs of dampness and
deterioration of the plaster work; wall paper will become detached from
the walls, paint will blister and peel off, and distemper will lose its
virtue. To avoid similar mishaps, sea sand, or sand containing salt,
should never be used either for plaster or mortar. In fact, it is
necessary that the materials for mortar should be as free from salts and
organic matter as those used for plaster, because the injurious effects
of their presence will be quickly communicated to the latter.
Unfortunately, it is not alone by taking precaution against the
possibility of having a damp house that we necessarily insure a "sweet
home." The watchful care of the architect is required from the cutting
of the first sod until the finishing touches are put on the house. He
must assure himself that all is done, and nothing left undone which is
likely to cause a nuisance, or worse still, jeopardize the health of
the occupiers. Yet, with all his care and the employment of the best
materials and apparatus at his command, complete success seems scarcely
possible of attainment. We have all much to learn, many things must
be accomplished and difficulties overcome, ere we can "rest and be
thankful."
It is impossible for the architect to attempt to solve all the problems
which surround this question. He must in many cases employ such
materials and such apparatus as can be obtained; nevertheless, it is his
duty carefully to test the value of such materials and apparatus as
may be obtainable, and by his experience and scientific knowledge to
determine which are best to be used under varying circumstances.
But to pass on to other matters which mar the sweetness of home. With
many, I hold that the method usually employed for warming our dwellings
is wasteful, dirty, and often injurious to health. The open fire,
although cheerful in appearance, is justly condemned. It is wasteful,
because so small a percentage of the value of the fuel employed is
utilized. It is dirty, because of the dust and soot which result
therefrom. It is unhealthy, because of the cold draughts which in its
simplest form are produced, and the stifling atmosphere which pervades
the house when the products of imperfect combustion insist, as they
often do, in not ascending the flues constructed for the express purpose
of carrying them off; and even when they take the desired course, they
blacken and poison the external atmosphere with their presence. Some of
the grates known as ventilating grates dispose of one of the evils of
the ordinary open fire, by reducing the amount of cold draught caused by
the rush of air up the flues. This is effected, as you probably know, by
admitting air direct from the outside of the house to the back of the
grate, where it is warmed, and then flows into the rooms to supply the
place of that which is drawn up the chimneys. Provided such grates act
properly and are well put together, so that there is no possibility of
smoke being drawn into the fresh air channels, and that the air to
be warmed is drawn from a pure source, they may be used with much
advantage; although by them we must not suppose perfection has been
attained. The utilization of a far greater percentage of heat and the
consumption of all smoke must be aimed at. It is a question if such can
be accomplished by means of an open fire, and it is a difficult matter
to devise a method suited in every respect to the warming of our
dwellings, which at the same time is equally cheering in appearance.
So long as we are obliged to employ coal in its crude form for heating
purposes, and are content with the waste and dirt of the open fire, we
must be thankful for the cheer it gives in many a home where there are
well constructed grates and flues, and make the best use we can of the
undoubted ventilating power it possesses.
A constant change of air in every part of our dwellings is absolutely
necessary that we may have a "sweet home," and the open fireplace with
its flue materially helps to that end; but unless in every other respect
the house is in a good sanitary condition, the open fire only adds to
the danger of residing in such a house, because it draws the impure air
from other parts into our living rooms, where it is respired. Closed
stoves are useful in some places, such as entrance halls. They are more
economical than the open fireplaces; but with them there is danger of
the atmosphere, or rather, the minute particles of organic matter always
floating in the air, becoming burnt and so charging the atmosphere with
carbonic acid. The recently introduced slow-combustion stoves obviate
this evil.
It is possible to warm our houses without having separate fireplaces in
each room, viz., by heated air, hot water, or steam; but there are
many difficulties and some dangers in connection therewith which I
can scarcely hope to see entirely overcome. In America steam has been
employed with some success, and there is this advantage in its use, that
it can be conveyed a considerable distance. It is therefore possible
to have the furnace and boilers for its production quite away from the
dwelling houses and to heat several dwellings from one source, while at
the same time it can be employed for cooking purposes. In steam, then,
we have a useful agent, which might with advantage be more generally
employed; but when either it or hot water be used for heating purposes,
special and adequate means of ventilation must be employed. Gas stoves
are made in many forms, and in a few cases can be employed with
advantage; but I believe they are more expensive than a coal fire, and
it is most difficult to prevent the products of combustion finding their
way into the dwellings. Gas is a useful agent in the kitchen for cooking
purposes, but I never remember entering a house where it was so employed
without at once detecting the unpleasant smell resulting. It is rare to
find any special means for carrying off the injurious fumes, and without
such I am sure gas cooking stoves cannot be healthy adjuncts to our
homes.
The next difficulty we have to deal with is artificial lighting.
Whether we employ candle, oil lamp, or gas, we may be certain that the
atmosphere of our rooms will become contaminated by the products of
combustion, and health must suffer. In order that such may be obviated,
it must be an earnest hope that ere long such improvements will be made
in electric lighting, that it may become generally used in our homes as
well as in all public buildings. Gas has certainly proved itself a very
useful and comparatively inexpensive illuminating power, but in many
ways it contaminates the atmosphere, is injurious to health, and
destructive to the furniture and fittings of our homes. Leakages from
the mains impregnate the soil with poisonous matter, and it rarely
happens that throughout a house there are no leakages. However small
they may be, the air becomes tainted. It is almost impossible, at times,
to detect the fault, or if detected, to make good without great injury
to other work, in consequence of the difficulty there is in getting at
the pipes, as they are generally embedded in plaster, etc. All gas pipes
should be laid in positions where they can be easily examined, and, if
necessary, repaired without much trouble. In France it is compulsory
that all gas pipes be left exposed to view, except where they must of
necessity pass through the thickness of a wall or floor, and it would be
a great benefit if such were required in this country.
The cooking processes which necessarily go on often result in unpleasant
odors pervading our homes. I cannot say they are immediately prejudicial
to health; but if they are of daily or frequent occurrence, it is more
than probable the volatile matters which are the cause of the odors
become condensed upon walls, ceiling, or furniture, and in time undergo
putrefaction, and so not only mar the sweetness of home, but in addition
affect the health of the inmates. Cooking ranges should therefore be
constructed so as to carry off the fumes of cooking, and kitchens must
be well ventilated and so placed that the fumes cannot find their way
into other parts of the dwelling. In some houses washing day is an
abomination. Steam and stife then permeate the building, and, to say the
least, banish sweetness and comfort from the home. It is a wonder that
people will, year after year, put up with such a nuisance.
If washing must be done home, the architect may do something to lessen
the evil by placing the washhouse in a suitable position disconnected
from the living part of the house, or by properly ventilating it and
providing a well constructed boiler and furnace, and a flue for carrying
off the steam.
There is daily a considerable amount of refuse found in every home, from
the kitchen, from the fire-grate, from the sweeping of rooms, etc., and
as a rule this is day after day deposited in the ash-pit, which but
too often is placed close to the house, and left uncovered. If it were
simply a receptacle for the ashes from the fire-grates, no harm would
result, but as all kinds of organic matter are cast in and often allowed
to remain for weeks to rot and putrefy, it becomes a regular pest box,
and to it often may be traced sickness and death. It would be a wise
sanitary measure if every constructed ash pit were abolished. In place
thereof I would substitute a galvanized iron covered receptacle of but
moderate size, mounted upon wheels, and it should be incumbent on the
local authorities to empty same every two or three days. Where there are
gardens all refuse is useful as manure, and a suitable place should be
provided for it at the greatest distance from the dwellings. Until the
very advisable reform I have just mentioned takes place, it would be
well if refuse were burnt as soon as possible. With care this may be
done in a close range, or even open fire without any unpleasant smells,
and certainly without injury to health. It must be much more wholesome
to dispose of organic matter in that way while fresh than to have it
rotting and festering under our very noses.
A greater evil yet is the privy. In the country, where there is no
complete system of drainage, it may be tolerated when placed at a
distance from the house; but in a crowded neighborhood it is an
abomination, and, unless frequently emptied and kept scrupulously clean,
cannot fail to be injurious to health. Where there is no system of
drainage, cesspools must at times be used, but they should be avoided as
much as possible. They should never be constructed near to dwellings,
and must always be well ventilated. Care should be taken to make them
watertight, otherwise the foul matter may percolate through the ground,
and is likely to contaminate the water supply. In some old houses
cesspools have been found actually under the living rooms.
I would here also condemn the placing of r. w. tanks under any portion
of the dwelling house, for many cases of sickness and death have been
traced to the fact of sewage having found its way through, either by
backing up the drains, or by the ignorant laying of new into old
drains. Earth closets, if carefully attended to, often emptied, and the
receptacles cleaned out, can be safely employed even within doors;
but in towns it is difficult to dispose of the refuse, and there must
necessarily be a system of drainage for the purpose of taking off the
surface water; it is thereupon found more economical to carry away all
drainage together, and the water closet being but little trouble, and,
if properly looked after, more cleanly in appearance, it is generally
preferred, notwithstanding the great risks which are daily run in
consequence of the chance of sewer-gas finding an entrance into the
house by its means. After all, it is scarcely fair to condemn outright
the water closet as the cause of so many of the ills to which flesh is
subject. It is true that many w. c. apparatus are obviously defective
in construction, and any architect or builder using such is to be
condemned. The old pan closet, for instance, should be banished. It is
known to be defective, and yet I see it is still made, sold, and fixed,
in dwelling houses, notwithstanding the fact that other closet pans far
more simple and effective can be obtained at less cost. The pan of the
closet should be large, and ought to retain a layer of water at the
bottom, which, with the refuse, should be swept out of the pan by the
rush of water from the service pipe. The outlet may be at the side
connected with a simple earthenware s-trap with a ventilating outlet at
the top, from which a pipe may be taken just through the wall. From the
S-trap I prefer to take the soil pipe immediately through the wall, and
connect with a strong 4 in. iron pipe, carefully jointed, watertight,
and continued of the same size to above the tops of all windows. This
pipe at its foot should be connected with a ventilating trap, so that
all air connection is cut off between the house and the drains. All
funnel-shaped w. c. pans are objectionable, because they are so liable
to catch and retain the dirt.
Wastes from baths, sinks, and urinals should also be ventilated and
disconnected from the drains as above, or else allowed to discharge
above a gulley trap. Excrement, etc., must be quickly removed from the
premises if we are to have "sweet homes," and the w.c. is perhaps the
most convenient apparatus, when properly constructed, which can be
employed. By taking due precaution no harm need be feared, or will
result from its use, provided that the drains and sewers are rightly
constructed and properly laid. It is then to the sewers, drains, and
their connections our attention must be specially directed, for in the
majority of cases they are the arch-offenders. The laying of main sewers
has in most cases been intrusted to the civil engineer, yet it often
happens architects are blamed, and unjustly so, for the defective
work over which they had no control. When the main sewers are badly
constructed, and, as a result, sewer gas is generated and allowed to
accumulate, ordinary precautions may be useless in preventing its
entrance by some means or other to our homes, and special means and
extra precautions must be adopted. But with well constructed and
properly ventilated sewers, every architect and builder should be able
to devise a suitable system of house drainage, which need cause no
fear of danger to health. The glazed stoneware pipe, now made of any
convenient size and shape, is an excellent article with which to
construct house-drains. The pipes should be selected, well burnt, well
glazed, and free from twist. Too much care cannot be exercised in
properly laying them. The trenches should be got out to proper falls,
and unless the ground is hard and firm, the pipes should be laid upon a
layer of concrete to prevent the chance of sinking. The jointing must be
carefully made, and should be of cement or of well tempered clay, care
being taken to wipe away all projecting portions from the inside of the
pipes. A clear passage-way is of the utmost importance. Foul drains are
the result of badly joined and irregularly laid pipes, wherein matter
accumulates, which in time ferments and produces sewer-gas. The common
system of laying drains with curved angles is not so good as laying them
in straight lines from point to point, and at every angle inserting
a man-hole or lamp-hole, This plan is now insisted upon by the Local
Government Board for all public buildings erected under their authority.
It might, with advantage, be adopted for all house-drains.
Now, in consequence of the trouble and expense attending the opening up
and examination of a drain, it may often happen that although defects
are suspected or even known to exist, they are not remedied until
illness or death is the result of neglect. But with drains laid in
straight lines, from point to point, with man holes or lamp holes at the
intersections, there is no reason why the whole system may not easily be
examined at any time and stoppages quickly removed. The man holes and
lamp-holes may, with advantage, be used as means for ventilating the
drains and also for flushing them. It is of importance that each house
drain should have a disconnecting trap just before it enters the main
sewer. It is bad enough to be poisoned by neglecting the drainage to
one's own property, but what if the poison be developed elsewhere, and
by neglect permitted to find its way to us. Such will surely happen
unless some effective means be employed for cutting off all air
connection between the house-drains and the main sewer. I am firmly
convinced that simply a smoky chimney, or the discovery of a fault in
drainage weighs far more, in the estimation of a client in forming his
opinion of the ability of an architect, than the successful carrying out
of an artistic design. By no means do I disparage a striving to attain
artistic effectiveness, but to the study of the artistic, in domestic
architecture at least, add a knowledge of sanitary science, and foster a
habit of careful observation of causes and effects. Comfort is demanded
in the home, and that cannot be secured unless dwellings are built and
maintained with perfect sanitary arrangements and appliances.--_The
Building News_.
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