THE MINISTRY AT GENEVA, 1555-1559.
On his departure from Frankfort Knox made his way to Geneva, whither he
was followed by a considerable number of those who had adhered to him
in the former city. There it seems evident that he was invited by
them, and probably also by others who had joined them, to resume his
pastoral labours; for at the solicitation of Calvin, the Lesser Council
of Geneva granted for the joint use of the English and Italian
congregations the church called the Temple de Nostre Dame la Nove; and
it is recorded that on the first of November, 1555, when the English
Church was formed, Christopher Goodman and Arthur Gilby were "appointed
to preach the word, _in the absence of John Knox_." This indicates
that Knox was already recognised as one of the permanent pastors of the
Church, and that just at that time he was for some reason or other,
away for a long season from the scene of his labours.
Where he was and what he was doing we have ample means of tracing, for
in the September of that {96} year we find him back again in Scotland,
for the first time since he had been taken prisoner by the French. But
much as he cared for the spiritual interests of his native land, it is
probable that his return to Great Britain at this time was more
immediately prompted by feelings of a personal nature. We have already
referred to his attachment to Marjory Bowes, daughter of Richard Bowes,
and of Elizabeth Aske, of Aske, near Berwick, and Dr. Laing has given
strong reasons for believing that he came now for the purpose of making
her his wife. The precise date of his marriage, indeed, is uncertain.
Dr. McCrie has put it in 1553, before he left England on the ground
that after that date Knox invariably addressed Mrs. Bowes as his
"mother" and spoke of Marjory as his "wife." The truth, however, seems
to have been that owing to the strong opposition of her father and
other relatives to the alliance, and also, perhaps, to the very
uncertain position of the Reformer himself, in these times of
unsettlement and peril, they contented themselves in 1553 with formally
pledging themselves to each other "before witnesses." But now,
immediately on his landing, at a point on the east shore not far from
the boundary between England and Scotland, he repaired to Berwick,
where he found Marjory and her mother enjoying the happiness of
religious society. After this, he visited Scotland, where he laboured
for some months, and the marriage may not have taken place until the
time when, preparatory to their setting out for Geneva, Mrs. Bowes {97}
resolved to leave all her relatives and cast in her lot with her
son-in-law.
The visit of Knox to Scotland, at this juncture, was of immense service
to the cause of the Reformation. The clergy, unable or unwilling to
discern the signs of the times, had sunk into supineness, under the
belief that what they called heresy had been well-nigh banished from
the land. Arran, now Duke of Chatellerault, had given place as Regent
to Mary, the mother of Mary Queen of Scots, whose policy it was just
then to temporize with the Protestant nobles, and to disguise for a
season her deep-rooted and undying hatred of their cause. In the good
providence of God, also, a number of the leading adherents of the new
faith, like Erskine of Dun, Maitland of Lethington, and others, had
come to Edinburgh to confer with and enjoy the ministrations of John
Willock, who had been sent over by the Duchess of East Friesland,
ostensibly on a commercial mission to the Scottish court, but really to
see "what good work God would do by him to his native land;" and the
private meetings which he held with the Protestants in Edinburgh for
prayer and the exposition of the word, may have suggested to Knox that
he should follow a similar plan. That at least was the course which he
determined to pursue. He was received into the houses of certain
burgesses whose names he has enshrined in his history, and though the
number of meetings and the necessity of holding them in secret kept him
busy night and day, he was greatly {98} encouraged by the results.
Writing to Mrs. Bowes, he says that "the fervent thirst of his
brethren, night and day, sobbing and groaning for the bread of life,
was such, that if he had not seen it with his own eyes he could not
have believed it;" and again that "the fervency here did far exceed all
others that he had seen;" and "did so ravish him, that he could not but
accuse and condemn his slothful coldness."
The news of his arrival spread among the Reformers in all parts of the
country, and his presence was so eagerly desired everywhere that he was
obliged to postpone his return to Berwick, and enter upon a series of
evangelistic journeys through different districts of the land. But we
will allow him to describe his work at this time himself. Thus he
writes in his "History": "John Knox, at the request of the Laird of
Dun, followed him to his place of Dun, where he remained a month, daily
exercised in doctrine, whereunto resorted the principal men of that
country. After his returning, his residence was most in Calder, where
repaired unto him the Lord Erskine, the Lord Lorn, and Lord James
Stuart, Prior of St. Andrews (half-brother to Mary Stuart), where they
heard and so approved his doctrine, that they wished it to have been
public. That same winter he taught commonly in Edinburgh; and after
the Yule (Christmas) by the conduct of the Laird of Barr, and Robert
Campbell of Kinzeancleugh, he came to Kyle, and taught in the Barr, in
the house of the Carnell, in the Kinzeancleugh, in the town of Ayr,
{99} and in the houses of Ochiltree and Gadgirth, and in some of them
ministered the Lord's Table. Before the Pasch (Easter) the Earl of
Glencairn sent for him to his place of Finlaston, where, after
doctrine, he likewise ministered the Lord's Table; whereof, besides
himself, were partakers his lady, two of his sons, and certain of his
friends. And so returned he to Calder, where divers from Edinburgh,
and from the country about, convened as well for the doctrine as for
the right use of the Lord's Table, which before they had never
practised. From thence he departed the second time to the Laird of
Dun, and teaching them in greater liberty, the gentlemen required that
he should minister likewise unto them the Table of the Lord Jesus;
whereof were partakers the most part of the gentlemen of the Mearns,
who professed that they refused all society with idolatry and bound
themselves to the uttermost of their power to maintain the true
preaching of the Evangel of Jesus Christ, as God should offer to them
preachers and opportunity." Well done, ye men of the Mearns, and ye
worthy descendants of the Lollards of Kyle! Often in the history of
Scotland have the dwellers in these parts stood up manfully for the
truth, but never was a nobler thing done in either locality, than when
ye thus received and welcomed the apostle of your country's Reformation!
Such labours were sure sooner or later to attract the attention of the
bishops; and accordingly while he was in the Mearns he was summoned to
appear {100} before them at Edinburgh, in the Church of the
Blackfriars, on the 15th May, 1556. They probably imagined that this
mere "show of force" on their part would suffice to frighten him into
silence. If they did, they reckoned without their host; for encouraged
by his friends he came to Edinburgh to meet and face his accusers. But
when it came to the pinch, they shrank from the encounter; and so it
was that on the very day on which he had been summoned to stand before
them, he preached, of all places, in the very lodging of the Bishop of
Dunkeld, to a greater audience than he had hitherto addressed in
Edinburgh. For ten days he continued morning and afternoon at this
work, and so thoroughly was his heart refreshed by it that he writes of
it thus to Mrs. Bowes: "O sweet were the death that should follow such
forty days in Edinburgh as here I have had three."
But the boldest, if we should not call it the most audacious thing,
which he did in this visit, was to address a letter to the Queen
Regent, wherein he vindicated himself from the charges made by his
enemies against him, and exhorted her to hear the word of God, and
regulate her government by its principles. The suggestion to send such
an epistle came from the Earl Mareschal and Henry Drummond, who had
been brought to hear him by Lord Glencairn, and who declared, on what
they said they knew of the queen's mind, that she was in a mood to be
propitious. But though the letter is correctly described by Lorimer as
one "which for its {101} courtesy of phrase, and faithfulness of
counsel, was equally suitable to her dignity as a queen, and to his
character as a minister of God," it met with only a mocking reception.
"Please you, my lord, to read a pasquil," said Mary of Guise, after it
had been put into her hands, and while she was giving it to the
Archbishop of Glasgow, and that was all the notice of it which she
condescended to take. This treatment of his expostulation being
reported to Knox, revealed to him how little he had to expect from Mary
of Guise; and as just at this time letters arrived from Geneva
"commanding him, in God's name, as he that was their chosen pastor, to
repair unto them for their comfort," he made immediate preparations for
his departure thither. He took leave of the several congregations to
whom he had preached, and sent on his wife and his mother-in-law to
Dieppe before him, there to await his arrival. He reached them in the
month of July, and shortly after went with them to Geneva; for in the
"Livre des Anglois" there is an entry to the effect that on the 13th of
September, 1556, John Knox; Marjory, his wife; Elizabeth, her mother;
James ----, his servant; and Patrick, his pupil, were received and
admitted members of the English Church and congregation there.
The reception of Mrs. Bowes into his household, especially with his
knowledge of her deep-seated melancholia, says much for the kindliness
of Knox's heart; and contrasts strongly with the spirit manifested on a
similar matter by that other Scotsman whose {102} correspondence has so
recently been given to the world. We know not if the cheap sneer
indulged in by so many at the expense of the mother-in-law were as
common in his days as it is in ours, but, in any case, Knox in all this
was thoughtfully tender, and though he admits that the desponding habit
of Mrs. Bowes was often a great trial to him, yet he never withdrew his
regard from her. The following sentences of Dr. Laing express all that
needs to be said more on this subject: "Her husband, I presume, was a
bigoted adherent of the Roman Catholic faith, and this may serve as the
key both to his opposition to Knox's marriage with his daughter, and to
the mother's attachment to her son-in-law. It cannot at least be said
that Knox was actuated by the expectation of wealth. In his last will
and testament he states that all the money he received from the
mother's succession for the benefit of his two sons was one hundred
marks sterling, which he, 'out of his poverty,' had increased to five
hundred pounds Scots, and had paid through Mr. Randolph to their uncle,
Mr. Robert Bowes, for their use. The comparative value of money at
this time was very variable; but we may reckon (that) the hundred
marks, or L66 13s. 4d., were increased by Knox to L100 sterling."[1]
After Knox left Scotland the courage of the bishops revived, for they
actually summoned him again, and on his failure to put in an appearance
they were bold enough to burn him in effigy at the Cross of Edinburgh!
{103} But this _brutum fulmen_ of theirs could not undo the work which
he had wrought. For by his labours at this time, especially in
exposing the evil of the Protestants' any longer countenancing, papal
worship, he detached from the Romish communion the nucleus round which
the Church of Scotland, in a reformed state, was ultimately to form
itself. Hitherto there had been no separate organization of the
adherents to the Protestant faith; and no formal observance by them of
the ordinance of the Supper. But now they had, to some extent at
least, committed themselves to ultimate separation from the Church of
Rome. As Lorimer says, "They were now a "Congregation" or community of
Evangelical Christians, as much bound to one another as they were
dissevered from the Church of the popes." And Knox's leaving of them
in that condition was as much for their good as his arrival among them
some months before had been. Had he remained longer in Scotland at
this time, his presence would have undoubtedly provoked an outburst of
persecuting fury on the part of the bishops and their friends; while as
it was, the seed which he sowed had opportunity to root itself in the
hearts of those who had received it at his hands; and this it would
assuredly do if they followed the directions which he had left behind
him. For before his departure he drew up a letter of wholesome counsel
addressed to his brethren in Scotland, in which he exhorts them to give
themselves to the daily study of the Bible and worship of God in their
homes, and gives them {104} directions as to the holding and conducting
of assemblies for public worship and mutual conference and prayer,
recommending them to observe a regular course in their reading, and
cautioning those who should speak, to do so with modesty, avoiding
"multiplication of words, perplexed interpretation, and wilfulness in
reasoning." If anything occurred in the text which they could not
resolve for themselves, he advised them to apply for assistance to the
more learned, and offered if they should refer it to him, to give them
such help as he could render, saying, "I will more gladly spend fifteen
hours in communicating my judgment with you, in explaining as God
pleases to open to me any place of Scripture, than half an hour in any
matter beside."
To the same period belong his "Answers to some Questions concerning
Baptism," etc., which had been proposed to him by some inquirers, and
which are of a sort that have often troubled young converts in similar
cases. They are, whether baptism administered by the popish priests
was valid and did not require repetition? Whether the decree of the
apostles and elders at Jerusalem be still in all its points binding on
believers? Whether the prohibition in 2 John 10 extended to the common
salutation of those who taught erroneous doctrine? How the directions
respecting dress in 1 Peter iii. 3 are to be obeyed? and the like. And
with them all he deals in a spirit of wisdom for which multitudes
unacquainted with his works would hardly give him credit. We need not
enter into details regarding them; {105} but as the first mentioned of
the above subjects was debated a few years ago in the Assembly of the
Presbyterian Church (North) of the United States, it may not be
uninteresting to state that, while Knox declares unequivocally that it
would be wrong for Protestant believers to seek baptism for their
children from popish priests, he yet as plainly affirms that a man who
had been baptized in infancy in papistry ought not to be rebaptized
when he cometh to knowledge, because Christ's institution could not be
utterly abolished by the malice of Satan or by the abuse of man.
From September, 1556, to September, 1557, Knox laboured in Geneva,
delighting in his work and rejoicing in the fellowship of congenial
friends. Indeed, these halcyon months seem to have been the most
peaceful of his chequered life, and we do not wonder that he wrote
regarding Geneva: "I neither fear nor shame to say, it is the most
perfect school of Christ that ever was in the earth since the days of
the apostles." In the public services of the Church he used the form
of prayer which had been drawn up by himself and others for the English
congregation, and which was the groundwork of the "Book of Common
Order" that was received by the Church of Scotland in 1565. But as
that will come up for description in its proper place, we need not
dwell upon it here. The harmony of the Geneva Church was sweet after
the controversies of Frankfort, and the intercourse of the brethren
from England, who were then engaged in the preparation of that version
of the {106} Scriptures which continued to be for nearly a hundred
years the favourite Bible of the Puritans, must have been a constant
joy.
But this happiness did not last long; for in the month of May (1557)
James Syme and James Barron, two burgesses of Edinburgh, and his own
very devoted friends, arrived with a letter from Glencairn, Lorn,
Erskine, and Lord James Stuart, beseeching "in the name of the Lord,"
that he would return to his native land; and affirming that he would
find all the faithful whom he had left behind him, not only glad to
hear his doctrine, but also ready to jeopardise their lives and goods
for the setting forward of the glory of God. The opinion of Calvin and
other friends to whom he submitted this request, was that he could not
refuse such a call "without declaring himself rebellious unto God and
unmerciful to his country"; and no doubt his own heart had already
given a similar response. Accordingly, after making all due
arrangements for the leaving of his charge, and for the care of his
family in his absence, he set out from Geneva in the end of September,
and arrived at Dieppe on the 24th October. He was met there, however,
with letters which gave him the impression that those who had invited
him to return to Scotland had repented of their action in that regard;
and that many of the professed adherents of the truth had drawn back
and became faint-hearted in the cause. This brought him to a stand,
and he determined to go no farther until his way should be more clear.
He {107} immediately wrote to his correspondents, explaining how he
came to be at Dieppe, upbraiding them for their fear and fickleness;
admonishing them of the great importance of the enterprise to which
they had committed themselves; and alleging that they ought to hazard
their lives and fortunes to deliver themselves and their brethren from
spiritual bondage. This letter is dated October 27th, 1557, and was
followed by another of a more general tenour to his brethren in
Scotland, which appears to have been written in the same place on the
1st of December.
In the expectation of receiving some definite information from
Scotland, Knox lingered in Dieppe for some considerable time, and
officiated as temporary preacher to a Protestant Church which had
recently been formed there. But when no answer came to his appeal to
his countrymen, he set his face again toward Geneva, to which, after
visiting Lyons, Rochelle, and other towns, he returned in the spring of
1558.
But though he had heard nothing from Scotland, matters there had been
making steady progress. There may have been just enough of wavering on
the part of some to give occasion for the desponding letters which had
arrested him at Dieppe, yet there had been no great reaction. For on
the 3rd December, perhaps after the receipt of Knox's letter of the
preceding October, there had been a conference of the leading
Protestants as to what was best to be done, and as the result a Common
Bond or Band--the earliest of those {108} covenants which have had so
conspicuous a place in the church history of Scotland--was drawn up and
subscribed by Argyle, Glencairn, Morton, Lorn, Erskine of Dun, and many
others. By this "engagement" they pledged themselves in the most
solemn manner "to strive in their Master's cause even unto death;" "to
maintain, set forward, and establish the most blessed word of God, and
His congregation;" with their "whole power, substance, and their very
lives; and to labour to the utmost of their possibility, to have
faithful ministers purely and truly to preach Christ's gospel, and
minister His sacraments to His people."
This was brave and hopeful in the highest degree. But Knox knew
nothing of it meanwhile, and in his despondency composed and issued
that tract which must be pronounced the greatest mistake of his life.
We refer, of course, to "The First Blast of the Trumpet against the
monstrous Regiment (_i.e._ government) of Women," which is an elaborate
argument designed to establish the proposition that "to promote a woman
to bear rule, superiority, dominion, or empire, above any realm,
nation, or city, is repugnant to nature, contumely to God, a thing most
contrarious to His revealed will and approved ordinance; and finally it
is the subversion of good order, of all equality and justice." We have
already seen from the questions which he put to Bullinger, that he had
been pondering this subject for some time; and there is evidence in the
tract itself, that he had diligently consulted what we should now {109}
call "the literature of the subject," for he refers to Aristotle's
politics; to the Books of the Digests; to such Fathers of the Church as
Tertullian, Augustine, Ambrose, Chrysostom, etc. But it was clearly
prompted by the fact that Mary Tudor was on the throne of England; and
there is throughout a strong undercurrent of application to her
character and cruelties. Whatever opinion may be taken on the main
question, however,--and the very existence of the Salic law in some
states still proves that there _are_ two sides to it, there can be no
doubt that Knox's treatment of it at all, not to speak of the sort of
treatment which he gave it, was at this time impolitic and imprudent.
In his preface he intimates that he is prepared to be condemned by
multitudes, and even for being accused by some of high treason; and
doubtless, he thought that he had counted the cost before he built his
tower. But the publication brought such a storm about his head, that
though he had purposed to follow his first blast with a second and a
third, the two latter were never blown. His friend and colleague,
Christopher Goodman, put himself by his side in a work entitled "How
Superior Powers ought to be Obeyed of their Subjects;" and at a later
day John Milton, in quoting from Goodman, and referring to him and
others, in his "Tenure of Kings and Magistrates" says, "These were the
pastors of those saints and confessors, who, flying from the bloody
persecution of Queen Mary, gathered up at length their scattered
members into {110} many congregations ... _These were the true
Protestant divines of England_, our fathers in the faith we hold."[2]
But such laudations were exceptional. Foxe, the martyrologist, wrote a
long and friendly letter to Knox, in which he expostulated with him on
the impropriety of its publication; and even his friend John Calvin, in
a letter to Cecil, felt compelled to deny all complicity with its
production. Mary Tudor did not live long to resent it; but her sister
Elizabeth never either forgot or forgave it; and it prejudiced the mind
of Mary Stuart against him long before she looked upon his face. Not
many months after its publication he was constrained to say "My first
Blast hath blown from me all my friends in England," and could he have
foreseen what the alliance of Elizabeth was ultimately to do for
Scotland in the very climax of her Reformation agony, we may safely say
that the work would neither have been written nor published.
But his excuse (_valeat quantum_) is not far to seek, and we cannot do
better than give it in the words of Carlyle.[3] "It is written with
very great vehemency; the excuse for which, so far as it may really
need excuse, is to be found in the fact that it was written while the
fires of Smithfield were still blazing, on best of bloody Mary, and not
long after Mary of Guise had been raised to the Regency of
Scotland--maleficent crowned women these two--covering poor England and
poor Scotland {111} with mere ruin and horror, in Knox's judgment, and
may we not still say to a considerable extent, in that of all candid
persons? The book is by no means without merit; has in it various
little traits unconsciously autobiographic, and others which are
illuminative and interesting. One ought to add withal, that Knox was
no despiser of women, far the reverse in fact; his behaviour to good
and pious women is full of respect; and his tenderness, his filial
helpfulness in their suffering and infirmities (see the letters to his
mother-in-law and others) are beautifully conspicuous. For the rest
his poor book testifies to many high intellectual qualities in Knox,
and especially to far more of learning than has ever been ascribed to
him, or is anywhere traceable in his other writings."
To this time also belongs his treatise on Predestination, in answer to
an anonymous writer who called his work "The Careless of Necessity."
It is the most elaborate of all the Reformer's productions, and goes
into the Augustinian controversy, on the side of the great
ecclesiastical father, with much vigour of logic, great clearness of
language, and apt and extended references to Scripture. Nowhere else,
as it seems to us, does Knox indulge in such closely compacted
argument, or write in such a nervous style. He is very careful to keep
himself from misrepresentation, and all he states may be accepted as
true; but there is another side to the shield to which he rarely
refers, and which must be admitted as implicitly as that to which he
has restricted {112} his attention. It is not, of course, equal to the
great work of Mozley on the same subject; but they who would master the
literature of the controversy cannot afford to overlook this valuable
contribution to its documents.
Knox continued at Geneva until the month of January, 1559, when, in
response to a request sent to him by those who had signed the "Godly
Band," which was backed by letters of a more recent date, informing him
of the state of things in Scotland, he left his wife and family behind
him and set out for his native land. Mary, the English queen, had now
gone to her account, and her sister Elizabeth had succeeded to the
throne, so that the Protestant refugees on the continent could safely
return to their own country, and it was, therefore, no longer necessary
for him to retain his position as pastor. Before the breaking up of
the congregation, however, its members met to give thanks to God, and
agreed to send one of their number with letters to their brethren in
Frankfort and other places, congratulating them on the happy change
which had come about at home, and requesting them to forget all past
unpleasantness, while they co-operated as brethren to procure such a
settlement of religion in England as would be well-pleasing to all the
friends of the Reformation. Having received favourable replies to
these letters, they went in a body to the council of the city, and
William Whittingham, in their name, expressed to the seigneurie the
gratitude which they felt for the good reception given to them during
{113} their exile, presenting them at the same time as a lasting
memorial of their names the "Livre des Anglois," which is still
preserved among the archives of Geneva, and from which we have quoted
an interesting entry. They then left the city in which they had found
so safe an asylum, and Knox sent letters with them to some of his
former acquaintances in England, desiring that they would obtain
permission for him to travel through England on his way to Scotland.
Naturally enough he wished to see some of those among whom he had
formerly laboured; but there is reason to believe that his principal
motive in asking this favour, at this time, was that he might disclose
to Cecil the existence of a plan which had been formed by the Princes
of Lorraine, with which somehow he had become acquainted, and which had
for its objects the setting up of the claim of Mary Stuart to the
throne of England, the dethronement of Elizabeth under pretence that
she was a bastard and a heretic, the union of England and Scotland
under one crown, and the suppression of the Reformation in both by
bringing the whole island under the virtual control of France. But the
indignation of Elizabeth at his "First Blast" was such that his request
was indignantly refused, and it was with difficulty that those who
presented his letters escaped imprisonment. He did not learn this
result of his application until his arrival in Dieppe; and even then,
impressed with the importance of the information which he had to
communicate, he himself wrote to Cecil, seeking to remove all
difficulties, and desiring a personal {114} interview. But this
overture met with no better success; and so, determined to wait no
longer for that which seemed to be hopeless, he sailed from Dieppe on
the 22nd of April, and arrived at Leith on the 2nd of May, 1559. From
this time up till his decease, with the exception of a brief visit
which he made to England, Scotland was the sole scene of his labours;
and during these thirteen years the incidents of his public life became
part and parcel of the history of his country.
[1] "Works," vol. vi. p. lxvi.
[2] "Knox's Works," by Laing, vol. iv. p. 359.
[3] Carlyle's Works, vol. xii. p. 137.
{115}