[1] The spelling throughout all the articles dealing with India is
that adopted by the government of India, modified in special
instances with deference to long-established usage.
[2] The historicity of this convention, not now usually admitted by
scholars, is maintained by Bishop Copleston of Calcutta in his
_Buddhism, Primitive and Present_ (1908).
[3] In 1909 the excavation of a ruined stupa near Peshawar disclosed
a casket, with an inscription of Kanishka, and containing fragments
of bones believed to be those of Buddha himself.
[4] In 1909 an inscription in Brahmi characters was discovered near
Bhilsa in Central India recording the name of a Greek, Heliodorus. He
describes himself as a worshipper of Bhagavata (= Vishnu), and states
that he had come from Taxila in the name of the great king
Antialcidas, who is known from his coins to have lived c. 170 B.C.
[5] This is the conventional European form of the name. For other
forms see YUE-CHI.
[6] V. A. Smith, _Early Hist. of India_, p. 238.
[7] Smith, _op. cit._ pp. 239, &c., says that he probably succeeded
Kadphises II. about A.D. 120. Dr Fleet dates the beginning of
Kanishka's reign 58 B.C. (see INSCRIPTIONS: _Indian_). Mr Vincent
Smith (_Imp. Gaz. of India, The Indian Empire_, ed. 1908, vol. ii. p.
289, note) dissents from this view, which is also held by Dr Otto
Franke of Berlin, stating that Dr Stein's discoveries in Chinese
Turkestan "strongly confirm the view" held by himself.
[8] See V. A. Smith, _op. cit._ pp. 297, &c.
[9] His era, however, is dated from 606.
[10] So V. A. Smith, _op. cit._ p. 314, who on this point differs
from Sylvain Levi and Ettinghausen.
[11] For Harsha's reign see Smith, _op. cit._ xiii. 311-331.
[12] This has been Englished by Anglo-Indians into "puggaree" or
"pugree" and applied to a scarf of white cotton or silk wound round a
hat or helmet as a protection against the sun.
[13] Anglicized as "pyjamas" (in America "pajamas"), the term is used
of a form of night-wear for men which has now generally superseded
the night-shirt. This consists of a loose coat and trousers of silk,
wool or other material; the trousers are fastened by a cord round the
waist.
INDIA, FRENCH, a general name for the French possessions in India--on
the Coromandel coast, Pondicherry, Karikal and Yanaon; on the Malabar
coast, Mahé; and in Bengal, Chandernagore. In addition there are a few
"lodges" elsewhere, but they are merely nominal remnants of French
factories. The total area amounts to 203 sq. m., of which 113 sq. m.
belong to the territory of Pondicherry. In 1901 the total population
amounted to 273,185. By decree of the 25th of January 1879 French India
was provided with an elective general council and elective local
councils. The results of this measure have not been very satisfactory,
and the qualifications for and the classes of the franchise have been
modified. The governor resides at Pondicherry, and is assisted by a
council. There are two tribunals of first instance (at Pondicherry and
Karikal), one court of appeal (at Pondicherry) and five justices of the
peace. The agricultural produce consists of rice, earth-nuts, tobacco,
betel nuts and vegetables.
_History._--The first French expedition to India is believed to have
taken place in the reign of Francis I., when two ships were fitted out
by some merchants of Rouen to trade in eastern seas; they sailed from
Havre in that year and were never afterwards heard of. In 1604 a company
was granted letters patent by Henry IV., but the project failed. Fresh
letters patent were issued in 1615, and two ships went to India, only
one returning. _La Compagnie des Indes_ was formed under the auspices of
Richelieu (1642) and reconstructed under Colbert (1664), sending an
expedition to Madagascar. In 1667 the French India Company sent out
another expedition, which reached Surat in 1668, where the first French
factory in India was established. In 1672 Saint Thomé was taken, but the
French were driven out by the Dutch and retired to Pondicherry (1674).
In 1741 Dupleix became governor of Pondicherry and in 1744 war broke out
between France and England; for the remaining history of the French in
India see INDIA.
See Haurigot, _French India_ (Paris, 1887); Henrique, _Les Colonies
françaises_ (Paris, 1889); Lee, _French Colonies_ (Foreign Office
Report, 1900); _L'Année coloniale_ (Paris, 1900); and F. C. Danvers,
_Records of the India Office_ (1887).
INDIANA, a north-central state of the United States of America, the
second state to be erected from the old North-West Territory; popularly
known as the "Hoosier State." It is located between latitudes 37° 47´
and 41° 50´ N. and longitudes 84° 49´ and 88° 2´ W. It is bounded on the
N. by Michigan and Lake Michigan, on the E. by Ohio, on the S. by
Kentucky from which it is separated by the Ohio river, and on the W. by
Illinois. Its total area is 36,350 sq. m., of which 440 sq. m. are water
surface.
_Physiography._--Topographically, Indiana is similar to Ohio and
Illinois, the greater part of its surface being undulating prairie
land, with a range of sand-hills in the N. and a chain of picturesque
and rocky hills, known as "Knobs," some of which rise to a height of
500 ft., in the southern counties along the Ohio river. This southern
border of hills is the edge of the "Cumberland Plateau" physiographic
province. In the northern portion of the state there are a number of
lakes, of glacial origin, of which the largest are English Lake in
Stark county, James Lake and Crooked Lake in Steuben county, Turkey
Lake and Tippecanoe Lake in Kosciusko county and Lake Maxinkuckee in
Marshall county. In the limestone region of the south there are
numerous caves, the most notable being Wyandotte Cave in Crawford
county, next to Mammoth Cave the largest in the United States. In the
southern and south-central part of the state, particularly in Orange
county, there are many mineral springs, of which the best known are
those at French Lick and West Baden. The larger streams flow in a
general south-westerly direction, and the greater part of the state is
drained into the Ohio through the Wabash river and its tributaries.
The Wabash, which has a total length of more than 500 m., has its
headwaters in the western part of Ohio, and flows in a north-west,
south-west, and south direction across the state, emptying into the
Ohio river and forming for a considerable distance the boundary
between Indiana and Illinois. It is navigable for river steamboats at
high water for about 350 m. of its course. Its principal tributaries
are the Salamanie, Mississinewa, Wild Cat, Tippecanoe and White
rivers. Of these the White river is by far the most important, being
second only to the Wabash itself in extent of territory drained. It is
formed by the confluence of its East and West Forks, almost 50 m.
above its entrance into the Wabash, which it joins about 100 m. above
the Ohio. Other portions of the state are drained by the Kankakee, a
tributary of the Illinois, the St Joseph and its principal branch, the
Elkhart, which flow north through the south-west corner of Michigan
and empty into Lake Michigan; the St Mary's and another St Joseph,
whose confluence forms the Maumee, which empties into Lake Erie; and
the White Water, which drains a considerable portion of the south-west
part of the state into the Ohio.
_Flora and Fauna._--The flora of the state is varied, between 1400 and
1500 species of flowering plants being found. Among its native fruits
are the persimmon, the paw-paw, the goose plum and the fox grape.
Cultivated fruits, such as apples, pears, peaches, plums, grapes and
berries, are raised in large quantities for the market. The economic
value of the forests was originally great, but there has been reckless
cutting, and the timber-bearing forests are rapidly disappearing. As
late as 1880 Indiana was an important timber-producing state, but in
1900 less than 30% of the total acreage of the state--only about
10,800 sq. m.--was woodland, and on very little of this land were
there forests of commercial importance. There are about 110 species of
trees in the state, the commonest being the oak. The bald cypress, a
southern tree, seems to be an anomalous growth. Blue grass is valuable
for grazing and hay-making. The principal crops include Indian corn,
wheat, oats, potatoes, buckwheat, rye and clover.
The fauna originally included buffalo, elk, deer, wolves, bear, lynx,
beaver, otter, porcupine and puma, but civilization has driven them
all out entirely. Rattlesnakes and copperheads were formerly common in
the south. The game birds include quail (Bob White), ruffed grouse
and a few pinnated grouse (once very plentiful, then nearly
exterminated, but now apparently reappearing under strict protection),
and such water birds as the mallard duck, wood duck, blue- and
green-winged teals, Wilson's snipe, and greater and lesser yellow legs
(snipe). The song birds and insectivorous birds include the cardinal
grosbeak, scarlet and summer tanagers, meadow lark, song sparrow,
catbird, brown thrasher, wood thrush, house wren, robin, blue bird,
goldfinch, red-headed woodpecker, flicker (golden-winged woodpecker),
and several species of warblers. The game fish include the bass
(small-mouth and large-mouth), brook trout, pike, pickerel, and
muskallonge, and there are many other large and small food fishes.
_Climate._--The climate of Indiana is unusually equable. The mean
annual temperature is about 52° F., ranging from 49° F. in the north
to 54° in the south. The mean monthly temperature varies from 25° in
the months of December and January to 77°-79° in July and August. Cold
winds from the Great Lakes region frequently cause a fall in
temperature to an extreme of -25° F. in the north and north central
parts of the state. The mean annual rainfall for the entire state is
about 43 in., varying from 35 in. in the north to 46 in. in the Ohio
Valley.
The soil of the greater part of the state consists of a drift deposit
of loose calcareous loam, which extends to a considerable depth, and
which is exceedingly fertile. In the Ohio and White Water river
valleys a sandstone and limestone formation predominates. The north
and north central portions of the state, formerly rather swampy, have
become since the clearing of the forests as productive as the south
central. The most fertile part of the state is the Wabash valley; the
least fertile the sandy region, of small extent, immediately south of
Lake Michigan.
_Industry and Manufactures._--Agriculture has always been and still is
the chief industry of the state of Indiana. According to the census of
1900, 94.1% of the land area was included in farms, and of this 77.2%
was improved. The proportion of farms rented comprised 28.6% of the
whole number, four-fifths of these being rented on a share basis. The
average size of farms, which in 1850 was 136.2 acres, had decreased to
105.3 acres in 1880 and to 97.4 acres in 1900. The value of the farm
property increased from $726,781,857 in 1880 to $978,616,471 in 1900.
The farms are commonly cultivated on the three-crop rotation system.
The proximity of such good markets as Chicago, Cincinnati, St Louis
and Louisville, in addition to the local markets, and the unusual
opportunities afforded by the railways that traverse every portion of
the state, have been important factors in the rapid agricultural
advance which has enabled Indiana to keep pace with the newly
developed states farther west. Indiana was ninth in the value of its
agricultural products in 1889, and retained the same relative rank in
1899, although the value had considerably more than doubled,
increasing from $94,759,262 in 1889 to $204,450,196 in 1899. The
principal crops in which the state has maintained a high relative rank
are Indian corn, wheat and hay; the acreage devoted to each of these
increased considerably in the decade 1890-1900. In 1907, according to
the Department of Agriculture, the acreage of Indian corn was
4,690,000 acres (7th of the states), and the yield was 168,840,000
bushels (5th of the states); of wheat, 2,362,000 acres (6th of the
states) was planted, and the crop was 34,013,000 bushels (7th of the
states); and 2,328,000 acres of hay (the 8th largest acreage among the
states of the United States) produced 3,143,000 tons (the 8th largest
crop). Other important staple crops are oats, rye and potatoes, of
which the crops in 1907 were respectively 36,683,000 bushels, 961,000
bushels, and 7,308,000 bushels. There are no well-defined crop belts,
the production of the various crops being general throughout the
state, except in the case of potatoes, most of which are raised in the
sandy regions of the north. The value of the orchard products is
large, and is steadily increasing: in the decade 1890-1900 the number
of pear trees increased from 204,579 to 868,184, and between 1889 and
1899 the crop increased from 157,707 to 231,713 bushels. Of apple
trees, which surpass all other orchard trees in number, there were
more than 8,600,000 in 1900. The total value of the state's orchard
products in 1899 was $3,166,338, and the value of small fruits was
$1,113,527. The canning industry both for fruits and small vegetables
has become one of much importance since 1890.
Stock-raising is an industry of growing importance, the value of the
live stock in the state increasing from $71,068,758 in 1880 to
$93,361,422 in 1890 and $109,550,761 in 1900. Sheep-raising, however,
which is confined largely to the north and east portions of the state,
decreased slightly in importance between 1890 and 1900. The value of
the dairy products sold in 1899 (census of 1900) was $8,027,370,
nearly one-half of which was represented by butter; and the total
value of dairy products was $15,739,594.
In the value, extent and producing power of her manufacturing
industries Indiana has made remarkable advance since 1880. This
increase, which more than kept pace with that of the country as a
whole, was due largely to local causes, among which may be mentioned
the unusual shipping facilities afforded by the network of railways,
the discovery and development of natural gas, and the proximity of
coal fields, the gas and the coal together furnishing an ample supply
of cheap fuel. The number of manufacturing establishments (under the
"factory" system) within the state was 7128 in 1900, 7044 in 1905;
their invested capital was $219,321,080 in 1900 and $312,071,234 in
1905, an increase of 42.3%; and the value of their total product was
$337,071,630 in 1900 and $393,954,405 in 1905, an increase of 16.9%.
The most important manufactured products in 1905 were flour and grist
mill products, valued at $36,473,543; in 1900, when they were second
in importance to slaughter-house products and packed meats, they were
valued at $29,037,843. Next in importance in 1905 was the slaughtering
and meat-packing industry, of which the total product was valued at
$29,352,593; in 1900 it was valued at $43,862,273. Other important
manufactured products were: those of machine shops and foundries, the
value of which increased from $17,228,096 in 1900 to $23,108,516 in
1905, or 34.1%; distilled liquors, the value of which had increased
from $16,961,058 in 1900 to $20,520,261 in 1905, an increase of 21%;
iron and steel, valued at $19,338,481 in 1900 and at $16,920,326 in
1905; carriages and wagons, valued at $12,661,217 in 1900 and at
$15,228,337 in 1905; lumber and timber products, valued at $19,979,971
in 1900 and at $14,559,662 in 1905; and glass, valued at $14,757,883
in 1900 and at $14,706,929 in 1905--this being 3.7% of the product
value of all manufactures in the state in 1905, and 18.5% of the value
of glass produced in the United States in that year. The growth in the
preceding decade of the iron and steel industry, the products of which
increased in value from $4,742,760 in 1890 to $19,338,481 in 1900
(307.7%), and of the manufacture of glass, the value of which
increased from $2,995,409 in 1890 to $14,757,883 in 1900 (392.7%), is
directly attributable to the development of natural gas as fuel; the
decrease in the value of the products of these same industries in
1900-1905 is partly due to the growing scarcity of the natural gas
supply. As compared with the other states of the United States in
value of manufactured products, Indiana ranked second in 1900 and in
1905 in carriages and wagons, glass and distilled liquors; was seventh
in 1900 and fourth in 1905 in furniture; was fourth in 1900 and
seventh in 1905 in wholesale slaughtering and meat-packing; was fifth
in 1900 and sixth in 1905 in agricultural implements; and in iron and
steel and flour and grist mill products was fifth in 1900 and eighth
in 1905. The most important manufacturing centres are Indianapolis,
Terre Haute, Evansville, South Bend, Fort Wayne, Anderson, Hammond,
Richmond, Muncie, Michigan City and Elwood, each having a gross annual
product of more than $6,000,000.
According to the annual report on _Mineral Resources of the United
States_ for 1906, Indiana ranked fifth in the Union in the value of
natural gas produced, sixth in petroleum, and sixth in coal. Natural
gas was discovered in 1886 in the east-central part of the state, and
its general application to manufacturing purposes caused an industrial
revolution in the immediate region. Pipe lines carried it to various
manufacturing centres within the state and to Chicago, Ill., and
Dayton, Ohio. During the early years an enormous amount was wasted;
this was soon prohibited by law, and a realization that the supply was
not unlimited resulted in a better appreciation of its great value.
The gas, which is found in the Trenton limestone, had an initial
pressure at the point of discovery of 325 lb.; this pressure had
decreased in the field centre by January 1896 to 230 lb., and by
January 1901 to 115 lb., the general average of pressure at the latter
date being 80 lb. The gas field extends over Hancock, Henry, Hamilton,
Tipton, Madison, Grant and Delaware counties. The value of the output
fell from $7,254,539 in 1900 to $1,750,715 in 1906, when the state's
product was only 4.2% of that of the entire country. On the 1st of
January 1909 there were 3223 wells in operation, some of which were
1200 ft. deep. It has been found that "dead" gas wells, if drilled
somewhat deeper, generally become active oil wells. The development of
the petroleum field, which extends over Adams, Wells, Jay, Blackford
and Grant counties, was rapid up to 1904. The annual output increased
from 33,375 barrels in 1889 to 11,339,124 barrels in 1904, the latter
amount being valued at $12,235,674 and being 12.09% of the value of
the product of the entire country. In 1906 there was an output of only
7,673,477 barrels, valued at $6,770,066, being 7.3% of the product
value of the entire country. The Indiana coal fields, which cover an
area of between 7000 and 7500 sq. m. in the west and south-west,
chiefly in Clay, Vigo, Sullivan, Vermilion and Greene counties,
yielded in 1902 9,446,424 tons, valued at $10,399,660; in 1907,
13,985,713 tons, valued at $15,114,300; the production more than
trebled since 1896, when it was 3,905,779 tons. The deposits consist
of workable veins, 50 to 220 ft. in depth, and averaging 80 ft. below
the surface. It is a high grade block, or "splint" coal, remarkably
free from sulphur and rich in carbon, peculiarly adapted to blast
furnace use. The quarries and clay beds of the state are of great
value. The quarries of sandstone and limestone are chiefly in the
south and south-central portions of the state. The value of the
limestone quarried in 1908 was $3,643,261, as compared with $2,553,502
in 1902. The Bedford oolitic limestone quarries in Owen, Monroe,
Lawrence, Washington and Crawford counties furnish one of the most
valuable and widely used building stones in the United States, the
value of the product in 1905 being $2,492,960, of which $2,393,475 was
from Lawrence and Monroe counties and $1,550,076 from Lawrence county
alone. Beds of brick-clays and potters' clay are widely distributed
throughout the state, the total value of pottery products in 1902
being $5,283,733 and in 1906 $7,158,234. Marls adapted to the
manufacture of Portland cement are found along the Ohio river, and in
the lake region in the north. In 1905 and 1906 Indiana ranked third
among the states in the production of Portland cement, which in 1908
was 6,478,165 barrels, valued at $5,386,563--an enormous advance
over 1903, when the product was 1,077,137 barrels, valued at
$1,347,797. The production of natural rock cement, chiefly in Clark
county, is one of the two oldest industries in the state, but in
Indiana as elsewhere it is falling off--from an output in 1903 of
about 1,350,000 barrels to 212,901 barrels (valued at $240,000) in
1908. There are many mineral springs in the state, and there are
famous resorts at French Lick and West Baden in Orange county. A large
part of the water bottled is medicinal: hence the high average price
per gallon ($0.99 in 1907 when 514,366 gallons were sold, valued at
$507,746, only 2% being table waters). In 1907 19 springs were
reported at which mineral waters were bottled and sold; they were in
Allen, Hendricks, Pike, Bartholomew, Warren, Clark, Martin, Brown,
Gibson, Wayne, Orange, Vigo and Dearborn counties. A law of 1909
prohibited the pumping of certain mineral waters if such pumping
diminished the flow or injured the quality of the water of any spring.
[Illustration: Map of Indiana.]
_Communications._--During the early period, the settlement of the
northern and central portions of the state was greatly retarded by the
lack of highways or navigable waterways. The Wabash and Erie canal
(1843), which connected Lake Erie with the Ohio river, entering the
state in Allen county, east of Fort Wayne, and following the Wabash
river to Terre Haute and the western fork of the White river from
Worthington, Greene county, to Petersburg, Pike county, whence it ran
south-south-west to Evansville; and the White Water canal from
Hagerstown, Wayne county, mostly along the course of the White Water
river, to Lawrenceburg, on the Ohio river, in the south-eastern corner
of the state, although now abandoned, served an important purpose in
their day. The completion (about 1850) of the National Road, which
traversed the state, still further aided the internal development.
With the beginning of railway construction (about 1847), however, a
new era was opened. Indiana is unusually well served with railways,
which form a veritable network of track in every part of the state. It
is traversed by nearly all the great transcontinental trunk line
systems, and also by important north and south lines. The total
railway mileage in January 1909 was 7286.20 m. There has been a great
development also in interurban electric lines, which have been adapted
both to passenger and to light freight and express traffic; in 1908
there were 31 interurban electric lines within the state with a
mileage of 1500 m. Indianapolis is the centre of this interurban
network. The first trolley sleeping cars were those used on the Ohio
and Indiana interurban railways. The deepening of the channel of the
Wabash river was begun in 1872. Below Vincennes before 1885 boats of
3-ft. draft could navigate the river, but after work was concentrated
in 1885 on the lock at Grand Rapids, near Mt Carmel, Ill., the channel
was soon clogged again, and in 1909 it was impossible for boats with a
greater draft than 20 in. to go from Mt Carmel to Vincennes, although
up to June 1909 about $810,000 had been spent by the Federal
government on improving this river. In 1879 an appropriation was made
for the improvement of the channel of the White river, but no work was
done here between 1895 and 1909, and although the lower 13 m. of the
river was navigable for boats with a draft of 3 ft. or less, there was
practically no traffic up to 1909 on the White, because there was no
outlet for it by the Wabash river.
_Population._--The population of Indiana, according to the Federal
Census of 1910, was 2,700,876, and the rank of the state in the Union as
regards population was ninth. In 1810, the year following the erection
of the western part of Indiana into Illinois Territory, the population
was 24,520, in 1820 it had increased to 147,178, in 1850 to 988,416, in
1870 to 1,680,637, in 1890 to 2,192,404, and in 1900 to 2,516,462. In
1900 34.3% was urban, i.e. lived in places of 2500 inhabitants and over.
The foreign-born population in the same year amounted to 142,121, or
5.6% of the whole, and the negro population to 57,505, or 2.3%. There
were in 1900 five cities with a population of more than 35,000, viz.
Indianapolis (169,164), Evansville (59,007), Fort Wayne (45,115), Terre
Haute (36,673), and South Bend (35,999). In the same year there were 14
cities with a population of less than 35,000 (all less than 21,000) and
more than 10,000; and there were 21 places with a population of less
than 10,000 and more than 5000. In 1906 it was estimated that there were
938,405 members of different religious denominations; of this total
233,443 were Methodists (210,593 of the Northern Church), 174,849 were
Roman Catholics, 108,188 were Disciples of Christ (and 10,259 members of
the Churches of Christ), 92,705 were Baptists (60,203 of the Northern
Convention, 13,526 of the National (Colored) Convention, 8132 Primitive
Baptists, and 6671 General Baptists), 58,633 were Presbyterians (49,041
of the Northern Church, and 6376 of the Cumberland Church--since united
with the Northern), 55,768 were Lutherans (34,028 of the Evangelical
Lutheran Synodical Conference, 8310 of the Evangelical Lutheran Joint
Synod of Ohio and other states), 52,700 were United Brethren (48,059 of
the Church of the United Brethren in Christ; the others of the "Old
Constitution") and 21,624 of the German Evangelical Synod.
_Constitution._--Indiana is governed under a constitution adopted in
1851, which superseded the original state constitution of 1816. An
amendment to the constitution may be proposed by either branch of the
General Assembly; if a majority of both houses votes in favour of an
amendment and it is favourably voted upon by the General Assembly chosen
by the next general election, the amendment is submitted to popular vote
and a majority vote is necessary for its ratification. The constitution
of 1816 had conferred the suffrage upon all "white male citizens of the
United States of the age of twenty-one and upward," had prohibited
slavery, and had provided that no alteration of the constitution should
ever introduce it. The new constitution contained similar suffrage
restrictions, and further by Article XIII., which was voted upon
separately, prohibited the entrance of negroes or mulattoes into the
state and made the encouragement of their immigration or employment an
indictable offence. This prohibition was held by the United States
Supreme Court in 1866 to be in conflict with the Federal Constitution
and therefore null and void. It was not until 1881 that the restriction
of the suffrage to "white" males, which was in conflict with the
Fifteenth Amendment (1870) to the Federal Constitution, was removed by
constitutional amendment. Since that date those who may vote have been
all male citizens twenty-one years old and upward who have lived in
Indiana six months immediately preceding the election, and every
foreign-born male of the requisite age who has lived in the United
States one year and in Indiana six months immediately preceding the
election, and who has declared his intention of becoming a citizen of
the United States; but the General Assembly has the power to deprive of
the suffrage any person convicted of an infamous crime. The Australian
ballot was adopted in 1889. The general state election (up to 1881, held
in October) takes place on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in
November of even-numbered years. The governor and lieutenant-governor
(minimum age, 30 years) and the clerk of the Supreme Court are chosen in
presidential years for a term of four years,[1] the other state
officers--secretary of state, attorney-general, auditor, treasurer and
superintendent of public instruction--every two years. The state
legislature, known as the General Assembly, which meets biennially in
odd-numbered years and in special session summoned by the governor,
consists of a Senate of fifty members (minimum age, 25 years) elected
for four years, and a House of Representatives of one hundred members
(minimum age, 21 years) elected for two years. Two-thirds of each house
constitute a quorum to do business. The governor has the veto power, but
the provision that a bill may be passed over his veto by a majority of
all elected members renders it little more than an expression of
opinion.
_Law._--The judiciary consists of a Supreme Court of five members
elected for districts by the state at large for a term of six years, an
appellate court (first constituted in 1891), and a system of circuit and
minor criminal and county courts. The system of local government has
undergone radical changes in recent years. A law of 1899, aimed to
separate the legislative and executive functions, provided for the
election of legislative bodies in every township and county. These
bodies have control of the local expenditures and tax levies, and
without their consent the local administrative officers cannot contract
debts. In 1905 a new municipal code, probably the most elaborate and
complete local government act in the United States, providing for a
uniform system of government in all cities and towns, went into effect.
It was constructed on the lines of the Indianapolis city charter,
adopted in 1891, and repealed all individual charters and special
corporation acts. Its controlling principle is the more complete
separation of the executive, legislative and judicial powers. For this
purpose all cities are divided into five classes according to
population, the powers being concentrated and simplified by degrees in
the case of the smaller cities, and reaching a maximum of separation and
completeness in class 1, i.e. cities of 100,000 and over, which includes
only Indianapolis. In all classes the executive officer is a mayor
elected for four years and ineligible to succeed himself. There are six
administrative departments (the number is often less in cities of the
lower classes, where several departments may be combined under one
head)--departments of public works, public safety, public health and
charities, law, finance, and collection and assessment. There is a city
court with elected judge or judges, and an elected common council, which
may authorize the municipal ownership of public utilities by ordinance,
and can pass legislation over the mayor's veto by a two-thirds vote.
Communities under 2500 in population are regarded as towns, and have a
separate form of government by a board of trustees.
Until 1908 the state had a prohibition law "by remonstrance," under
which if a majority of the legal voters of a township or city ward
remonstrated against the granting of licences for the sale of liquor, no
licence could be granted by the county commissioners in that township or
ward. Under this system 800 out of 1016 townships and more than 30
entire counties were in 1908 without saloons. In 1908, when the
Republican party had declared in favour of county option and the
Democratic party favoured township and ward option, a special session of
the legislature, called by the Republican governor, passed the Cox Bill
for county options.
_Education._--Indiana has a well-organized free public school system.
Provision was made for such a system in the first state constitution, to
utilize the school lands set aside in all the North-West Territory by
the Ordinance of 1787, but the existing system is of late growth. The
first step toward such a system was a law of 1824 which provided for the
election of school trustees in every township and for the erection of
school buildings, but made no provision for support. Therefore, before
1850 what schools there were were not free. The constitution of 1851
made further and more complete provisions for a uniform system, and on
that basis the general school law of 1852 erected the framework of the
existing system. It provided, for the organization of free schools,
supported by a property tax, and for county and township control. The
movement, however, was retarded in 1858 by a decision of the supreme
court holding that under the law of 1852 the system was not "uniform" as
provided for by the constitution. In 1865 a new and more satisfactory
law was passed, which with supplemental legislation is still in force.
Under the existing system supreme administrative control is vested in a
state superintendent elected biennially. County superintendents, county
boards, and township trustees are also chosen, the latter possessing the
important power of issuing school bonds. Teachers' institutes are
regularly held, and a state normal school, established in 1870, is
maintained at Terre Haute. There are normal schools at Valparaiso,
Angola, Marion and Danville, and a Teachers' College at Indianapolis,
which are on the state's "accredited" list and belong to the normal
school system. In 1897 a compulsory education law was enacted. In
1906-1907 the state school tax was increased from 11.6 cents per $100 to
13.6 cents per $100; an educational standard was provided, coming into
effect in August 1908, for public school teachers, in addition to the
previous requirement of a written test; a regular system of normal
training was authorized; uniform courses were provided for the public
high schools; and small township schools with twelve pupils or less were
discontinued, and transportation supplied for pupils in such abandoned
schools to central school houses. The proportion of illiterates is very
small, in 1900, 95.4% of the population (of 10 years old or over) being
able to read and write. The total school revenue from state and local
sources in 1905 amounted to $10,642,638, or $13.85 per capita of
enumeration ($19.34 per capita of enrolment). In 1824 a state college
was opened at Bloomington; it was re-chartered in 1838 as the State
University. Purdue University (1874) at Lafayette, maintained under
state control, received the benefit of the Federal grant under the
Morrill Act. Other educational institutions of college rank include
Vincennes University (non-sectarian), at Vincennes; Hanover College
(1833, Presbyterian), at Hanover; Wabash College (1832, non-sectarian),
at Crawfordsville; Franklin College (1837, Baptist), at Franklin; De
Pauw University (1837, Methodist Episcopal), at Greencastle; Butler
University (1855, Christian), at Indianapolis; Earlham College (1847,
Friends), at Richmond; Notre Dame University (1842, Roman Catholic), at
Notre Dame; Moore's Hill College (1856, Methodist Episcopal), at Moore's
Hill; the University of Indianapolis (non-sectarian), a loosely
affiliated series of schools at Indianapolis, centring around Butler
University; and Rose Polytechnic Institute (1883, non-sectarian), at
Terre Haute.
The charitable and correctional institutions of Indiana are well
administered in accordance with the most improved modern methods, and
form one of the most complete and adequate systems possessed by any
state in the Union. The state was one of the first to establish
schools for the deaf and the blind. Its Institution for the Education
of the Deaf was established in 1844, and its Institution for the
Education of the Blind in 1847, both being in Indianapolis. The first
State Hospital for the Insane was opened in Indianapolis in 1848 and
became the Central Indiana Hospital for the Insane in 1883; other
similar institutions are the Northern Indiana Hospital at Logansport
(1888), the Eastern at Richmond (1890), the Southern at Evansville
(1890), and the South-eastern at North Madison (1905). There are a
Soldiers' and Sailors' Orphans' Home at Knightstown (1868), and a
State Soldiers' Home at Lafayette (1896); a School for Feeble-Minded
Youth (1879), removed from Knightstown to Fort Wayne in 1890; a
village for epileptics at New Castle (1907); and a hospital for the
treatment of tuberculosis, authorized in 1907, for which a site at
Rockville was purchased in 1908. There are five state penal and
correctional institutions: the Indiana Boys' School (1868-1883, the
House of Refuge; 1883-1903, the Reform School for Boys), at
Plainfield; the Indiana Girls' School, established at Indianapolis
(1873), and removed to Clermont in 1907; a woman's prison (the first
in the United States, authorized in 1869 and opened in 1873 at
Indianapolis), which is entirely under the control of women (as is
also the Indiana Girls' School) and has a correctional department
(1908), in reality a state workhouse for women, formed with a view to
removing as far as possible sentenced women from the county jails; a
reformatory (1897), at Jeffersonville, conducted upon a modification
of the "Elmira plan," formerly the State Prison (1822), later (1860)
the State Prison South, so called to distinguish it from the State
Prison North (1860) at Michigan City; and the prison at Michigan City,
which became the Indiana State Prison in 1897. The old State Prison at
Jeffersonville was at first conducted on the lease system, but public
opinion compelled the abandonment of that system some years before the
Civil War. The prisoners of the reformatory work under a law providing
for trade schools; the product of the work is sold to the state
institutions and to the civil and political divisions of the state,
the surplus being disposed of on the market. At the State Prison
practically one half the prisoners are employed on contracts. Not more
than 100 may be employed on any one contract, and the day's work is
limited to eight hours. The remainder of the population of the prison
is employed on state account. The policy of indeterminate sentence and
paroles was adopted in 1897 in the two prisons and the reformatory.
Prisoners released upon parole are carefully supervised by state
agents. Indiana has an habitual-criminal law, and a law providing for
the sterilization of mental degenerates, confirmed criminals, and
rapists. There are also an adult probation law and a juvenile court
law, the latter applying to every county in the state. Each of the
state institutions mentioned above is under the control of a separate
bi-partisan board of four members. The whole system of public
charities is under the supervision of a bi-partisan Board of State
Charities (1889), which is appointed by the governor, and to which the
excellent condition of state institutions is largely due. In the
counties there are unsalaried boards of county charities and
correction and county boards of children's guardians, appointed by the
circuit judges. The township trustees, 1016 in number, are ex-officio
overseers of the poor. They dispense official outdoor relief. Nowhere
else have the principles of organized charities in the administration
of public outdoor relief been applied to an entire state. Each county
provides for the indoor care of the poor in poor asylums and
children's homes, and for local prisoners in county jails. Provision
is made for truant, dependent, neglected and delinquent children. No
child can be made a public ward except upon order of the juvenile
court, and all such children may be placed in family homes by agents
of the Board of State Charities.
_Finance._--The total true value of taxable property in the state was,
according to the tax levy of 1907, $1,767,815,487, and the total
taxes, including delinquencies, in the same year amounted to
$38,880,257. The total net receipts for the fiscal year ending
September 30, 1908, were $4,771,628, and the total net expenditure
$5,259,002, the cash balance in the treasury for the year ending
September 30, 1907, amounted to $1,096,459, leaving a cash balance on
September 30, 1908, of $609,085. The total state debt on September 30,
1908, was $1,389,615.
_History._--Of the prehistoric inhabitants of Indiana little is known,
but extensive remains in the form of mounds and fortifications abound in
every part of the state, being particularly numerous in Knox and
Sullivan counties. Along the Ohio river are remnants of several
interesting stone forts. Upon the earliest arrival of Europeans the
state was inhabited chiefly by the various tribes of the Miami
Confederacy, a league of Algonquian Indians formed to oppose the advance
of the Iroquois. The first Europeans to visit the state were probably
French _coureurs des bois_ or Jesuit missionaries. La Salle, the
explorer, it is contended, must have passed through parts of Indiana
during his journeys of 1669 and the succeeding years. Apparently a
French trading post was in existence on the St Joseph river of Michigan
about 1672, but it was in no sense a permanent settlement and seems soon
to have been abandoned. It seems probable that the Wabash-Maumee portage
was known to Father Claude Jean Allouez as early as 1680. When, a few
years later, this portage came to be generally used by traders, the
necessity of establishing a base on the upper Wabash as a defence
against the Carolina and Pennsylvania traders, who had already reached
the lower Wabash and incited the Indians to hostility against the
French, became evident; but it was not, apparently, until the second
decade of the 18th century that any permanent settlement was made. About
1720 a French post was probably established at Ouiatenon (about 5 m.
S.W. of the present city of Lafayette), the headquarters of the Wea
branch of the Miami, on the upper Wabash. The military post at Vincennes
was founded about 1731 by François Margane, Sieur de Vincennes (or
Vincent), but it was not until about 1735 that eight French families
were settled there. Vincennes, which thus became the first actual white
settlement in Indiana, remained the only one until after the War of
Independence, although military posts were maintained at Ouiatenon and
at the head of the Maumee, the site of the present Fort Wayne, where
there was a French trading post (1680) and later Fort Miami. After the
fall of Quebec the British took possession of the other forts, but not
at once of Vincennes, which remained for several years under the
jurisdiction of New Orleans, both under French and Spanish rule. The
British garrisons at Ouiatenon and Fort Miami (near the site of the
later Fort Wayne) on the Maumee were captured by the Indians as a result
of the Pontiac conspiracy. All Indiana was united with Canada by the
Quebec Act (1774), but it was not until three years later that the forts
and Vincennes were occupied by the British, who then realized the
necessity of ensuring possession of the Mississippi Valley to prevent
its falling into the hands of the rebellious colonies. Nevertheless, in
1778 Vincennes fell an easy prey to agents sent to occupy it by George
Rogers Clark, and although again occupied a few months later by General
Henry Hamilton, the lieutenant-governor at Detroit, it passed finally
into American control in February 1779 as a result of Clark's remarkable
march from Kaskaskia. Fort Miami remained in British hands until the
close of the war.
The first American settlement was made at Clarksville, between the
present cities of Jeffersonville and New Albany, at the Falls of the
Ohio (opposite Louisville), in 1784. The decade following the close of
the war was one of ceaseless Indian warfare. The disastrous defeats of
General Josiah Harmar (1753-1813) in October 1790 on the Miami river in
Ohio, and of Governor Arthur St Clair on the 4th of November 1791 near
Fort Recovery, Ohio, were followed in 1792 by the appointment of General
Anthony Wayne to the command of the frontier. By him the Indians were
signally defeated in the Battle of Fallen Timbers (or Maumee Rapids) on
the 20th of August 1794, and Fort Wayne, Indiana, was erected on the
Maumee river. On the 3rd of August 1795, at Greenville, Ohio, a treaty
was concluded between Wayne and twelve Indian tribes, and a narrow slice
of the east-south-eastern part of the present state (the disputed lands
in the valley of the Maumee) and various other small but not
unimportant tracts were ceded to the United States. Then came several
years' respite from Indian war, and settlers began at once to pour into
the region. The claims of Virginia (1784) and the other eastern states
having been extinguished, a clear field existed for the establishment of
Federal jurisdiction in the "Territory North-West of the Ohio," but it
was not until 1787 that by the celebrated Ordinance of that year such
jurisdiction became an actuality. The North-West Territory was governed
by its first governor, Arthur St Clair, until 1799, when it was accorded
a representative government. In 1800 it was divided, and from its
western part (including the present states of Indiana, Illinois and
Wisconsin, the north-east part of Minnesota, and a large part--from 1803
to 1805 all--of the present state of Michigan) Indiana Territory was
erected, with General William Henry Harrison--who had been secretary of
the North-West Territory since 1798--as its first governor, and with
Vincennes as the seat of government. Harrison made many treaties with
the Indians, the most important being that signed at Fort Wayne on the
7th of June 1803, defining the Vincennes tract transferred to the United
States by the Treaty of Greenville; those signed at Vincennes on the
18th and the 27th of August 1804, transferring to the United States a
strip north of the Ohio river and south of the Vincennes tract; that
concluded at Grouseland on the 21st of August 1805, procuring from the
Delawares and others a tract along the Ohio river between the parcels of
1795 and 1804; and the treaties of Fort Wayne, signed on the 30th of
September 1809, and securing one tract immediately west of that of 1795
and another north of the Vincennes tract defined in 1803. In January
1805 Michigan Territory was erected from the northern part of Indiana
Territory, and in July following the first General Assembly of Indiana
Territory met at Vincennes. In March 1809 the Territory was again
divided, Illinois Territory being established from its western portion;
Indiana was then reduced to its present limits. In 1810 began the last
great Indian war in Indiana, in which the confederated Indians were led
by Tecumseh, the celebrated Shawnee chief; it terminated with their
defeat at Tippecanoe (the present Battle Ground) by Governor Harrison on
the 7th of November 1811. After the close of the second war with Great
Britain, immigration began again to flow rapidly into the Territory,
and, having attained a sufficient population, Indiana was admitted to
the Union as a state by joint resolution of Congress on the 11th of
December 1816. The seat of government was established at Corydon,
whither it had been removed from Vincennes in 1813. In 1820 the site of
the present Indianapolis was selected for a new capital, but the seat of
government was not removed thither until 1825.
The first great political problem presenting itself was that of slavery,
and for a decade or more the only party divisions were on pro-slavery
and anti-slavery lines. Although the Ordinance of 1787 actually
prohibited slavery, it did not abolish that already in existence.
Slavery had been introduced by the French, and was readily accepted and
perpetuated by the early American settlers, almost all of whom were
natives of Virginia, Kentucky, Georgia or the Carolinas. According to
the census of 1800 there were 175 slaves in the Territory. The
population of settlers from slave states was considerably larger than in
Illinois, the proportion being 20% as late as 1850. It was but natural,
therefore, that efforts should at once have been made to establish the
institution of slavery on Indiana soil, and as early as 1802 a
convention called to consider the expediency of slavery asked Congress
to suspend the prohibitory clause of the Ordinance for ten years, but a
committee of which John Randolph of Virginia was chairman reported
against such action. Within the Territory there were several attempts to
escape, by means of legislation, the effects of the Ordinance. These
efforts consisted in (1) a law regulating the status of "servants," by
which it was sought to establish a legal relation between master and
slave; (2) a law by which it was sought to establish practical slavery
by a system of indenture. By 1808 the opponents of slavery, found
chiefly among the Quaker settlers in the south-eastern counties, began
to awake to the danger that confronted them, and in 1809 elected their
candidate, Jonathan Jennings (1776-1834) to Congress on an anti-slavery
platform. In 1810, by which year the number of slaves had increased to
237, the anti-slavery party was strong enough to secure the repeal of
the indenture law, which had received the unwilling acquiescence of
Governor Harrison. Jennings was re-elected in 1811, and subsequently was
chosen first governor of the state on the same issue, and the state
constitution of 1816 pronounced strongly against slavery. The liberation
of most of the slaves in the eastern counties followed; and some
slave-holders removed to Kentucky. In 1830 there were only three slaves
in the state, and the danger of the establishment of slavery as an
institution on a large scale was long past.
The problem of "internal improvements" came to be of paramount
importance in the decade 1820-1830. In 1827 Congress granted land to aid
in the construction of a canal to connect Lake Erie and the Ohio river.
This canal was completed from the St Joseph river to the Wabash in 1835,
opened in 1843, and later abandoned. In 1836 the state legislature
passed a law providing for an elaborate system of public improvements,
consisting largely of canals and railways. The state issued bonds to the
value of $10,000,000, a period of wild speculation followed, and the
financial panic of 1837 forced the abandonment of the proposed plan and
the sale to private persons of that part already completed. The
legislature authorized the issue of $1,500,000 in treasury bonds, which
by 1842 had fallen in value to 40 or 50% of their face value. A new
constitution was adopted in February 1851 by a vote of 109,319 against
26,755.
Despite its large Southern population, Indiana's answer to President
Lincoln's first call for volunteers at the outbreak of the Civil War was
prompt and spirited. From first to last the state furnished 208,000
officers and men for the Union armies, besides a home legion of some
50,000, organized to protect the state against possible invasion. The
efficiency of the state military organization, as well as that of the
civil administration during the trying years of the war, was largely due
to the extraordinary ability and energy of Governor Oliver P. Morton,
one of the greatest of the "war governors" of the North. The problems
met and solved by Governor Morton, however, were not only the
comparatively simple ones of furnishing troops as required. The
legislature of 1863 and the state officers were opposed to him
politically, and did everything in their power to thwart him and deprive
him of his control of the militia. The Republican members seceded,
legislative appropriations were blocked, and Governor Morton was
compelled to take the extraconstitutional step of arranging with a New
York banking house for the payment of the interest on the state debt, of
borrowing money for state expenditure on his own responsibility, and of
constituting an unofficial financial bureau, which disbursed money in
disregard of the state officers. Furthermore Indiana was the principal
centre of activity of the disloyal association known as the Knights of
the Golden Circle, or Sons of Liberty, which found a ready growth among
the large Southern population. Prominent among Southern sympathisers was
Senator Jesse D. Bright (1812-1875), who on the 5th of February 1862 was
expelled from the United States Senate for writing a letter addressed to
Jefferson Davis, as President of the Confederacy, in which he
recommended a friend who had an improvement in fire-arms to dispose of.
The Knights of the Golden Circle at first confined their activities to
the encouragement of desertion, and resistance to the draft, but in 1864
a plot to overthrow the state government was discovered, and Governor
Morton's prompt action resulted in the seizure of a large quantity of
arms and ammunition, and the arrest, trial and conviction of several of
the leaders. In June 1863 the state was invaded by Confederate cavalry
under General John H. Morgan, but most of his men were captured in
Indiana and he was taken in Ohio. There were other attempts at invasion,
but the expected rising, on which the invaders had counted, did not take
place, and in every case the home legion was able to capture or drive
out the hostile bands.
Politically Indiana has been rather evenly divided between the great
political parties. Before the Civil War, except when William Henry
Harrison was a candidate for the presidency, its electoral vote was
generally given to the Democratic party, to which also most of its
governors belonged. After the war the control of the state alternated
with considerable regularity between the Republican and Democratic
parties, until 1896, between which time and 1904 the former were
continuously successful. In 1908 a Democratic governor was elected, but
Republican presidential electors were chosen.