Personal attire in India so far resembles a uniform that a resident can
tell from a garb alone the native place, religion and social standing of
the wearer. This is still true, though the present facility of
intercommunication has had its effect in tending to assimilate the
appearance of natives. Together with costume it is necessary to study
the methods of wearing the hair, for each race adopts a different
method.
The population of India, of which the main divisions are religious,
falls naturally into four groups, (1) Mahommedans, (2) Hindus, (3)
Sikhs, (4) Parsees. To these may be added aboriginal races such as
Bhils, Sonthals, Gonds, &c., whose costume is chiefly noticeable from
its absence.
_Mahommedan Men._--Apart from the two sects, Sunnis and Shias, whose
garb differs in some respects, there are four families of Moslems, viz.
Pathans, Moguls, Syeds and Sheiks. The first came to India with Sultan
Mahmud Ghaznavi in A.D. 1002; the second are of Tatar origin and came to
India with Baber; the Syeds claim descent from Mahomet, while Sheiks
comprise all other Mussulmans, including converted Hindus. It is now no
longer possible to distinguish these families by their turbans as was
formerly the case.
_Hair._--In the _hadis_, or traditional sayings of Mahomet other than
those to be found in the Koran, it is laid down that the head is to be
shaved and the beard to be allowed to grow naturally to "a legal"
length, i.e. 7 or 8 in. long. This is known as _fitrah_ or the custom of
prophets. The beard is frequently dyed with henna and indigo for much
the same reasons as in Europe by elderly men; this is entirely optional.
The wearing of whiskers while shaving the chin was a Mogul fashion of
the 17th and 18th centuries and is now seldom seen except among Deccani
Mahommedans. The mustachios must not grow below the line of the upper
lip, which must be clearly seen; a division or parting is made below the
nose. The lower lip is also carefully kept clear. Hair under the arms or
elsewhere on the body except the breast is always removed.
Mahommedan clothing for indoor wear consists of three pieces: (a)
Head-dress, (b) body-covering, (c) covering for the legs.
_Head-dress._--This is of two kinds: the turban and the cap. The former
is chiefly worn in northern India, the latter in Oudh and the United
Provinces. What is known in Europe as a turban (from the Persian
_sarband_, a binding for the head) is in India divided into two classes.
The first, made of a single piece of cloth 20 to 30 in. wide and from 6
to 9 yds. long, is bound round the head from right to left or from left
to right indifferently and quite simply, so as to form narrow angles
over the forehead and at the back. This form is called _amamah_
(Arabic), _dastar_ (Persian), _shimla_ or _shamla_, _safa_, _lungi_,
_sela_, _rumal_, or _dopatta_. The terms _amamah_ and _dastar_ are used
chiefly with reference to the turbans of priests and _ulema_, that is
learned and religious persons. They are usually white; formerly Syeds
wore them of green colour. They are never of bright hue. The _lungi_ is
made of cloth of a special kind manufactured mostly in Ludhiana. It is
generally blue and has an ornamented border. In the case of Pathans and
sometimes of Punjabi Moslems it is bound round a tall red conical cap
called a _kullah_ (Plate I. fig. 1). The ends are frequently allowed to
hang down over the shoulders, and are called _shimla_ or _shamla_, terms
which also apply to the whole head-dress. The names _safa_, _sela_,
_rumal_ and _dopatta_ are sometimes given to this form of turban. The
_sela_ is gaudier and more ornamental generally; it is worn by the
nobles and wealthier classes.
The second form of the turban is known as the _pagri_.[12] This
head-dress is of Hindu origin but is much worn by Mahommedans. It is a
single piece of cloth 6 to 8 in. wide, and of any length from 10 to 50
yds. The methods of binding the _pagri_ are innumerable, each method
having a distinctive name as _arabi_ (Arab fashion); _mansabi_ (official
fashion, much used in the Deccan); _mushakhi_ (sheik fashion);
_chakridar_ (worn by hadjis, that is those who have made the pilgrimage
to Mecca); _khirki-dar_ (a fashion of piling the cloth high, adopted by
retainers of great men); _latudar_ (top-shaped, worn by _kayasths_ or
writers); _joridar_ (the cloth twisted into rope shape) (Plate I. fig.
6); _siparali_ (shield-shaped, worn by the Shia sect); _murassa_, or
_nastalikh_ (ornately bound), _latpati_ (carelessly bound) (Plate I.
fig. 4). Many other fashions which it would be difficult to describe can
best be learned by studying pictures with the help of a competent
teacher. The _chira_ is a pagri of checked cloth. The _mandil_ is of
gold or highly ornamented cloth; it is worn by nobles and persons of
distinction.
The cap or _topi_ is not bound round the head, but is placed upon it.
It is made of cut and sewn cloth. Some varieties are _dopallari_, a
skull-cap; _kishtinuma_, or boat-shaped cap; _goltopi_, a round cap of
the kind known in England as "pork-pie"; _bezwi_, or egg-shaped cap;
_sigoshia_, or three-cornered cap; _chaugoshia_, or four-cornered cap;
_tajdar_, or crown-shaped cap; &c. Many other caps are named after the
locality of manufacture or some peculiarity of make, e.g.
_Kashmire-kitopi_; _jhalardar_, fringed cap, &c.
A form of cap much worn in Bengal and western India is known as _Irani
kullah_, or Persian cap. It is made of goatskin and is shaped like a
_tarbush_ but has no tassel. The cap worn in cold weather is called
_top_, _topa_, or _kantop_ (ear-cover) (Plate I. fig. 2); these are
sometimes padded with cotton. Caps are much worn by Mussulmans of Delhi,
Agra, Lucknow and other cities of the United provinces.
The _tarbush_ or _turki-topi_ was introduced into India by Sir Sayyid
Ahmad (Plate I. fig. 3). It must not be confused with the Moorish "fez,"
which is skull-shaped. The _tarbush_ is of Greek origin and was adopted
by Sultan Mahmud of Turkey in the early part of the 19th century. To
remove the head-dress of whatever kind is, in the East, an act of
discourtesy; to strike it off is a deep insult.
_Clothing._--The following rules from the _hadith_ or traditional
sayings of the prophet are noteworthy:--"Wear white garments, for verily
they are full of cleanliness, and pleasant to the eye." "It is lawful
for the woman of my people to clothe herself in silken garments, and to
wear ornaments of gold; but it is forbidden to man: any man who shall
wear silken garments in this world, shall not wear them in the next."
"God will not be merciful to him who through vanity wears long trousers"
(i.e. reaching below the ankle). The foregoing rules are now only
observed by the ultra-orthodox, such as the Wahabi sect and by ulemas,
or learned elderly men. The Mogul court of Delhi, especially during the
reign of Mahommed Shah, nicknamed _Rangila_ or the "dandy," greatly
influenced change in these matters. Coloured clothing, gold ornaments
and silken raiment began to be worn commonly by Mussulman men in his
reign.
For the upper part of the body the principal article of clothing is the
_kurta_. The Persian name for this is _pairahan_ and the Arabic _kamis_,
whence "chemise." This _kurta_ is the equivalent for the shirt of
Europe. It is usually of white cotton, and has the opening or _gala_ in
front, at the back, or on either side indifferently. It was formerly
fastened with strings, but now with the _ghundi_ (the old form of
button) and _tukmah_ or loop. In southern India, Gujarat and in the
United Provinces the _kurta_ is much the same as to length and fit as
the English shirt; as the traveller goes northward from Delhi to the
Afghan border he sees the _kurta_ becoming longer and looser till he
finds the Pathan wearing it almost to his ankles, with very full wide
sleeves. The sleeves are everywhere long and are sometimes fastened with
one or two buttons at the wrist.
Mussulmans always wear some form of trousers. They are known as _izar_
(Arabic) or _pa'ejáma_[13] (Persian). This article of clothing is
sometimes loose, sometimes tight all the way, sometimes loose as far as
the knee and tight below like Jodhpur riding breeches. They are fastened
round the waist with a scarf or string called _kamarband_ (waistband) or
_izarband_, and are usually of white cotton. The varieties of cut are
sharai or canonical, orthodox, which reach to the ankles and fit as
close to the leg as European trousers; _rumi_ or _ghararedar_, which
reach to the ankles but are much wider than European trousers (this
pattern is much worn by the Shias); and _tang_ or _chust_, reaching to
the ankles, from which to the knee they fit quite close. When this last
kind is "rucked" at the ankle it is called _churidar_ (Plate I. fig. 4).
They are sometimes buttoned at the ankle, especially in the Meerut
district. The _shalwar_ pattern, very large round the waist and
hanging in folds, is worn by Pathans, Baluchis, Sindis, Multanis, &c.
[Illustration: PLATE I.
FIG. 1.--Punjabi Mahommedan wearing _lungi_ bound round a red or gold
_kullah_.
FIG. 2.--Mahommedan Saint, _pir_, wearing the _kantop_, ear-cap.
FIG. 3.--Student of the Aligarh College wearing the _tarbush_.
FIG. 4.--Punjabi Mahommedan wearing _pagri_, with _shimla_, _achkan
izar_ or _paejamas_.
FIG. 5.--Bombay or Gujarati Bora wearing white and gold turban with
red top.
FIG. 6.--Mahommedan Jat cultivators. Wife:--with _izar_, _kurta_, and
_orhni_ or _chadar_; husband:--with _majba_, _chadar_, and _joridar
pagri_.
FIG. 7.--The Parsi _khoka_, a tall hat of glazed chintz.
FIG. 8.--Parsi woman wearing Parsi _sari_ and _mathabana_ or white
hair cover.
FIG. 9.--Parsi schoolgirl.
FIG. 10.--Parsi pith hat with felt brim.
_From Pen and Ink Drawings by J. Lockwook Kipling, C.I.E._]
[Illustration: PLATE II.
FIG. 1.--Deccan Brahman wearing _pagri_, _dhoti_ or _pitamber_, _anga_
and _dopatta_.
FIG. 2.--Brahman wearing _dhoti_ and _janeo_ or sacred thread. This is
the dining and sacrificial dress of most Hindus.
FIG. 3.--Rajput wearing _chapkan_, which is worn both by Mussulmans
and Hindus, buttoning on different sides.
FIG. 4.--Hindu woman showing method of wearing the _sari_.
FIG. 5.--Bengali _Babu_ wearing the most popular form of the
embroidered cap.
FIG. 6.--Sikh devotee, _Akali_ or _Nihung_, vowed to the wearing of
blue and steel, &c.
_From Pen and Ink Drawings by J. Lockwood Kipling, C.I.E._]
The new fashion in vogue amongst the younger generation of Mussulman is
called the _ikbarah_ or _patalunnuma_, which is like the European
trousers. They are usually made of calico; they have no buttons but are
fastened with string (kamarband). Bathing drawers are called _ghutannah_
and reach to the knee. The tight drawers worn by wrestlers are called
_janghiah_.
Garments for outdoor wear are the _anga_, or _angarkha_, the _chapkan_,
the _achkan_ or _sherwani_; the _anga_, a coat with full sleeves, is
made of any material, white or coloured. It is slit at the sides, has
perpendicularly cut side-pockets, and is fastened with strings just
below the breast. It is opened on the right or left side according to
local custom. The _anga_ is now considered old-fashioned, and is chiefly
worn by elderly men or religious persons. It is still not uncommon in
Delhi, Agra, Lucknow and at native courts, but is being superseded by
the _achkan_ (Plate I. fig. 4), which is buttoned straight down the
front. Both _anga_ and _achkan_ reach to a little below the knee, as
also does the _chapkan_, a relic of Mogul court dress, best known as the
shield-like and highly adorned coat worn by government _chaprasis_
(Plate II. fig. 3). Over the _anga_ is sometimes worn an overcoat called
a _choga_; this is made of any material, thick or thin, plain or
ornamented; it has one or two fastenings only, loops below the breast
whence it hangs loosely to below the knees. The _choga_ is sometimes
known by its Arabic names _aba_ or _kaba_, terms applied to it when worn
by priests or ulemas. In cold weather Pathans and other border residents
wear _posteens_, sleeved coats made of sheepskin with the woolly side
in. In India farther south in cold weather an overcoat called _dagla_ is
worn; this is an _anga_ padded with cotton wool. A padded _choga_ is
called _labada_; when very heavily padded _farghul_. Whereas the
European wears his waistcoat _under_ his coat, the Indian wears his
_over_ his _anga_ or _chapkan_ (not over the _achkan_). A sleeveless
waistcoat generally made of silk is called a _sadari_; when it has half
sleeves it is called _nimastin_; the full-sleeved waistcoat worn in
winter padded with cotton is called _mirzai_. For ceremonial purposes a
coat called _jama_ is worn. This fits closely as to the upper part of
the body, but flows loosely below the waist. It is generally white, and
is fastened in front by strings.
In Gujarat and other parts of western India are to be found classes of
Moslems who differ somewhat from those met with elsewhere, such as
Memans, Boras and Khojas. The first are Sunnis: the two last Shias.
Memans wear (1) a gold embroidered skull-cap, (2) a long _kamis_
fastened at the neck with 3 or 4 buttons on a gold chain, (3)
_sadariya_, i.e. a tight waistcoat without sleeves, fastened in front
with small silk buttons and loops, (4) an over-waistcoat called
_shaya-sadriya_ instead of the _anga_, with sleeves, and slits at the
sides (probably of Arab origin). When he does not wear a skull-cap his
_amamah_ is made after the arched Arab form, or is a Kashmir scarf wound
round a skull-cap made of Java straw. The Bora adopts one of four forms
of pagri; the _Ujjain_, a small neatly bound one; the _Ahmadabad_, a
loose high one; the _Surat_, fuller and higher than the _Ujjain_ pattern
(Plate I. fig. 5); or the _Kathiawada_, a conical turban with a gold
stripe in the middle of the cone. The Bora wears the _anga_, otherwise
he resembles the Meman. The Khoja wears a _pagri_ smaller than the
Meman's, called a _Moghalai phenta_; this leaves a portion of the head
bare at the back. The material is always of _kashida_, a kind of
embroidered cloth. Amongst Mahommedans only Pathans wear ear-rings.
MAHOMMEDAN WOMEN. _Head-dress._--The _rupatta_ (also called _dopatta_),
or veil, is of various colours and materials. Its length is about 3
yds., its width about 1½. It is worn over the head and thrown over the
left shoulder. It is considered essential to modesty to cover the head.
This head-dress is also known as _orhna_, _orhni_, _pochan_, _pochni_
(Baluchistan and western India) _chundri_, _reo_ (Sind), _sipatta_,
_takrai_ or _chadar_ (Pathan). Among the poorer classes it is called
_pacholi_. Farther south in India when of thicker material it is called
_chadar_ or _chaddar_. It is called _pachedi_, _potra_ or _malaya_ by
Meman, Bora and Khoja women. As a rule married women wear brighter
colours than unmarried ones. In Kashmir a small round cap, _goltopi_,
is worn. The _kassawa_ is a handkerchief bound over the head and tied at
the back, and is worn by Mahommedan women indoors to keep the hair tidy;
Mahommedan women plait their hair and let it hang down behind (Plate I.
fig. 6).
_Clothing._--A short jacket fastened at the back and with short sleeves
is worn. It may be of any material. In Sind, Gujarat and other parts of
western India it is called a _choli_. It is also very generally known as
_angiya_. Other common names are _mahram_ and _sinaband_ (breast-cover).
The _kurta_ is a sort of sleeveless shirt, open in front and reaching to
the waist. It may be of any material. When this is worn with the
_angiya_ it is worn over it. This combination of dress is worn only by
young married women. In Kashmir and northern India generally the
_angiya_ is not worn, and the _kurta_ is worn instead. This is like the
_kamis_ of the man, already described; it has full sleeves, is open at
the front, which is embroidered, and reaches to the knee or lower. Among
Pathans there are two kinds of _kurta_ (_kamis_ or _khat_); one worn by
married women called _gìradana khat_ is dark red or blue, embroidered
with silk in front; the _jalana khat_ worn by unmarried women is less
conspicuous for colour and ornament. A large pocket (_jeb_) is often
sewn on in front like the Highlander's sporran.
The _Pa'ejamas_, also called _izar_, are cut like those of men, and
known by the same names. They differ only in being of silk or other fine
material and being coloured (Plate I. fig. 6). Among Pathans they are
called _partog_ or _partek_ (_pardek_), and those of unmarried girls are
of white, while married women wear them of _susi_, a kind of coloured
silk or cotton. As a general rule the wearing of _paijamas_ is the chief
distinction between Mussulman and Hindu women. In the Shahpur and other
districts, however, where Mahommedans have followed Hindu customs,
Moslem women wear the _majla_, a cloth about 3 yds. long by 1½ wide tied
tightly round the waist so as to fall in folds over the legs. Even
Mahommedan men sometimes wear the _majla_ in these districts. This form
of dress is known among Moslems as _tahband_ [lower binding] (Plate I.
fig. 6). In Rajputana, Gujarat and the southern Punjab, Mahommedan women
sometimes wear a _lhenga_ or _ghagra_ skirt without trousers; in the
Sirsa district and parts of Gujarat the ghagra is worn over the
trousers. The _sadari_ or waistcoat is worn by women as well as men. The
_tillak_ or _peshwaz_ is a dress or robe the skirt and bodice of which
are made in one piece, usually of red or other coloured material; it is
common in Gujarat, Rajputana and the Sirsa district, and is the style
usually adopted by nautch girls when dancing. Meman women wear also the
_aba_, or overcoat, which differs from that worn by men in that it has
loose half sleeves, and fastens with two buttons at each side of the
neck over the shoulders; it is embroidered on the breast, and adorned
with gold lace on the skirts.
In Delhi, Lucknow, Agra and other towns in the Punjab and the United
Provinces a special wedding dress is worn by the bride, called
_rit-kajora_, the "dress of custom." It is worn on the wedding night
only; and it is a rule that no scissors are employed in making it. The
trouser string of this dress is not the usual _kamarband_, but is made
of untwisted cotton thread called _kalawa_. Out of doors Mahommedan
women wear the _burka_, a long loose white garment entirely covering the
head and body. It has two holes for the eyes. Mahommedan women pencil
the eyes with _kohl_ or _surma_, use _missi_ for the teeth and colour
the palms and nails of the hand with henna. A nose-ring is a sign of
marriage.
HINDUS.--Caste does not influence dress amongst Hindus as much as might
be expected. The garment distinctive of the Hindus of all castes, men
and women, all over India, is the _dhoti_ or loin cloth. It is a very
ancient dress, and their gods are represented as clothed in it in old
sculptures.
The general term used for clothing is _kapra_, _lata_ or _luga_. Under
Mahommedan influence Hindu clothing developed into "suits," consisting
of five pieces for men, hence called _pancho tuk kapra_--(1) head-dress,
(2) _dhoti_, (3) coat, (4) _chaddar_ or sheet, (5) bathing cloth; and
three for women, hence called _tin tuk_--(1) _dhoti_, (2) jacket, (3)
shawl.
_Men._--The Hindu (except the Rajput) shaves his head, leaving only a
top-knot on the point of the skull. He shaves the face (except the
eye-brows) and his body. The Rajput wears a full beard and whiskers,
usually parted in the middle. He sometimes draws the beard and whiskers
to the side of the head, and to keep it tidy wraps round it a cloth
called _dhata_ or _galmocha_.
_Head-dress._--Hindus wear sometimes turbans and sometimes caps. When
the turban is worn it is always of the _pagri_ form, never the _amamah_.
Hindus wind the _pagri_ in various ways as described for Mussulmans, but
the angles are formed over the ears and not from front to back.
Mahrattas wear flat red pagris, with a small conical peak variously
shaped and placed. The _pagri_ is known in different parts of India as
_pag_, _phenta_, _phag_, _phagdi_ and many other names. In Bengal a sort
of turban is worn which can be taken off like a hat. When Hindus wear
caps or _topis_ they resemble those worn by Mahommedans, but they never
wear the _fez_, _tarbush_ or _irani topi_. In Gaya a peculiar cap made
of _tal_ leaves is worn in rainy weather, called _ghunga_. Bengalis,
whether Brahmans or of other castes, frequently go bareheaded.
_Body Clothing._--The _dhoti_ is a simple piece of cloth (cotton),
generally white. It is wound round the loins, the end passed between the
legs from front to back and tucked in at the waist behind (Plate II.
fig. 2). The small form of _dhoti_ worn by men of the lower class is
called _langoti_. It does not fall below mid-thigh. A Brahman's _dhoti_,
as also that of some other castes, reaches to a little below the knee; a
Rajput's to his ankles. The _dhoti_ is known under many names, _dhutia_,
_pitambar_, _lungi_, &c. In some parts of India half the dhoti only is
wound round the loins, the other half being thrown over the left
shoulder. Some upper classes of Hindus wear for coat the _kurta_; most
wear the _angharka_ (Plate II. fig. 1), a short _anga_ reaching to the
waist. It is also known as _kamri_, _baktari_, _badan_ or _bandi_.
Hindus wear the _angharkha_ or _anga_ as Mahommedans do, but whereas the
Mahommedan has the opening on the left the Hindu wears it on the right.
When the _kurta_ is worn it is worn under the _anga_. The _chaddar_
(_chadar_ or _dopatta_) is of various kinds. It is a piece of cotton
cloth 3 yds. long by 1 yd. wide. It is worn across the shoulders, or
wrapped round the body, but when bathing, round the loins. Hindus, both
men and women, wear ear-rings.
_The Brakminical thread_ (_janeo_) (Plate II. fig. 2) is a cord made of
twisted cotton prepared with many ceremonies. It is worn over the left
shoulder and hangs down to the right hip. It is of three strands till
the wearer is married, when it becomes six or nine. It is 96
handbreadths in length, and is knotted. Rajputs also wear this thread,
similar in make and length, but the knots are different.
Caste and sect marks also distinguish Hindus from each other.
_Women._--The hair is sometimes worn plaited (_chotì_), usually an odd
number of thin plaits made into one large one, falling down the back and
fastened at the end with ribbons. Another style is wearing it in a knot
after the ancient Grecian fashion; it is always worn smooth in front and
parted in the middle. Over the head is worn the _orhna_ or veil. The end
is thrown over the left shoulder in such a manner as to conceal the
breast. On the upper part of the body the _kurta_ is sometimes worn. A
bodice called _angiya_ is worn. This covers the breast and shoulder; it
has half sleeves, is very short, and is fastened at the back with
strings.
The skirt is called _lhenga_ or _ghagra_. It is worn mostly in Rajputana
hanging in full flounces to the knee or a little below. In Bengal,
Madras and Bombay Presidencies women do not wear a skirt, only a _choli_
and _sari_. This last is a long piece of cotton or silk cloth. Half is
draped round the waist and hangs to the feet in folds; the remainder is
passed over the head and thrown over the left shoulder (Plate II. fig.
4).
SIKH.--The Sikh does not shave or cut his hair. The beard is parted in
the middle and carried up each side of the face to the top of the head.
A piece of cloth called _dhata_ or _galmocha_ is wound round the chin
and head so as to keep the hair clean and tidy. The hair of the head is
tied into a knot (_kes_) at the top of the head or at the back, a
distinguishing mark of the Sikh. His religion requires the Sikh to
carry five articles--_kes_, the knot of hair on the head; the _kanga_, a
comb; the _kard_, a knife; the _kach_, a pair of short trousers peculiar
to the Sikh; and the _khara_, an iron bangle on the wrist. It is _de
rigueur_ that he should carry some piece of iron on his person. His
head-dress he calls a _pag_; it is a turban of _amamah_ shape but
enormously large. The Sikh nobility and gentry wear two turbans, either
both of pagri form or one of pagri and one of _amamah_ form. Each is of
a different colour.
The Sikh calls his _kurta jhagga_; it is very large and loose, bound
with a scarf round the waist. The _kach_ is a sort of knickerbockers
reaching to just below the knee, which they encircle tightly. Over all
the Sikh wears the _choga_. In outlying villages he wears instead of the
_kurta_ a _chadar_ or cloth, which he calls _khes_, on the upper part of
his body. Some village Sikhs wear a _tahband_ or waistcloth instead of
the _kach_. Sikhs are fond of jewelry and wear ear-rings. The dress of
Sikh women does not differ greatly from that of Hindu women; but in the
Sirsa district and some other parts she wears the Mahommedan _sutan_ or
trousers, under the _lhenga_ or skirt. There is a small sect of Sikh
known as _Akali_ or _Nihang_. Their dress is entirely of dark blue
colour, the turban being also blue, high and pointed; on it are fastened
three steel quoits. The quoit was the ancient weapon of the Sikh, who
calls it _chakar_. Certain steel blades are stuck through the body of
the turban. The Akalis also wear large flat iron rings round the neck
and arms (Plate II. fig. 6).
PARSIS.--When the Parsis were first admitted into India, certain
conditions were imposed upon them by the Hindus; among others they were
not to eat beef, and they were to follow the Hindu custom of wearing a
top-knot of hair. Old-fashioned Parsis in country districts still follow
these customs. To uncover the head is looked upon as a sin; hence Parsis
of both sexes always wear some head covering whether indoors or out. In
the house the man wears a skull cap; out of doors the older Parsis wear
the _khoka_, a tall hat, higher in front than at the back, made of a
stiff shiny material, with a diaper pattern (Plate I. fig. 7). The
younger generation adopted a round pith hat with a rolled edge of felt,
but, under the influence of the _swadeshi_ movement, they have generally
reverted to the older form (Plate I. fig. 10). Next to the skin the
Parsi wears a _sadra_ or sacred shirt, with a girdle called _kasti_.
Over the _sadra_ a white cotton coat is worn, reaching to a little below
the waist. The Parsi wears loose cotton trousers like a Mussulman. In
country districts he wears a _jama_, and over the _jama_ a _pechodi_ or
shoulder cloth. The young Parsi in Bombay has adopted European dress to
a great extent, except as to head-gear. The Parsi woman dresses her hair
in the old Greek fashion with a knot behind. She also wears a _sadra_ or
sacred shirt. Country Parsis in villages wear a tight-fitting sleeveless
bodice, and trousers of coloured cloth. Over all she winds a silken
_sari_ or sheet round the body; it is then passed between the legs and
the end thrown over the right shoulder. Out of doors she covers her head
and right temple (Plate I. fig. 8). In towns the _sari_ is not passed
between the legs, but hangs in loose folds so as to hide the trousers.
The upper classes wear a sleeved _polka_ jacket instead of the bodice.
Parsi children up to the age of seven wear cotton frocks called
_jabhlan_. They wear long white trousers of early Victorian cut, with
frills at the bottom. They wear a round cap like a smoking-cap. The
little girls wear their hair flowing loose (Plate I. fig. 9).
SHOES.--There is no distinction between the shoes worn by Hindus,
Moslems, Sikhs or Parsis, but Hindus will not wear them when made of
cow's leather. Shoes are called _juta_, _juti_ or _jute_ by Mahommedans,
and _jore_ or _zore_ by Hindus. Shoes are usually distinguished by the
name of the material, as _nari ka juta_, leather shoes, _banati juta_,
felt shoes, and so on.
There are innumerable styles of cut of shoe, three being the commonest:
(1) _Salimshahi_, these are shaped like English slippers, but are
pointed at the toe, terminating in a thin wisp turned back and fastened
to the instep. They are mostly made of thin red leather, plain in the
case of poorer people and richly embroidered in the case of rich
people. This cut of shoe is most in vogue amongst Moslems. (2) _Gol
panje ki juti_, like English slippers, but rounded at the toes. (3)
_Ghelta_ or _nagphani_ (snake's head) _juta_, the toe is turned up,
while the back part is folded inwards and trodden under the heel. Ladies
usually wear shoes of this fashion, known as _phiri juti_. Women's shoes
differ only in size and in being made of finer material, and in being
embroidered. Hindu women seldom wear shoes. On the northern frontier the
pattern known as the _kafshi_ is worn; this is a slipper having neither
sides nor back; the sole towards the heel is narrow and raised by a
small iron-shod heel. In the hills shoes resembling sandals, called
_chaplis_, made of wood, straw or grass are worn. The soles are very
thick, and are secured with straps; there is generally a loop for the
big toe. They are known as _phulkarru_ in Kashmir, and _pula_ in Kulu
and Chamba.
Shoes are invariably removed on entering mosques or other holy places.
It is also customary to remove them when entering a house. Orientals sit
on the floor in preference to chairs; hence it is thought very necessary
by them that the carpet should be kept clean, which could not be done
were persons to keep their shoes on. While it would be considered a
breach of good manners to enter a room with the shoes on, an exception
has been made in favour of those natives who have adopted European boots
or shoes. The babus of Bengal have taken to English-made shoes of patent
leather worn over white socks or stockings.
AUTHORITIES.--The Indian section of the Victoria and Albert Museum
(London) includes an exhibition of oriental dress; and the library of
the India Office many prints and photographs. The following books may
be consulted: _Coloured Drawings illustrating the Manners and Customs
of Natives of India_ (originally prepared by order of the marquess
Wellesley, Governor-General; _vide_ Council minute dated 16th August,
1866) (1 vol.); J. Forbes Watson and J. W. Kaye, _The People of
India_; F. Baltazar Solvyns, _Les Hindous_ (4 vols. illustrated,
Paris, 1808); India Office Library, 3 small portfolios of pictures of
Katch and Bombay men and women; _Costume of Bala Ghat_ (Carnatic),
S.E. India (large water-colours, India Office Library); Illustrations
of various trades in Kashmir, by Indian artists (India Office
Library); R. H. Thalbhoy, _Portrait Gallery of Western India_ (1886)
(chiefly portraits of Parsi notables); Edward Tuite Dalton, C.S.I.,
_Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_ (1 vol., 1872); Talboys Wheeler,
_History of the Imperial Assembly at Delhi, 1st January 1877_; _Queen
Victoria's Jubilee, 6th February 1887_ (in Urdu, illustrated); T. H.
Hendley, C.I.E., V.D., _Rulers of India and Chiefs of Rajputana_
(London, 1897)--the last three are useful for the study of ceremonial
dress; G. A. Grierson, _Bihar Peasant Life_ (Calcutta, 1885; this is a
most valuable work of learning and research; in division 2,
subdivision 3, chapter 1, on clothes, will be found names and
descriptions of every article of clothing used in south, central and
eastern India); H. B. Baden-Powell, _Handbook of Manufactures and Arts
of the Punjab_ (Lahore, 1872); W. W. Hunter, _Statistical Account of
Bengal_ (1875); Hughes' _Dictionary of Islam_ (London, 1895); Sir
Denzil Ibbetson, _Outlines of Punjab Ethnography_; E. Thurston,
_Castes and Tribes of Southern India_. It is to be hoped that steps
will shortly be taken to arrange articles of costume now displayed at
the Indian Section, Victoria and Albert Museum, in some systematic
order so as to assist students in arriving at a scientific knowledge
of the subject. (C. G.)