NORWEGIAN LITERATURE
The people who emigrated from Norway and settled in Iceland, after
Harald the Fairhaired had subdued the many independent chiefs and
established the monarchy (872), for the most part belonged to the
flower of the nation, and Iceland naturally became the home of the old
Norse literature. Among the oldest poetical works of this literature
is the so-called "Elder Edda," also called "Saemund's Edda," because
for a long time it was believed to be the work of the Icelander
Saemund. "The Younger Edda," also called "Snorre's Edda," because it
is supposed to have been written by Snorre Sturlason (born 1178, died
1241), contains a synopsis of the old Norse religion and a treatise on
the art of poetry. Fully as important as the numerous poetical works
of that period was the old Norse Saga-literature (the word saga means
a historical tale). The most prominent work in this field is Snorre
Sturlason's _Heimskringla_, which gives the sagas of the kings
of Norway from the beginning down to 1777. A continuation of the
_Heimskringla_, to which several authors have contributed, among them
Snorre Sturlason's relative, Sturla Thordson, contains the history of
the later kings down to Magnus Law-Mender.
The literary development above referred to ceased almost entirely
toward the end of the fourteenth century, and later, during the union
with Denmark, the Danish language gradually took the place of the
old Norse as a book-language, and the literature became essentially
Danish. Copenhagen, with its court and university, was the literary
and educational center, where the young men of Norway went to study,
and authors born in Norway became to all intents and purposes, Danish
writers. But Norway furnished some valuable contributors to this
common literature. One of the very first names on the records of the
Danish literature, Peder Claussön (1545-1614), is that of a Norwegian,
and the list further includes such illustrious names as Holberg,
Tullin, Wessel, Steffens, etc.
One of the most original writers whom Norway produced and kept at home
during the period of the union with Denmark was the preacher and poet,
Peder Dass (1647-1708). The best known among his secular songs is
_Nordlands Trompet_, a beautiful and patriotic description of the
northern part of Norway.
Ludvig Holberg was born in Bergen, Norway, Dec. 3, 1684. His father,
Colonel Holberg, had risen from the ranks and distinguished himself,
in 1660, at Halden. Shortly after his death the property of the family
was destroyed by fire, and at the age of ten years Ludvig lost his
mother. It was now decided to have him educated for the military
service; but he showed a great dislike for military life, and, at his
earnest request, he was sent to the Bergen Latin School. In 1702 he
entered the University of Copenhagen. Being destitute of means, he
took a position as private tutor. As soon as he had saved a small sum
he went abroad. He was first in Holland, and afterward studied for
a couple of years at Oxford, where he supported himself by giving
instruction in languages and music. Upon his return to Copenhagen
he again took a position as private tutor and had an opportunity to
travel as teacher for a young nobleman. In 1714 he received a stipend
from the king, which enabled him to go abroad for several years, which
he spent principally in France and Italy. In 1718 he became regular
professor at the Copenhagen University. Among Holberg's many works
the following are the most prominent: _Peder Paars_, a great comical
heroic poem, containing sharp attacks on many of the follies of his
time; about thirty comedies in Moliere's style, and a large number of
historical works. Holberg, who was ennobled in 1747, died in January,
1754, and was buried in Sorö Church. His influence on the literature
and on the whole intellectual life of Denmark was very great. He is
often called the creator of Danish literature.
Christian Baumann Tullin (1728-1765), a genuine poetical genius,
who has been called the father of Danish lyrical verse, was born in
Christiania, and his poetry, which was mainly written in his native
city, breathes a national spirit. From his day, for about thirty
years, Denmark obtained the majority of her poets from Norway. The
manager of the Danish National Theater, in 1771, was a Norwegian,
Niels Krog-Bredal (1733-1778), who was the first to write lyrical
dramas in Danish. A Norwegian, Johan Nordal Brun (1745-1816), a gifted
poet, wrote tragedy in the conventional French taste of the day. It
was a Norwegian, Johan Herman Wessel (1742-1785), who by his great
parody, _Kjaerlighed uden Strömper_, "Love without Stockings," laughed
the French taste out of fashion. Among the writers of this period are
also Claus Frimann (1746-1829), Peter Harboe Frimann (1752-1839),
Claus Fasting (1746-1791), John Wibe (1748-1782), Edward Storm
(1749-1794), C.H. Pram (1756-1821), Jonas Rein (1760-1821), and Jens
Zetlitz (1761-1821), all of them Norwegians by birth. Two notable
events led to the foundation of an independent Norwegian literature:
the one was the establishment of a Norwegian university at
Christiania, in 1811, and the other was the separation of Norway
from Denmark, in 1814. At first the independent Norwegian literature
appeared as immature as the conditions surrounding it. The majority of
the writers had received their education in old Copenhagen, and were
inclined to follow in the beaten track of the old literature,
although trying to introduce a more national spirit. All were greatly
influenced by the political feeling of the hour. There was a period
when all poetry had for its subject the beauties and strength of
Norway and its people, and _The Rocks of Norway, The Lion of Norway_,
etc., sounded everywhere. Three poets called _Trefoil_, were the
prominent writers of this period. Of these, Conrad Nicolai Schwach
(1793-1860) was the least remarkable. Henrik A. Bjerregaard
(1792-1842) was the author of _The Crowned National Song_, and of a
lyric drama, _Fjeldeventyret_, "The Adventures in the Mountains." The
third member of the _Trefoil_, Mauritz Christian Hansen (1794-1842),
wrote a large number of novels and national stories, which were quite
popular in their time. His poems were among the earliest publications
of independent Norway.
The time about the year 1820 is reckoned as the beginning of the new
Norwegian literature, and Henrik Wergeland is called its creator.
Henrik Arnold Wergeland was born in 1808. His father, Nicolai
Wergeland, a clergyman, was a member of the Constitutional Convention
at Eidsvold. Henrik studied theology, but did not care to become a
clergyman. In 1827, and the following years, he wrote a number of
satirical farces under the signature _Siful Sifadda_. In 1830 appeared
his lyric, dramatic poem, _Skabelsen, Mennesket og Messias_, (The
Creation, Man and Messiah), a voluminous piece 'of work, in which
he attempted to explain the historical life of the human race. As
a political writer he was editorial assistant on the _Folkebladet_
(1831-1833), and edited the opposition paper _Statsborgeren_
(1835-1837). He worked with great zeal for the education of the
laboring class, and from 1839 until his death edited a paper in the
interest of the laborer. The prominent features of his earliest
efforts in literature are an unbounded enthusiasm and a complete
disregard of the laws of poetry. At an early age he had become a power
in literature, and a political power as well. From 1831 to 1835 he
was subjected to severe satirical attacks by the author Welhaven and
others, and later his style became improved in every respect. His
popularity, however, decreased as his poetry improved, and in 1840
he had become a great poet but had no political influence. Among his
works may be named _Hasselnödder, Jöden_, "The Jew," _Jodinden_,
"The Jewess," _Jan van Huysum's Blomsterstykke_, "Jan van Huysum's
Flowerpiece," _Den Engleske Lods_, "The English Pilot," and a great
number of lyric poems. The poems of his last five years are as popular
to-day as ever. Wergeland died in 1845.
The enthusiastic nationalism of Henrik Wergeland and his young
following brought conflict with the conservative element, which
was not ready to accept everything as good simply because it was
Norwegian. This conservative element maintained that art and culture
must be developed on the basis of the old association with Denmark,
which had connected Norway with the great movement of civilization
throughout Europe. As the political leader of this "Intelligence"
party, as it was called, appeared J.S. Welhaven.
John Sebastian Cammermeyer Welhaven was born in Bergen in 1807,
entered the university in 1825, became a _Lector_ in 1840, and
afterward Professor of Philosophy. "His refined esthetic nature," says
Fr. Winkel Horn, "had been early developed, and when the war once
broke out between him and Wergeland, he had reached a high point
of intellectual culture, and thus was in every way a match for
his opponent." The fight was inaugurated by a preliminary literary
skirmish, which was, at the outset, limited to the university
students; but it gradually assumed an increasingly bitter character,
both parties growing more and more exasperated. Welhaven published a
pamphlet, _Om Henrik Wergelands Digtekunst og Poesie_, in which he
mercilessly exposed the weak sides of his adversary's poetry. Thereby
the minds became still more excited. The "Intelligence" party withdrew
from the students' union, founded a paper of their own, and thus
the movement began-to assume wider dimensions. In 1834, appeared
Welhaven's celebrated poem, _Norges Daemring_, a series of sonnets,
distinguished for their beauty of style. In them the poet scourges,
without mercy, the one-sided, narrow-minded patriotism of his time,
and exposes, in striking and unmistakable words, the hollowness
and shortcomings of the Wergeland party. Welhaven points out, with
emphasis, that he is not only going to espouse the cause of good
taste, which his adversary has outraged, but that he is also about
to discuss problems of general interest. He urges that a Norwegian
culture and literature can not be created out of nothing and to
promote their development it is absolutely necessary to continue
the associations which have hitherto been common to both Norway and
Denmark, and thus to keep in _rapport_ with the general literature
of Europe. When a solid foundation has in this manner been laid, the
necessary materials for a literature would surely not be wanting,
for they are found in abundance, both in the antiquities and in the
popular life of Norway. Welhaven continued his effective work as a
poet and critic. Through a series of romantic and lyrical poems, rich
in contents and highly finished in style, he developed a poetical
life, which had an important influence in the young Norwegian literary
circles. He died in 1873.
Andreas Munch (1811-1884), an able and industrious poetical writer,
took no part in the controversy between Wergeland and Welhaven, but
followed his Danish models independently of either. His _Poems, Old
and New_, published in 1848, were quite popular. His best work is
probably _Kongedatterens Brudefart_, "The Bridal Tour of the King's
Daughter," 1861.
In the period of about a dozen years following the death of Wergeland,
the life, manners, and characteristics of the Norwegian people were
given the especial attention of literary writers. Prominent in this
period was Peter Christian Ashbjornsen (1812-1885), who, partly
alone and partly in conjunction with Bishop Jorgen Moe (1813-1882),
published some valuable collections of Norwegian folk tales and
fairy tales. Moe also published three little volumes of graceful and
attractive poems. Among other writers of this period may be named
Hans H. Schultz, N. Ostgaard, Harald Meltzer, M.B. Landstad, and the
linguist Sophus Bugge.
The efforts to bring out the national life and characteristics of
the people in literature also led to an attempt to nationalize the
language in which the literature was written. The movement was the
so-called _Maalstraev_, and had in view the introduction of a pure
Norwegian book language, based upon the peasant dialects. The
prominent supporter of this movement was Ivar Aasen (1813-1898),
the author of an excellent dictionary of the Norwegian language. A
prominent poetical representative of this school was Aasmund Olafson
Vinje (1818-1870), while Kristofer Janson (born 1841) has also written
a number of stories and poems in the _Landsmaal_ (country tongue).
A new and grand period in Norwegian literature commenced about 1857,
and the two most conspicuous names in this period--and in the whole
Norwegian literature--are those of Henrik Ibsen and Björnstjerne
Björnson.
Henrik Ibsen was born in Skien, in 1828. He has written many beautiful
poems; but his special field is in the drama, where he is a master.
His first works were nearly all historical romantic dramas. His first
work, _Catilina_, printed in 1850, was scarcely noticed until years
afterward, when he had become famous. In 1856 appeared the romantic
drama, _Gildet paa Solhaug_, "The Feast at Solhaug," followed by _Fru
Inger til Oestraat_, 1857, and _Haermaedene paa Helgeland_, "The
Warriors on Helgeland," 1858. In 1863, he wrote the historical tragedy
_Kongsemnerne_, "The Pretenders," in which the author showed his great
literary power. Before this play was published, he had been drawn
into a new channel. In 1862, he began a series of satirical and
philosophical dramas with _Kjaerlighedens Komedie_, "Love's Comedy,"
which was succeeded by two masterpieces of a similar kind, _Brand_, in
1866, and _Peer Gynt_, in 1867. These two works were written in verse;
but in _De Unges Forbund_, "The Young Men's League," 1869, a political
satire, he abandoned verse, and all his subsequent dramas have been
written in prose. In 1873 came _Keiser og Galilaeer_, "Emperor and
Galilean." Since then he has published a number of social dramas which
have attracted world-wide attention. Among them are: _Samfundets
Stötter_, "The Pillars of Society," _Et Dukkehjem_, "A Doll's House,"
_Gengangere_, "Ghosts," _En Folkefiende_, "An Enemy of the People,"
_Rosmerholm, Fruenn fra Havet_, "The Lady from the Sea," _Little
Eyolf, Bymester Solnes_, "Masterbuilder Solnes," _John Gabriel
Borkman_, and the latest and most-talked-about, _Hedda Gabler_.
Björnstjerne Björnson (born in Osterdalen, in 1832) is the more
popular of the two giants of Norwegian literature of to-day. His works
are more national in tone. It has been said that to mention his name
is to raise the Norwegian flag. His first successes were made in the
field of the novel, and the first two, _Synnöve Solbakken_, 1857,
and _Arne_, 1858, made his name famous. These, and his other peasant
stories, will always retain their popularity. He soon, however,
entered the dramatic field, and has since published a great number of
dramas and novels.
In the field of belles-lettres there is at the present time a number
of other talented authors. Jonas Lie (born 1833) has produced a number
of excellent novels. Then there are Alexander Kielland (born 1849)
Magdalene Thoresen (born 1819), Arne Garborg, Gunnar Heiberg, and a
number of young authors.
In the field of science, also, modern Norway has a rich literature,
with many prominent names, such as the historian Peter Andreas Munch
(1810-1864), Johan Ernst Sars (born 1835), and O.A. Överland.[e]