_From Cabul to Kohi-Baba_.
_July 17th_.--Proceeded from Cabul to Shah Bagh; cloudy weather,
occasionally a very slight shower during the last few days, depending
probably on the Punjab rains. To-day, observed a small green
caterpillar, climbing up a fine thread, like a spider's web, which hung
from the fly of the tent; its motions were precisely those of climbing,
the thread over which it had passed was accumulated between its third
pairs of legs; it did not use its mouth.
I did not ascertain whether the thread was its own production or not; if
it was, it must have come out of its tail.
_24th_.--The fish in the Cabul river here are, a Loach, an Oreinus, and a
Barbel; none of these grow to any size, as there is but little water left
in the river in consequence of the drain for extensive cultivation on
both the east and west sides of the city.
Small specimens of these fish, especially the Loach and Oreinus, are
found in the canals or larger watercuts, in which the current is slow and
regular. It is curious that in the canal near the Shah Bagh, which has
been lately turned off above the Cantonment, all the specimens of the
Loach left in the pools of water were dead, while the Oreinus did not
appear to have suffered.
This Loach is a Cobitis propria, it has the usual form of that genus, the
spots are disposed irregularly, rarely becoming banded. The shape of the
head is curious, the forehead being prominent, this gives the mouth an
appearance of unusual depression. {479}
The country both on the east and west sides of Cabul may have been
formerly a lake. Such indeed would seem to have been the origin of all
the valleys in which there is an expanse of tillable ground, and not mere
strips confined to the banks of the draining streams.
The eastern valley is indeed partly occupied by the large sheet of water
to the north, and the west is very marshy. The eastern one is
interspersed with low detached ranges of hills.
The birds are a magpie, a dove, Oriolus, Pastor roseus, Pastor alter,
sparrow, water-wagtail, Hirundo, Hoopoe, Lanius, Sylvia sp., water-hen,
wild ducks on the lake, and Merops; almost all these as at Khujgal, but
no _minas_, or Edolia.
At Urghundy occurs Potentilla quinquifolia, repens radicans pubescens,
stipulis oblongis.
_28th_.--Halted at Koti-Ashruf. The most common plants on the Khak-i-
Sofaid pass are two or three of the small pulvinate Statices,
Senecionoides glaucescens. The yellow Asphodelus is very common, and I
also saw A. mesembryanthemifolia. At the foot of the pass, I saw
Scabiosa, which also occurred on the summit.
First march on the Cabul side of Ghuznee. Whole tracts blue with the
Labiata Plectranthoides; at Urghundy, along a watercut, are planted
several willows of the common large-leaved kind, the bark of these on all
the older parts is cracked longitudinally, and the trunk has the
appearance of being twisted, which I have no doubt is the natural state,
the spire is from left to right. The prevailing winds are easterly.
Bean cultivation is very common in the valley of the Cabul river to the
west beyond the Khak-i-Sofaid pass; I suspect it requires a greater
altitude than most of the other cultivated plants of Affghanistan, it
abounds in the high ground about Shaikhabad.
_29th_.--Proceeded in the morning from Julraize to Sir-i-Chushme. The
fish of the place are the same, the Silurus being common. The two sorts
of Oreinus vary much in the length of the intestinal canal,--the
yellowish and large one having it five times: the small and less
yellowish, three and a half lengths of the body. Both these species come
close to Barbus, showing that the spinosity of the dorsal fin is a more
valuable character than that of the form of the mouth.
The cartilaginous disc of Oreinus is a reflection outwards of the osseo-
cartilaginous part of the mouth, the fleshy part alone is the lips.
Oriolus, Upupa, and Percnopterus, continue with Columba. Grapes and
apricots _khar see_, and the common ones reach as far as this, but are
very inferior to those of Cabul; rice cultivated here and there. The
chief trees are Populus lombardensis, Salix magnifolia, and S. pendula,
Hippophae.
At Koti-Ashruf Salix angustissima is found, and on it Cuscuta gigantea;
on to-day's march Hippophae, but this is found also at Maidan: Merops was
heard at Koti-Ashruf. In the spring of Sir-i-Chushme, a Typhoid plant
occurs in profusion, Veronicae 2, alta et repens rotundifolia, Nasturtium
aquatica, Scrophularia of Julraize, Juncus, Triglochin, and Plantago of
the green sward, everywhere between 6,000 and 11,000 feet.
Trees end at the foot of Oonnye.
_30th_.--Girdun Dewar. Salvia swarms up the ascent and on the descent,
but less so than before, and on the Yonutt platform it is almost absent;
Cnicus also in profusion both up and down, and on the platform Festuca
triticoides begins about half-way up; Statice are common over the whole
pass. Caragana in the grassy swardy ravines. On the highest point
Astragalus arbuscula, the fields studded with yellow buttons of tansy,
and white flowers of Stellaria; Arabidea glauca siliculosa, also common;
this is rare on the west side of Hindoo-koosh, as is also Stellaria.
Tansy continues in some places.
_31st_.--To Kurzar. Proceeded up the Siah-Sung; along the river, green
sward with patches of Caragana, Campanula, and Geraniums occurred in
profusion in some places. Salvia not uncommon; at the first part, or
perhaps for three miles from camp a large Hingoid is common, smaller and
whiter than the species so common on the lower hills, and which is the
large-leaved species of Quettah and the Kojhuk pass. Potamogeton
cylindrifolia common; Senecionoides.
On the stony part, or beyond Siah-Sung, when one leaves the bed of the
river, Astragali two or three species, Salvia, and Blitum. Two sorts of
fish are found in the river, and perhaps a third in the black
hammer-headed Silurus. {481} Of the two caught, one is an Oreinus, but
passing close into Barbus. Beneath the glandular line, white, above
fuscous-brownish, with irregular black spots, fins fusco-reddish.
The other is a loach, Cobitis propria, shape shark-like, colour yellowish-
brown, almost tawny, sides irregularly spotted with brownish-black spots,
arranged on the back in broad irregular, generally complete bands. Head
not banded, fins tawny, with oblong black spots, eyes prominent, irides
reddish-orange: this is a very abundant species.
Poplar trees, (P. lombardensis): these from being planted close, grow
together, the union generally taking place near the base. I have not
seen a section of the wood.
_August 2nd_.--Kaloo. So far as I can judge, the flora of this side of
the pass does not differ, but in a few unimportant instances from that of
the Kurzar side. The summit however has a much colder climate, probably
from being exposed on the Kurzar side to an extremely cold and piercing
wind from the Kohi-Baba range. Cnici 2, and Festuca triticoides are the
most common plants, with Arenaria fruticosa, Composita No. 152,
Asphodelus of Erak now nearly passed flower, and some Astragali. But on
this side, Cnici cease almost entirely, although they re-appear lower
down, but only partially, and the top of the pass is covered with the
Statice of Kurzar, and Astragali, among which, that with the flat pod,
winged on the dorsal suture, is the most common. Lower down the same, or
similar features continue, and the only plants limited to this side are a
curious Astragalus, Crotalarioid, Polygonum fruticosa, microphyllum, and
spinosum, a Boraginea like that of Jugdulluck, but much smaller and
decumbent, a Papaveraceae, petalis Papaveris Rhoeadis, with a siliquose
fruit, and Clematis erecta: willow trees (the broad leaved species) occur
here, a large Agrostic grass, Ribes and Symphorema of Erak.
The Affghans appear to cut every plant almost of any size for winter
fodder, even thistles, docks, etc. The purple Lactucoid of Cabul
re-appears, and the curious flat fruit calyxed Boraginea of Shawl both in
abundance. The crops here are not more forward than those at Kurzar; the
fields are _crowded_ with Stellaria, but there is much less Tanacetum;
Geraniums occur in profusion.
Silene fimbriata, is a night flower, withering by 9 A.M.
I found no snow up the left Hajeeguk ravine, and the effect was marked,
namely, that none of the alpine plants are so abundant about it as last
season, when they were in flower, or had passed.
There is on the hills about this ravine, a large burrowing animal,
probably a marmot; it is of a dark colour with tawny rump; when on the
alert it sits on its rump, or rather perhaps raised on the hind legs, and
has the voice of an ordinary Rodentia.
I heard several of these, but saw only one.
Rich botanising is to be had on the swampy ground at the mouth of the
right ravine. Pediculares 2, Silenaceae 3 or 4, Veroniceae 2, Orchis 1,
Ranunculi 2, Junci 2, Carices several, Swertiae 2, one the larger
Solidago, Geranium, Gramineae several, Parnassia of Erak, Campanula, Ruta
odora, etc.
_3rd_.--To Topehee. The vegetation of Kaloo is far less varied than that
of Hajeeguk, for it presents no such swampy ravines at such elevations.
The plants of the hills around Kaloo villages continue half-way up, on
the road over the ravine Corvisartia is plentiful, with a Labiata, Calyce
Royleae, in profusion; this and Cnici form the chief vegetation;
Papaveraceae also continue.
Up the 1st ascent Hingoid tenuifolia, Ephedra stricta, Ribes commence,
Ephedra continuing throughout wherever the bare rocks project through the
loose soil; one-third way up, Statice long and short-peduncled commence
with an Astragalus. The bulk of the vegetation is an Artemisia; Royleoid
and Chenopodium villosum continue, and do so for half-way up.
At the black rock half-way up, Dianthus, Astragalus, Crotalarioid, Rosae
sp., Statice pulvinata, are common, this last and Artemisia are the chief
features: Scutellaria, Stellaria dichotoma, Umbellifera of Yonutt,
Corvisartia, wild Gramineae of Yonutt, Arenaria fruticosa, Festuca
triticoides continues. Borago of upper Kaloo, and the Glauci of Kaloo
occur. Astragali 2 or 3 sp., Silene sp., but the chief vegetation is
Artemisia.
On the summit, Corvisartia, Boragineae, Gramineae, several; a straggling
Plectranthus coeruleus, Arenaria fruticosa, Allium rubrum, Cnici 2, the
yellow Erigeronoid of Hajeeguk summit, occur on the descent just below
the ridge, and on this side the Statice pulvinata is in profusion, and of
large size. Large marmot, with teeth like those of a rat.
_4th_.--Proceeded to Bamean. At Topehee was found a curious succulent
Hypericum, it is odd that the leaves, etc. of these succulent saline
plants are cold; strikingly so. Connected with this low temperature, is
the fact, that if shut up in a box with other plants, and water thrown
in, that even though they be at the top, they cause the deposit of all
the water that passes up in the shape of vapour, while the ordinary
plants remain quite dry! A wonderful provision of nature adapting them
the more to extremely dry stations. About Topehee, Cichorium is common;
Salvia of Oonnye, Geranium, Artemisia exaltata of Sir-i-Chushme, and
Pulmonaria, so common everywhere, occur; Glaucum swarms in saline marshy
places. Triglochin is also found, also Ranunculus stoloniferae trilobata
of Kaloo, Hippuris. The flat-calyxed Boraginea, Melilotus officinalis
also found; Potamogeton cylindrifolia, Centaurea lutea.
There also occurs along the barren slopes of the hills a glaucous shrub,
much like that between Chunni and Dund-i-Goolai, decumbens, subspinos:
glauco alb. fruct. baccato drupaceis, oblongis, purpuris, basi calyce
parvo, 5-fido, stylo brevi apiculatis, putamina osseo-crasso oblongo
ovato, Sem. immatur.
_8th_.--Bamean. The fish, so far as I have caught any, seem to be one
trout, and two barbels. Of 5 species, one of these takes the worm
greedily, the length of the intestines varied in every instance, and of
three the relative lengths of body and canal were as follows:
Inches. Canal.
Body 6 (times ) 2.125 ( Of three since captured and
Body 7 (longer ) 2.5 ( about 8 inches long, all
Body 10.5 (than the) 3.5 ( nearly the same size, the
(body. ) ( length of the canal was
( three times longer than the
( body.
The intestines as usual taper almost gradually from the stomach and
oesophagus, and are gorged with greenish pulp.
This is worth following up. It is scarcely credible, but that the
species are really different; or if not, the variety in the length will
considerably diminish the value of the length of canal as a principle of
arrangement. {484}
The glaucous long-peduncled, large-flowered Statice is limited to the
east side of Kaloo. On this side another species occupies similar
elevations, viz., 9,500 to 10,500 feet; it is a good deal like the one
met with towards Ghuzni. These species are less alpine than the short-
peduncled species with large flowers, which continues all over Kaloo,
being in great perfection on the west side, near the summit. Another
short-peduncled species appears on the descent, close to upper Topehee.
Towards this Royleoid occurs but sparingly, and the first change takes
place in the abundance of Salicornia or Kochia. Also about this, Peganum
and Salvia reoccur, both kinds not being uncommon about Bamean.
Lactuca dislocata occurs throughout.
The vegetation of Bamean is that of Topehee, but the small flowered
Tamarisk is scarce--Potentilla anserina is common, Hyoscyamus spinosus of
Kaloo occurs.
The Bamean river divides the Kohi-Baba from the Hindoo-koosh, but both
are obviously of the same system, i.e. they divide the ranges to the
north. To the east their offsets are divided by the Kaloo river. The
direction of the Hindoo-koosh and that of the Kohi-Baba, is about 115
west. The space to the west consists of a low, rather flat plateau, (as
it appears from the top of Kaloo,) this flat belongs to the Kohi-Baba
range; the offsets of the Hindoo-koosh to the east and north are
ordinarily shaped. All the hills on the north side of the valley
disintegrate on their south faces, forming cliffs of partial extent.
_13th_.--Proceeded to Akrobat, ascending the Bamean river, and then
diverging up a _kotul_ or acclivity of considerable height, but gradual
ascent. Then descending at once steeply to Akrobat, which is about 9,500
feet above the sea. Along the river, Rosa, Hippophae, and Salix occur,
the two former being abundant. Scarcely any change in vegetation occurs:
an Ephedra, very common up the _kotul_ and abundantly in fruit. The
hills are very barren, and nothing remarkable is observable about Syghan.
Apricot constitutes the only fruit tree. Salix, Populus, and Sinjit
occur.
All the valleys are narrow, and the hills very barren, the chief
vegetation being Salsolaceae. The vegetation of the valleys is the same
as that of Bamean; on the north of Akrobat two Statice occur, one with
spathulate leaves scapigerous, the other a tall straggling plant.
_22nd_.--Erak. The vegetation of Kurzar consists of Hypericum,
Salsolaceae, Carduacea, and Hyoscyamus spinosus, but Salsolaceae occur in
profusion and several species.
Hypericum enjoys to perfection, the faculty of condensing water on its
leaves, much more so than Salsolaceae; it presents an obvious affinity to
Rutaceae, capsula radiata 5-valvis, loculicida: valvis linea centrali
notatis, septis solutis imo apice exceptis. Seminibus basi locul.
affixis, apice villosis; the tobacco is different from the Nicot.
tobaccum, cor. virida tubo calyce, duplo longiore lamina brevi plicato:
apricots in sheltered places.
_24th_.--Kurzar. The Erak _kotul_ is thickly covered with Festuca
triticoides, two Carduaceae, Salvia, Artemisiae, and Statices on the
south side. On the north Statices, Onosma, and Carduaceae are most
common, and the vegetation is scantier. Ribes is common up the Erak
ravine; with it, Rosa and Symphorema are the chief shrubs. Ephedra
ceases about 10,000 feet. A snake found of general grey colour, with
black-brown marking.
_26th_.--Ascended Kohi-Baba from upper Kaloo, the ascent occupied about
five hours, the ridge was surmounted but no view of Baissoat was
obtained, except that the crest surmounted, as well as the still loftier
culminating one belong to ridges running 30 degrees north from a main
ridge, the passes of which, although apparently the same height as the
peak surmounted, are much more heavily covered with snow. These passes
do not appear very difficult.
At 2 P.M. set up the barometer on the ridge, the mercury stood 17.354.
Therm. in cistern, 79.5. Detached Therm. in sun 85 degrees--on the
ground 105 degrees.
_September 2nd_.--At 2.5 P.M. the barometer stood 17.356.
Assuming this to give about 15,000 feet, none of the peaks will be found
to be higher than 16,500. The culminating point was close by, and did
not appear more than 1,000 feet above me. The different ridges are
separated by deep spaces in which snow lies to a considerable extent.
Having descended a considerable way I again set up the barometer. Time 4-
45 P.M.
The mercury stood at 18.889.
Therm. in the Cistern. 63 degrees
Ditto in the air. 68 degrees
The vegetation continues unaltered, the same as that of Kaloo kotul.
Carduaceae, Astragali, Nardoid, Bromoid, Hordeoid pubescens, and
Statices. And up to this, which may be assumed as 13,500 feet, the hills
present the same features, rounded with a good deal of soil, and large
granitic masses.
But above this the disintegration of the ridge has reached a great
extent; for 1,500 to 2,000 feet the ascent is steep, passing over a
profusion of blocks and slabs of granite, generally externally of a dark
brown colour; here and there there is some coarse granular soil, and
towards the second station, say at an altitude of 14,000 feet, a marshy
spot occurred, crowded with Primula, together with Arenaria, Fumaria of
Erak, Ranunculus of Hajeeguk, Carex, etc. From within 1,000 feet of the
summit the ascent was easier, over ground composed entirely of small
angular bits of granite, which rock protrudes to the north, forming the
south wall of a huge amphitheatre, heavily snowed in places.
This granite varies much; being below a coarse quartzose grey rock, above
a very compact brown rock, except perhaps in its lowest outcrop, where it
has a slaty structure.
The second station may be assumed as the lowest limit of the inferior
snow line, but this so much depends on casual circumstances that even
many places at 15,000 feet are uncovered by snow, which as might be
expected is always heaviest in the higher valleys which are least exposed
to the sun's rays. The surface of the snow in many places was
picturesque, being in the shape of crowded pinnacled ridges, the
interstices from 4 to 5 feet deep, holding water or ice. I saw from the
summit a flock of the large grouse, and at 14,000 feet, a large hare.
The peak surmounted is the lowest, and the nearest to Upper Kaloo. The
granite on the west side formed a precipitous cliff of 200 to 300 feet
deep.
The vegetation of the slope with small fragments, say between 14 to
15,000 feet was very scanty, a Cheiranthus, Polygonum scariosum,
Papaveraceae, Phloxoides and Statice, being the only plants; and perhaps
this may be assumed as having no particular plant, all those enumerated
being found below.
The vegetation of the steep rugged portion, which contained many patches
of snow and better soil, was more varied; in the upper parts of this a
Carex, two or three Graminae, Cheiranthus, Plectranthus, Sedoides,
Arenaria, Potentilla, Primula, Draboides and Brassicacea occurred. A
Tanacetoid was perhaps the most common.
The most alpine forms of these were Carex, Holcoides, Sedoides, Statice
densissima, and Papaveracea; but of these Papaveracea, Phloxoid, Statice
densissima, Cheiranthus, and Polygonum are alone found above. Here again
the effect of the proximity of a bed of snow in retarding vegetation was
most evident. Phloxoides elsewhere partly in flower, being found in full
flower near one of the beds of snow.
It is curious that no green spots are found above, all the water passing
down under the soil, the swardy ravines scarcely extend beyond an
elevation of 1,500 feet above the camp on Upper Kaloo.
The limit of the grey shrubby Salix may be taken as 1,000 feet above
that, the other plants are precisely the same as those of other swards;
Abelia extends higher than Salix.
The limit of crops is about the same, the issue of the water obviously
being in relation to the extent of cultivation by irrigation. The
associated plants present no change.
_23rd_.--Cabul. Curious transformation in Carthamus was observed, either
affecting the involucrum alone, when those branches that would have
become flowers become clavate, covered with very dense aristate leaves,
or affecting the florets which become more or less converted in the
branches. In these the involucre is little altered, and the receptacle
is attacked by larva. In certain of these the florets are submitted to
very curious metamorphoses, each envelope remaining, but quite green, the
stamina being little changed, the pistillum changed into a leaf-bearing
branch, the stigmata, etc. into two leaves.
This is chiefly remarkable because of the general tardiness of change in
the stamina, since it shows that the binary formation of the pistillum is
a primary effect: it may be asked, if the number should be 5, why has it
not reverted to its original or typical state? The calyx is not
reducible to 5. The permanency of the character of aggregate flowers is
here shown, as well as in Echinops, so that it is scarcely probable we
shall ever meet a compositious flower solitary in the axil of an ordinary
leaf.
To be examined hereafter in detail.
If wood is a descending formation, produced by leaves, how are woody
tendrils to be accounted for. In the vine the ancient tendrils are
perfectly woody, although this may not be true wood, yet it is truly
fibrous, and I ask, from what is it formed?
The growth of young shoots is at once a proof that the whole system may
be formed from ascending growth, for in many we find woody fibre
complete, though not indurated, and all the leaves from which wood is
said to be formed are only in a rudimentary state.
_October 2nd_.--Seh-Baba. Spiraea belloides, commonish on limestone
rocks in the ravine near the road which leads from Tazeen valley to
Khubur-i-Jubbur. This limestone is in thin strata; the strata are
subdivided by quartzose veins, they occur generally at a dip of from 15
to 20 degrees, but are occasionally quite vertical or highly wavy,
presenting evidence of concentrated force upwards. The outcrop wears an
uniform aspect, and occurs to the north of the ravine. The south here
and there presents sheets of rock, the overlying strata having slipped
off. The strike of the strata is north and south.
Coal is said by Hatchet to be formed chiefly from the resinous principles
of plants,--this would account for its appearance when burnt, which is
the same as that of burnt bitumen. But resinous principles are, even
when they exist, of partial extent only in plants. In good coal the
whole of the vegetable substance seems to be transformed, a supposition
barely compatible with Hatchet's idea.
To study this, extensive examination of coal in all degrees of formation
would be necessary, beginning with the wood so curiously changed by the
Brahmapootra, i.e. brown coal occurring in its sand banks, and which has
a very peculiar and disagreeable odour when burning. It would also be
necessary to examine how far the coal-plants exhibit vegetable structure,
are they mere impressions or are they the plants themselves changed? To
what extent do these agree with coal? What particular plants and what
parts of these appear to have formed coal? Its fibrous structure would
hint at formation from the woody system, and it is not incompatible with
the _deliquescence_ of a thick layer of drift.
The plants of coal fields having been drifted, can only give us an idea
of the vegetation along the natural drains of the then country, such may
by no means have had _one universal character_.
The plants of the open surface of modern tropical countries being
generally different from those along the beds of streams, in which
situations now-a-days Equiseteae, Lycopods and Filicis are chiefly found.
Coal being drift, it follows that the plants of the coal fields can give
us no information on the distribution of vegetables in those days; to
gain information on this, the fossils should be in their original
situation. And there again an obstacle may exist in our not being able
to ascertain the height or level of that situation.
If the plants of coal fields are found to be converted into coal, then
the only difference between coal shale, and coal will consist in the very
small proportion of vegetable matter in the former.
The small number of coal plants, i.e. the small number of species, at
once points to the supposition that fossil plants are confined to those
of the most indestructible nature: here again is another sign of this in
the preponderance of Ferns, which Lindley finds to be the most permanent.
Hence the preponderance of Ferns, is by no means explainable by their
greatest simplicity of form, and consequent priority of formation.