[1] Anonymously in the 1731 ed., with acknowledgment in the 1758 ed.
HARTLEY, JONATHAN SCOTT (1845- ), American sculptor, was born at
Albany, New York, on the 23rd of September 1845. He was a pupil of E. D.
Palmer, New York, and of the schools of the Royal Academy, London; he
later studied for a year in Berlin and for a year in Paris. His first
important work (1882) was a statue of Miles Morgan, the Puritan, for
Springfield, Mass. Among his other works are the Daguerre monument in
Washington; "Thomas K. Beecher," Elmira, New York, and "Alfred the
Great," Appellate Court House, New York. He devoted himself particularly
to the making of portrait busts, in which he attained high rank. In 1891
he became a member of the National Academy of Design.
HARTLIB, SAMUEL (c. 1599-c. 1670), English writer on education and
agriculturist, was born towards the close of the 16th century at Elbing
in Prussia, his father being a refugee merchant from Poland. His mother
was the daughter of a rich English merchant at Danzig. About 1628
Hartlib went to England, where he carried on a mercantile agency, and at
the same time found leisure to enter with interest into the public
questions of the day. An enthusiastic admirer of Comenius, he published
in 1637 his _Conatuum Comenianorum praeludia_, and in 1639 _Comenii
pansophiae prodromus et didactica dissertatio_. In 1641 appeared his
_Relation of that which hath been lately attempted to procure
Ecclesiastical Peace among Protestants_, and _A Description of Macaria_,
containing his ideas of what a model state should be. During the civil
war Hartlib occupied himself with the peaceful study of agriculture,
publishing various works by himself, and printing at his own expense
several treatises by others on the subject. In 1652 he issued a second
edition of the _Discourse of Flanders Husbandry_ by Sir Richard Weston
(1645); and in 1651 _Samuel Hartlib, his Legacy, or an Enlargement of
the Discourse of Husbandry used in Brabant and Flanders_, by Robert
Child. For his various labours Hartlib received from Cromwell a pension
of L100, afterwards increased to L300, as he had spent all his fortune
on his experiments. He planned a school for the sons of gentlemen, to be
conducted on new principles, and this probably was the occasion of his
friend Milton's _Tractate on Education_, addressed to him in 1644, and
of Sir William Petty's _Two Letters_ on the same subject, in 1647 and
1648. At the Restoration Hartlib lost his pension, which had already
fallen into arrears; he petitioned parliament for a new grant of it, but
what success he met with is unknown, as his latter years and death are
wrapped in obscurity. A letter from him is known to have been written in
February 1661-1662, and apparently he is referred to by Andrew Marvell
as alive in 1670 and fleeing to Holland from his creditors.
_A Biographical Memoir of Samuel Hartlib_, by H. Dircks, appeared in
1865.
HARTMANN, KARL ROBERT EDUARD VON (1842-1906), German philosopher, was
born in Berlin on the 23rd of February 1842. He was educated for the
army, and entered the artillery of the Guards as an officer in 1860, but
a malady of the knee, which crippled him, forced him to quit the service
in 1865. After some hesitation between music and philosophy, he decided
to make the latter the serious work of his life, and in 1867 the
university of Rostock conferred on him the degree of doctor of
philosophy. He subsequently returned to Berlin, and died at
Grosslichterfelde on the 5th of June 1906. His reputation as a
philosopher was established by his first book, _The Philosophy of the
Unconscious_ (1869; 10th ed. 1890). This success was largely due to the
originality of its title, the diversity of its contents (von Hartmann
professing to obtain his speculative results by the methods of inductive
science, and making plentiful use of concrete illustrations), the
fashionableness of its pessimism and the vigour and lucidity of its
style. The conception of the Unconscious, by which von Hartmann
describes his ultimate metaphysical principle, is not at bottom as
paradoxical as it sounds, being merely a new and mysterious designation
for the Absolute of German metaphysicians. The Unconscious appears as a
combination of the metaphysic of Hegel with that of Schopenhauer. The
Unconscious is both Will and Reason and the absolute all-embracing
ground of all existence. Von Hartmann thus combines "pantheism" with
"panlogism" in a manner adumbrated by Schelling in his "positive
philosophy." Nevertheless Will and not Reason is the primary aspect of
the Unconscious, whose melancholy career is determined by the primacy of
the Will and the subservience of the Reason. Precosmically the Will is
potential and the Reason latent, and the Will is void of reason when it
passes from potentiality to actual willing. This latter is absolute
misery, and to cure it the Unconscious evokes its Reason and with its
aid creates the best of all possible worlds, which contains the promise
of its redemption from actual existence by the emancipation of the
Reason from its subjugation to the Will in the conscious reason of the
enlightened pessimist. When the greater part of the Will in existence is
so far enlightened by reason as to perceive the inevitable misery of
existence, a collective effort to will non-existence will be made, and
the world will relapse into nothingness, the Unconscious into
quiescence. Although von Hartmann is a pessimist, his pessimism is by no
means unmitigated. The individual's happiness is indeed unattainable
either here and now or hereafter and in the future, but he does not
despair of ultimately releasing the Unconscious from its sufferings. He
differs from Schopenhauer in making salvation by the "negation of the
Will-to-live" depend on a collective social effort and not on
individualistic asceticism. The conception of a redemption of the
Unconscious also supplies the ultimate basis of von Hartmann's ethics.
We must provisionally affirm life and devote ourselves to social
evolution, instead of striving after a happiness which is impossible; in
so doing we shall find that morality renders life less unhappy than it
would otherwise be. Suicide, and all other forms of selfishness, are
highly reprehensible. Epistemologically von Hartmann is a transcendental
realist, who ably defends his views and acutely criticizes those of his
opponents. His realism enables him to maintain the reality of Time, and
so of the process of the world's redemption.
Von Hartmann's numerous works extend to more than 12,000 pages. They
may be classified into--A. Systematical, including _Grundprobleme der
Erkenntnistheorie_; _Kategorienlehre_; _Das sittliche Bewusstsein_;
_Die Philosophie des Schonen_; _Die Religion des Geistes_; _Die
Philosophie des Unbewussten_ (3 vols., which now include his,
originally anonymous, self-criticism, _Das Unbewusste vom Standpunkte
der Physiologie und Descendenztheorie_, and its refutation, Eng. trs.
by W. C. Coupland, 1884); _System der Philosophie im Grundriss_, i.;
_Grundriss der Erkenntnislehre_. B. Historical and critical--_Das
religiose Bewusstsein der Menschheit_; _Geschichte der Metaphysik_ (2
vols.); _Kant's Erkenntnistheorie_; _Kritische Grundlegung des
transcendentalen Realismus_; _Uber die dialektische Methode_; studies
of Schelling, Lotze, von Kirchmann; _Zur Geschichte des Pessimismus_;
_Neukantianismus, Schopenhauerismus, Hegelianismus_; _Geschichte der
deutschen Asthetik seit Kant_; _Die Krisis des Christentums in der
modernen Theologie_; _Philosophische Fragen der Gegenwart_; _Ethische
Studien_; _Moderne Psychologie_; _Das Christentum des neuen
Testaments_; _Die Weltanschauung der modernen Physik_, C.
Popular--_Soziale Kernfragen_; _Moderne Probleme_; _Tagesfragen_;
_Zwei Jahrzehnte deutscher Politik_; _Das Judentum in Gegenwart und
Zukunft_; _Die Selbstzersetzung des Christentums_; _Gesammelte
Studien_; _Der Spiritismus_ and _Die Geisterhypothese des
Spiritismus_; _Zur Zeitgeschichte_. His select works have been
published in 10 volumes (2nd ed., 1885-1896). On his philosophy see R.
Kober, _Das philosophische System Eduard von Hartmanns_ (1884); O.
Plumacher, _Der Kampf ums Unbewusste_ (2nd ed., 1890), with a
chronological table of the Hartmann literature from 1868 to 1890; A.
Drews, _E. von Hartmanns Philosophie und der Materialismus in der
modernen Kultur_ (1890) and _E. von Hartmanns philosophisches System
im Grundriss_ (1902), with biographical introduction; and for further
authorities, J. M. Baldwin, _Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology_
(1901-1905).
HARTMANN, MORITZ (1821-1872), German poet and author, was born of Jewish
parentage at Duschnik in Bohemia on the 15th of October 1821. Having
studied philosophy at Prague and Vienna, he travelled in south Germany,
Switzerland and Italy, and became tutor in a family at Vienna. In 1845 he
proceeded to Leipzig and there published a volume of patriotic poems,
_Kelch und Schwert_ (1845). Fearing in consequence prosecution at the
hands of the authorities, he abided events in France and Belgium, and
after issuing in Leipzig _Neuere Gedichte_ (1846) returned home, suffered
a short term of imprisonment, and in 1848 was elected member for
Leitmeritz in the short-lived German parliament at Frankfort-on-Main, in
which he sided with the extreme Radical party. He took part with Robert
Blum (1807-1848) in the revolution of that year in Vienna, but contrived
to escape to London and Paris. In 1849 he published _Reimchronik des
Pfaffen Mauritius_, a satirical political poem in the style of Heine.
During the Crimean War (1854-56) Hartmann was correspondent of the
_Kolnische Zeitung_, settled in 1860 in Geneva as a teacher of German
literature and history, became in 1865 editor of the _Freya_ in Stuttgart
and in 1868 a member of the staff of the _Neue Freie Presse_ in Vienna.
He died at Oberdobling near Vienna on the 13th of May 1872.
Among Hartmann's numerous works may be especially mentioned _Der Krieg
um den Wald_ (1850), a novel, the scene of which is laid in Bohemia;
_Tagebuch aus Languedoc und Provence_ (1852); _Erzahlungen eines
Unsteten_ (1858); and _Die letzten Tage eines Konigs_ (1867). His idyll,
_Adam und Eva_ (1851), and his collection of poetical tales, _Schatten_
(1851), show that the author possessed but little talent for epic
narrative. Hartmann's poems are often lacking in genuine poetical
feeling, but the love of liberty which inspired them, and the fervour,
ease and clearness of their style compensated for these shortcomings and
gained for him a wide circle of admirers.
His _Gesammelte Werke_ were published in 10 vols, in 1873-1874, and a
selection of his _Gedichte_ in the latter year. The first two volumes
of a new edition of his works contain a biography of Hartmann by O.
Wittner. See also E. Ziel, "Moritz Hartmann" (in _Unsere Zeit_, 1872);
A. Marchand, _Les Poetes lyriques de l'Autriche_ (1892); Brandes, _Das
junge Deutschland_ (Charlottenburg, 1899).
HARTMANN VON AUE (c. 1170-c. 1210), one of the chief Middle High German
poets. He belonged to the lower nobility of Swabia, where he was born
about 1170. After receiving a monastic education, he became retainer
(_dienstman_) of a nobleman whose domain, Aue, has been identified with
Obernau on the Neckar. He also took part in the Crusade of 1196-97. The
date of his death is as uncertain as that of his birth; he is mentioned
by Gottfried von Strassburg (_c._ 1210) as still alive, and in the
_Krone_ of Heinrich von dem Turlin, written about 1220, he is mourned
for as dead. Hartmann was the author of four narrative poems which are
of importance for the evolution of the Middle High German court epic.
The oldest of these, _Erec_, which may have been written as early as
1191 or 1192, and the latest and ripest, _Iwein_, belong to the
Arthurian cycle and are based on epics by Chretien de Troyes (q.v.);
between them lie the romance, _Gregorius_, also an adaptation of a
French epic, and _Der arme Heinrich_, one of the most charming specimens
of medieval German poetry. The theme of the latter--the cure of the
leper, Heinrich, by a young girl who is willing to sacrifice her life
for him--Hartmann had evidently found in the annals of the family in
whose service he stood. Hartmann's most conspicuous merit as a poet lies
in his style; his language is carefully chosen, his narrative lucid,
flowing and characterized by a sense of balance and proportion which is
rarely to be found in German medieval poetry. _Gregorius, Der arme
Heinrich_ and his lyrics, which are all fervidly religious in tone,
imply a tendency towards asceticism, but, on the whole, Hartmann's
striving seems rather to have been to reconcile the extremes of life; to
establish a middle way of human conduct between the worldly pursuits of
knighthood and the ascetic ideals of medieval religion.
_Erec_ has been edited by M. Haupt (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1871);
_Gregorius_, by H. Paul (2nd ed., Halle, 1900); _Der arme Heinrich_, by
W. Wackernagel and W. Toischer (Basel, 1885) and by H. Paul (2nd ed.,
Halle, 1893); by J. G. Robertson (London, 1895), with English notes;
_Iwein_, by G. F. Benecke and K. Lachmann (4th ed., Berlin, 1877) and E.
Henrici (Halle, 1891-1893). A convenient edition of all Hartmann's poems
by F. Bech, 3 vols. (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1891-1893, vol. 3 in 4th ed.,
1902).
The literature on Hartmann is extensive. See especially L. Schmid,
_Des Minnesingers Hartmann von Aue Stand, Heimat und Geschlecht_
(Tubingen, 1874); H. Rotteken, _Die epische Kunst Heinrichs von
Veldeke und Hartmanns von Aue_ (Halle, 1887); F. Saran, _Hartmann von
Aue als Lyriker_ (Halle, 1889); A. E. Schonbach, _Uber Hartmann von
Aue_ (Graz, 1894); F. Piquet, _Etude sur Hartmann d'Aue_ (Paris,
1898). Translations have been made into modern German of all
Hartmann's poems, while _Der arme Heinrich_ has repeatedly attracted
the attention of modern poets, both English (Longfellow, Rossetti) and
German (notably, Gerhart Hauptmann). See H. Tardel, _Der arme Heinrich
in der neueren Dichtung_ (Berlin, 1905).
HARTSHORN, SPIRITS OF, a name signifying originally the ammoniacal
liquor obtained by the distillation of horn shavings, afterwards applied
to the partially purified similar products of the action of heat on
nitrogenous animal matter generally, and now popularly used to designate
the aqueous solution of ammonia (q.v.).
HARTZENBUSCH, JUAN EUGENIO (1806-1880), Spanish dramatist, was born at
Madrid on the 6th of September 1806. The son of a German carpenter, he
was educated for the priesthood, but he had no religious vocation and,
on leaving school, followed his father's trade till 1830, when he
learned shorthand and joined the staff of the _Gaceta_. His earliest
dramatic essays were translations from Moliere, Voltaire and the elder
Dumas; he next recast old Spanish plays, and in 1837 produced his first
original play, _Los Amantes de Teruel_, the subject of which had been
used by Rey de Artieda, Tirso de Molina and Perez de Montalban. _Los
Amantes de Teruel_ at once made the author's reputation, which was
scarcely maintained by _Dona Mencia_ (1839) and _Alfonso el Casto_
(1841); it was not till 1845 that he approached his former success with
_La Jura en Santa Gadea_. Hartzenbusch was chief of the National Library
from 1862 to 1875, and was an indefatigable--though not very
judicious--editor of many national classics. Inferior in inspiration to
other contemporary Spanish dramatists, Hartzenbusch excels his rivals in
versatility and in conscientious workmanship.
HARUN AL-RASHID (763 or 766-809), i.e. "Harun the Orthodox," the fifth
of the 'Abbasid caliphs of Bagdad, and the second son of the third
caliph Mahdi. His full name was Harun ibn Muhammad ibn 'Abdallah ibn
Muhammad ibn 'Ali ibn 'Abdallah ibn 'Abbas. He was born at Rai (Rhagae)
on the 20th of March A.D. 763, according to some accounts, and according
to others on the 15th of February A.D. 766. Harun al-Rashid was
twenty-two years old when he ascended the throne. His father Mahdi just
before his death conceived the idea of superseding his elder son Musa
(afterwards known as Hadi, the fourth caliph) by Harun. But on Mahdi's
death Harun gave way to his brother. For the campaigns in which he took
part prior to his accession see CALIPHATE, section C, _The Abbasids_, SS
3 and 4.
Rashid owed his succession to the throne to the prudence and sagacity of
Yahya b. Khalid the Barmecide, his secretary, whom on his accession he
appointed his lieutenant and grand vizier (see BARMECIDES). Under his
guidance the empire flourished on the whole, in spite of several revolts
in the provinces by members of the old Alid family. Successful wars were
waged with the rulers of Byzantium and the Khazars. In 803, however,
Harun became suspicious of the Barmecides, whom with only a single
exception he caused to be executed. Henceforward the chief power was
exercised by Fadl b. Rabi', who had been chamberlain not only under
Harun himself but under his predecessors, Mansur, Madhi and Hadi. In the
later years of Harun's reign troubles arose in the eastern parts of the
empire. These troubles assumed proportions so serious that Harun himself
decided to go to Khorasan. He died, however, at Tus in March 809.
The reign of Harun (see CALIPHATE, section C, S 5) was one of the most
brilliant in the annals of the caliphate, in spite of losses in
north-west Africa and Transoxiana. His fame spread to the West, and
Charlemagne and he exchanged gifts and compliments as masters
respectively of the West and the East. No caliph ever gathered round him
so great a number of learned men, poets, jurists, grammarians, cadis and
scribes, to say nothing of the wits and musicians who enjoyed his
patronage. Harun himself was a scholar and poet, and was well versed in
history, tradition and poetry. He possessed taste and discernment, and
his dignified demeanour is extolled by the historians. In religion he
was extremely strict; he prostrated himself a hundred times daily, and
nine or ten times made the pilgrimage to Mecca. At the same time he
cannot be regarded as a great administrator. He seems to have left
everything to his viziers Yahya and Fadl, to the former of whom
especially was due the prosperous condition of the empire. Harun is best
known to Western readers as the hero of many of the stories in the
_Arabian Nights_; and in Arabic literature he is the central figure of
numberless anecdotes and humorous stories. Of his incognito walks
through Bagdad, however, the authentic histories say nothing. His Arabic
biographers are unanimous in describing him as noble and generous, but
there is little doubt that he was in fact a man of little force of
character, suspicious, untrustworthy and on occasions cruel.
See the Arabic histories of Ibn al-Athir and Ibn Khaldun. Among modern
works see Sir W. Muir, _The Caliphate_ (London, 1891); R. D. Osborn,
_Islam under the Khalifs of Bagdad_ (London, 1878); Gustav Weil,
_Geschichte der Chalifen_ (Mannheim and Stuttgart, 1846-1862); G. le
Strange, _Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate_ (Oxford, 1900); A.
Muller, _Der Islam_, vol. i. (Berlin, 1885); E. H. Palmer, _The Caliph
Haroun Alraschid_ (London, 1880); J. B. Bury's edition of Gibbon's
_Decline and Fall_ (London, 1898), vol. vi. pp. 34 foll.
HARUSPICES, or ARUSPICES (perhaps "entrail observers," cf. Skt. hira,
Gr. [Greek: chorde]), a class of soothsayers in Rome. Their art
(_disciplina_) consisted especially in deducing the will of the gods
from the appearance presented by the entrails of the slain victim. They
also interpreted all portents or unusual phenomena of nature, especially
thunder and lightning, and prescribed the expiatory ceremonies after
such events. To please the god, the victim must be without spot or
blemish, and the practice of observing whether the entrails presented
any abnormal appearance, and thence deducing the will of heaven, was
also very important in Greek religion. This art, however, appears not to
have been, as some other modes of ascertaining the will of the gods
undoubtedly were, of genuine Aryan growth. It is foreign to the Homeric
poems, and must have been introduced into Greece after their
composition. In like manner, as the Romans themselves believed, the art
was not indigenous in Rome, but derived from Etruria.[1] The Etruscans
were said to have learned it from a being named Tages, grandson of
Jupiter, who had suddenly sprung from the ground near Tarquinii.
Instructions were contained in certain books called _libri haruspicini_,
_fulgurales_, _rituales_. The art was practised in Rome chiefly by
Etruscans, occasionally by native-born Romans who had studied in the
priestly schools of Etruria. From the regal period to the end of the
republic, haruspices were summoned from Etruria to deal with prodigies
not mentioned in the pontifical and Sibylline books, and the Roman
priests carried out their instructions as to the offering necessary to
appease the anger of the deity concerned. Though the art was of great
importance under the early republic, it never became a part of the state
religion. In this respect the haruspices ranked lower than the augurs,
as is shown by the fact that they received a salary; the augurs were a
more ancient and purely Roman institution, and were a most important
element in the political organization of the city. In later times the
art fell into disrepute, and the saying of Cato the Censor is well
known, that he wondered how one haruspex could look another in the face
without laughing (Cic. _De div._ ii. 24). Under the empire, however, we
hear of a regular collegium of sixty haruspices; and Claudius is said to
have tried to restore the art and put it under the control of the
pontifices. This collegium continued to exist till the time of Alaric.
See A. Bouche-Leclercq, _Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquite_
(1879-1881); Marquardt, _Romische Staatsverwaltung_, iii. (1885), pp.
410-415; G. Schmeisser, _Die etruskische Disciplin vom
Bundesgenossenkriege bis zum Untergang des Heidentums_ (1881), and
_Quaestionum de Etrusca disciplina particula_ (1872); P. Clairin, _De
haruspicibus apud Romanos_ (1880). Also OMEN.