[1] In Mid. Eng. _harwe_; the O. Eng. appears to have been _hearge_;
the word is cognate with the Dutch _hark_, Swed. _harke_, Ger.
_Harke_, rake, and with Danish _harv_, and Swed. _harf_, harrow, but
the ultimate origin is unknown; the Fr. _herse_ is a different word,
cf. HEARSE.
HARROWBY, DUDLEY RYDER, 1ST EARL OF (1762-1847), the eldest son of
Nathaniel Ryder, 1st Baron Harrowby (1735-1803), was born in London on
the 22nd of December 1762. His grandfather Sir Dudley Ryder (1691-1756)
became a member of parliament and solicitor-general owing to the favour
of Sir Robert Walpole in 1733; in 1737 he was appointed attorney-general
and three years later he was knighted; in 1754 he was made lord chief
justice of the king's bench and a privy councillor, the patent creating
him a peer having been just signed by the king, but not passed, when he
died on the 25th of May 1756. His only son Nathaniel, who was member of
parliament for Tiverton for twenty years, was created Baron Harrowby in
1776. Educated at St John's College, Cambridge, Dudley Ryder became
member of parliament for Tiverton in 1784 and under-secretary for
foreign affairs in 1789. In 1791 he was appointed paymaster of the
forces and vice-president of the board of trade, but he resigned the
positions and also that of treasurer of the navy when he succeeded to
his father's barony in June 1803. In 1804 he was secretary of state for
foreign affairs and in 1805 chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster under
his intimate friend William Pitt; in the latter year he was sent on a
special and important mission to the emperors of Austria and Russia and
the king of Prussia, and for the long period between 1812 and 1827 he
was lord president of the council. After Canning's death in 1827 he
refused to serve George IV. as prime minister and he never held office
again, although he continued to take part in politics, being especially
prominent during the deadlock which preceded the passing of the Reform
Bill in 1832. Harrowby's long association with the Tories did not
prevent him from assisting to remove the disabilities of Roman Catholics
and Protestant dissenters, or from supporting the movement for electoral
reform; he was also in favour of the emancipation of the slaves. The
earl died at his Staffordshire residence, Sandon Hall, on the 26th of
December 1847, being, as Charles Greville says, "the last of his
generation and of the colleagues of Mr Pitt, the sole survivor of those
stirring times and mighty contests."
Harrowby's eldest son, Dudley Ryder, 2nd earl (1798-1882), was born in
London on the 19th of May 1798, his mother being Susan (d. 1838),
daughter of Granville Leveson-Gower, marquess of Stafford, a lady of
exceptional attainments. As Viscount Sandon he became member of
parliament for Tiverton in 1819, in 1827 he was appointed a lord of the
admiralty, and in 1830 secretary to the India board. From 1831 to 1847
Sandon represented Liverpool in the House of Commons. For a long time he
was out of office, but in 1855, eight years after he had become earl of
Harrowby, he was appointed chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster by Lord
Palmerston; in a few months he was transferred to the office of lord
privy seal, a position which he resigned in 1857. He was chairman of the
Maynooth commission and a member of other important royal commissions,
and was among the most stalwart and prominent defenders of the
established church. He died at Sandon on the 19th of November 1882. His
successor was his eldest son, Dudley Francis Stuart Ryder (1831-1900),
vice-president of the council from 1874 to 1878, president of the board
of trade from 1878 to 1880, and lord privy seal in 1885 and 1886. He
died without sons on the 26th of March 1900, and was succeeded by his
brother, Henry Dudley Ryder (1836-1900), whose son, John Herbert Dudley
Ryder (b. 1864), became 5th earl of Harrowby.
HARROWING OF HELL, an English poem in dialogue, dating from the end of
the 13th century. It is written in the East Midland dialect, and is
generally cited as the earliest dramatic work of any kind preserved in
the language, though it was in reality probably intended for recitation
rather than performance; It is closely allied to the kind of poem known
as a _debat_, and the opening words--"Alle herkneth to me nou A strif
wille I tellen ou Of Jesu and of Satan"--seem to indicate that the piece
was delivered by a single performer. The subject--the descent of Christ
into Hades to succour the souls of the just, as related in the
apocryphal gospel of Nicodemus--is introduced in a kind of prologue;
then follows the dispute between "Dominus" and "Satan" at the gate of
Hell; the gatekeeper runs away, and the just are set free, while Adam,
Eve, Habraham, David, Johannes and Moyses do homage to the deliverer.
The poem ends with a short prayer: "God, for his moder loue Let ous
never thider come." Metrically, the poem is characterized by frequent
alliteration imposed upon the rhymed octosyllabic couplet:--
Welcome, louerd, god of londe
Godes sone and godes sonde (ii. 149-150).
The piece is obviously connected with the Easter cycle of liturgical
drama, and the subject is treated in the York and Townley plays.
MSS. are: Brit. Mus., Harl. MS. 2253; Edinburgh, Auchinleck MS., W 41;
Oxford, Bodleian, Digby 86. It was privately printed by J. P. Collier
and by J. O. Halliwell, but is available in Appendix III. of A. W.
Pollard's _English Miracle Plays ..._ (4th ed., 1904) K. Boddeker,
_Altengl. Dichtungen des MS. Harl. 2253_ (Berlin, 1878); and E. Mall,
_The Harrowing of Hell_ (Breslau, 1871). See also E. K. Chambers, _The
Medieval Stage_ (2 vols., 1903).
HARROW-ON-THE-HILL, an urban district in the Harrow parliamentary
division of Middlesex, England, 12 m. W.N.W. of St Paul's cathedral,
London, served by the London and North Western, Metropolitan and
District railways. Pop. (1901), 10,220. It takes its name from its
position on an isolated hill rising to a height of 345 ft. On the
summit, and forming a conspicuous landmark, is the church of St Mary,
said to have been founded by Lanfranc, archbishop of Canterbury, in the
reign of William I., and Norman work appears at the base of the tower.
The remainder of the church is of various later dates, and there are
several ancient monuments and brasses.
Harrow is celebrated for its public school, founded in 1571 by John
Lyon, whose brass is in the church, a yeoman of the neighbouring village
of Preston who had yearly during his life set aside 20 marks for the
education of poor children of Harrow; though a school existed before his
time. Though the charter was granted by Queen Elizabeth in 1571, and the
statutes drawn up by the founder in 1590, two years before his death, it
was not till 1611 that the first building was opened for scholars. Lyon
originally settled about two-thirds of his property on the school,
leaving the remainder for the maintenance of the highway between London
and Harrow, but in the course of time the values of the respective
endowments have changed so far that the benefit accruing to the school
is a small proportion of the whole. About 1660 the headmaster, taking
advantage of a concession in Lyon's statutes, began to receive
"foreigners," i.e. boys from other parishes, who were to pay for their
education. From this time the prosperity of the school may be dated. In
1809 the parishioners of Harrow appealed to the court of chancery
against the manner in which the school was conducted, but the decision,
while it recognized their privileges, confirmed the right of admission
to foreigners. The government of the school was originally vested in six
persons of standing in the parish who had the power of filling vacancies
in their number by election among themselves; but under the Public
Schools Act of 1868 the governing body now consists of the surviving
members of the old board, besides six new members who are elected
respectively by the lord chancellor, the universities of Oxford,
Cambridge and London, the Royal Society, and the assistant masters of
the school. There are several scholarships in connexion with the school
to Oxford and Cambridge Universities. Harrow was originally an
exclusively classical school, but mathematics became a compulsory study
in 1837; modern languages, made compulsory in the upper forms In 1851,
were extended to the whole school in 1855; while English history and
literature began to be especially studied about 1869. The number of boys
is about 600. The principal buildings are modern, including the chapel
(1857), the library (1863), named after the eminent headmaster Dr
Charles John Vaughan, and the speech-room (1877), the scene of the
brilliant ceremony on "Speech Day" each summer term. The fourth form
room, however, dates from 1611, and on its panels are cut the names of
many eminent _alumni_, such as Byron, Robert Peel, R. B. Sheridan and
Temple (Lord Palmerston). Several of the buildings were erected out of
the Lyon Tercentenary Fund, subscribed after the tercentenary
celebration in 1871.
A considerable extension of Harrow as an outer residential suburb of
London has taken place north of the hill, where is the urban district of
Wealdstone (pop. 5901), and there are also important printing and
photographic works.
HARRY THE MINSTREL, or BLIND HARRY (fl. 1470-1492), author of the Scots
historical poem _The Actis and Deidis of the Illustere and Vailzeand
Campioun Schir William Wallace, Knicht of Ellerslie_, flourished in the
latter half of the 15th century. The details of his personal history are
of the scantiest. He appears to have been a blind Lothian man, in humble
circumstances, who had some reputation as a story-teller, and who
received, on five occasions, in 1490 and 1491, gifts from James IV. The
entries of these, in the _Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer_, occur
among others to harpers and singers. He is alluded to by Dunbar (q.v.)
in the fragmentary _Interlude of the Droichis Part of the Play_, where a
"droich," or dwarf, personates
"the nakit blynd Harry
That lang has bene in the fary
Farleis to find;"
and again in Dunbar's _Lament for the Makaris_. John Major (q.v.) in his
Latin _History_ speaks of "one Henry, blind from his birth, who, in the
time of my childhood, fashioned a whole book about William Wallace, and
therein wrote down in our popular verse--and this was a kind of
composition in which he had much skill--all that passed current among
the people in his day. I, however, can give but partial credence to
these writings. This Henry used to recite his tales before nobles, and
thus received food and clothing as his reward" (Bk. iv. ch. xv.).
The poem (preserved in a unique MS., dated 1488, in the Advocates'
library, Edinburgh) is divided into eleven books and runs to 11,853
lines. Its poetic merits are few, and its historical accuracy is easily
impugned. It has the formal interest of being one of the earliest,
certainly one of the most extensive verse-documents in Scots written in
five-accent, or heroic, couplets. It is also the earliest outstanding
work which discloses that habit of Scotticism which took such strong
hold of the popular Northern literature during the coming years of
conflict with England. In this respect it is in marked contrast with all
the patriotic verse of preceding and contemporary literature. This
attitude of the _Wallace_ may perhaps be accepted as corroborative
evidence of the humble milieu and popular sentiment of its author. The
poem owed its subsequent widespread reputation to its appeal to this
sentiment rather than to its literary quality. On the other hand, there
are elements in the poem which show that it is not entirely the work of
a poor crowder; and these (notably references to historical and literary
authorities, and occasional reminiscences of the literary tricks of the
Scots Chaucerian school) have inclined some to the view that the text,
as we have it, is an edited version of the minstrel's rough song-story.
It has been argued, though by no means conclusively, that the "editor"
was John Ramsay, the scribe of the Edinburgh MS. and of the companion
Edinburgh MS. of the _Brus_ by John Barbour (q.v.).
The poem appears, on the authority of Laing, to have been printed at
the press of Chepman & Myllar about 1508, but the fragments which
Laing saw are not extant. The first complete edition, now available,
was printed by Lekprevik for Henry Charteris in 1570 (Brit. Museum).
It was reprinted by Charteris in 1594 and 1601, and by Andro Hart in
1611 and 1620. At least six other editions appeared in the 17th
century. There are many later reprints, including some of William
Hamilton of Gilbertfield's modern Scots version of 1722. The first
critical edition was prepared by Dr. Jamieson and published in 1820.
In 1889 the Scottish Text Society completed their edition of the text,
with prolegomena and notes by James Moir.
See, in addition to Jamieson's and Moir's volumes (_u.s._), J. T. T.
Brown's _The Wallace and the Bruce Restudied_ (Bonner, _Beitrage zur
Anglistik_, vi., 1900), a plea for Ramsay's authorship of the known
text; also W. A. Craigie's article in _The Scottish Review_ (July
1903), a comparative estimate of the _Brus and Wallace_, in favour of
the latter.
HARSDORFFER, GEORG PHILIPP (1607-1658), German poet, was born at
Nuremberg on the 1st of November 1607. He studied law at Altdorf and
Strassburg, and subsequently travelled through Holland, England, France
and Italy. His knowledge of languages gained for him the appellation
"the learned," though he was as little a learned man as he was a poet.
As a member of the _Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft_ he was called _der
Spielende_ (the player). Jointly with Johann Klaj (q.v.) he founded in
1644 at Nuremberg the order of the Pegnitzschafer, a literary society,
and among the members thereof he was known by the name of Strephon. He
died at Nuremberg on the 22nd of September 1658. His writings in German
and Latin fill fifty volumes, and a selection of his poems, interesting
mostly for their form, is to be found in Muller's _Bibliothek deutscher
Dichter des 17ten Jahrhunderts_, vol. ix. (Leipzig, 1826).
His life was written by Widmann (Altdorf, 1707). See also Tittmann,
_Die Nurnberger Dichterschule_ (Gottingen, 1847); Hodermann, _Eine
vornehme Gesellschaft, nach Harsdorffers "Gesprachspielen"_
(Paderborn, 1890); T. Bischoff, "Georg Philipp Harsdorffer" in the
_Festschrift zur 250 jahrigen Jubelfeier des Pegnesischen
Blumenordens_ (Nuremberg, 1894); and Krapp, _Die asthetischen
Tendenzen Harsdorffers_ (Berlin, 1904).
HARSHA, or HARSHAVARDHANA (fl. A.D. 606-648), an Indian king who ruled
northern India as paramount monarch for over forty years. The events of
his reign are related by Hsuan Tsang, the Chinese pilgrim, and by Bana,
a Brahman author. He was the son of a raja of Thanesar, who gained
prominence by successful wars against the Huns, and came to the throne
in A.D. 606, though he was only crowned in 612. He devoted himself to a
scheme of conquering the whole of India, and carried on wars for thirty
years with success, until (A.D. 620) he came in contact with Pulakesin
II., the greatest of the Chalukya dynasty, who made himself lord of the
south, as Harsha was lord of the north. The Nerbudda river formed the
boundary between the two empires. In the latter years of his reign
Harsha's sway over the whole basin of the Ganges from the Himalayas to
the Nerbudda was undisputed. After thirty-seven years of war he set
himself to emulate Asoka and became a patron of art and literature. He
was the last native monarch who held paramount power in the north prior
to the Mahommedan conquest; and was succeeded by an era of petty states.
See Bana, _Sri-harsha-charita_, trans. Cowell and Thomas (1897);
Ettinghausen, _Harsha Vardhana_ (Louvain, 1906).
HARSNETT, SAMUEL (1561-1631), English divine, archbishop of York, was
born at Colchester in June 1561, and was educated at Pembroke Hall,
Cambridge, where he was successively scholar, fellow and master
(1605-1616). He was also vice-chancellor of the university in 1606 and
1614. His ecclesiastical career began somewhat unpromisingly, for he was
censured by Archbishop Whitgift for Romanist tendencies in a sermon
which he preached against predestination in 1584. After holding the
living of Chigwell (1597-1605) he became chaplain to Bancroft (then
bishop of London), and afterwards archdeacon of Essex (1603-1609),
rector of Stisted and bishop of Chichester (1609-1619) and archbishop of
York (1629). He died on the 25th of May 1631. Harsnett was no favourite
with the Puritan community, and Charles I. ordered his _Considerations
for the better Settling of Church Government_ (1629) to be circulated
among the bishops. His _Declaration of Egregious Popish Impostures_
(1603) furnished Shakespeare with the names of the spirits mentioned by
Edgar in _King Lear_.
HART, ALBERT BUSHNELL (1854- ), American historian, was born at
Clarksville, Mercer county, Pennsylvania, on the 1st of July 1854. He
graduated at Harvard College in 1880, studied at Paris, Berlin and
Freiburg, and received the degree of Ph.D. at Freiburg in 1883. He was
instructor in history at Harvard in 1883-1887, assistant professor in
1887-1897, and became professor in 1897. Among his writings are:
_Introduction to the Study of Federal Government_ (1890), _Formation of
the Union_ (1892, in the Epochs of American History series), _Practical
Essays on American Government_ (1893), _Studies in American Education_
(1895), _Guide to the Study of American History_ (with Edward Channing,
1897), _Salmon Portland Chase_ (1899, in the American Statesman series),
_Foundations of American Foreign Policy_ (1901), _Actual Government_
(1903), _Slavery and Abolition_ (1906, the volume in the American
Nation series dealing with the period 1831-1841), _National Ideals
Historically Traced_ (1907), the 26th volume of the American Nation
series, and many historical pamphlets and articles. In addition he
edited _American History told by Contemporaries_ (4 vols., 1898-1901),
and _Source Readers in American History_ (4 vols., 1901-1903), and two
co-operative histories of the United States, the Epochs of American
History series (3 small text-books), and, on a much larger scale, the
American Nation series (27 vols., 1903-1907); he also edited the
American Citizen series.
HART, CHARLES (d. 1683), English actor, grandson of Shakespeare's sister
Joan, is first heard of as playing women's parts at the Blackfriars'
theatre as an apprentice of Richard Robinson. In the Civil War he was a
lieutenant of horse in Prince Rupert's regiment, and after the king's
defeat he played surreptitiously at the Cockpit and at Holland House and
other noblemen's residences. After the Restoration he is known to have
been in 1660 the original Dorante in _The Mistaken Beauty_, adapted from
Corneille's _Le Menteur_. In 1663 he went to the Theatre Royal in
Killigrew's company, with which he remained until 1682, taking leading
parts in Dryden's, Jonson's and Beaumont and Fletcher's plays. He is
highly spoken of by contemporaries in such Shakespearian parts as
Othello and Brutus. He is often mentioned by Pepys. Betterton praised
him, and would not himself play the part of Hotspur until after Hart's
retirement. He died in 1683 and was buried on the 20th of August. Hart
is said to have been the first lover of Nell Gwyn, and to have trained
her for the stage.
HART, ERNEST ABRAHAM (1835-1898), English medical journalist, was born
in London on the 26th of June 1835, the son of a Jewish dentist. He was
educated at the City of London school, and became a student at St
George's hospital. In 1856 he became a member of the Royal College of
Surgeons, making a specialty of diseases of the eye. He was appointed
ophthalmic surgeon at St Mary's hospital at the age of 28, and occupied
various other posts, introducing into ophthalmic practice some
modifications since widely adopted. His name, too, is associated with a
method of treating popliteal aneurism, which he was the first to use in
Great Britain. His real life-work, however, was as a medical journalist,
beginning with the _Lancet_ in 1857. He was appointed editor of the
_British Medical Journal_ in 1866. He took a leading part in the
exposures which led to the inquiry into the state of London workhouse
infirmaries, and to the reform of the treatment of sick poor throughout
England, and the Infant Life Protection Act of 1872, aimed at the evils
of baby-farming, was largely due to his efforts. The record of his
public work covers nearly the whole field of sanitary legislation during
the last thirty years of his life. He had a hand in the amendments of
the Public Health and of the Medical Acts; in the measures relating to
notification of infectious disease, to vaccination, to the registration
of plumbers; in the improvement of factory legislation; in the remedy of
legitimate grievances of Army and Navy medical officers; in the removal
of abuses and deficiencies in crowded barrack schools; in denouncing the
sanitary shortcomings of the Indian government, particularly in regard
to the prevention of cholera. His work on behalf of the British Medical
Association is shown by the increase from 2000 to 19,000 in the number
of members, and the growth of the _British Medical Journal_ from 20 to
64 pages, during his editorship. From 1872 to 1897 he was chairman of
the Association's Parliamentary Bill Committee. He died on the 7th of
January 1898. For his second wife he married Alice Marion Rowland, who
had herself studied medicine in London and Paris, and was no less
interested than her husband in philanthropic reform. She was most active
in her encouragement of Irish cottage industries, and was the founder of
the Donegal Industrial Fund.
HART, SIR ROBERT, Bart. (1835- ), Anglo-Chinese statesman, was born at
Milltown, Co. Armagh, on the 20th of February 1835. He was educated at
Taunton, Dublin and Belfast, and graduated at Queen's College, Belfast,
in 1853. In the following year he received an appointment as
student-interpreter in the China consular service, and after serving
for a short time at the Ningpo vice-consulate, he was transferred to
Canton, where after acting as secretary to the allied commissioners
governing the city, he was appointed the local inspector of customs.
There he first gained an insight into custom-house work. One effect of
the Taiping rebellion was to close the native custom-house at Shanghai;
and as the corrupt alternatives proposed by the Chinese were worse than
useless, it was arranged by Sir Rutherford Alcock, the British consul,
with his French and American colleagues, that they should undertake to
collect the duties on goods owned by foreigners entering and leaving the
port. Sir T. Wade was appointed to the post of collector in the first
instance, and after a short tenure of office was succeeded by Mr H. N.
Lay, who held the post until 1863, when he resigned owing to a
disagreement with the Chinese government in connexion with the
Lay-Osborn fleet. During his tenancy of office the system adopted at
Shanghai was applied to the other treaty ports, so that when on Mr Lay's
resignation Mr Hart was appointed inspector-general of foreign customs,
he found himself at the head of an organization which collected a
revenue of upwards of eight million taels per annum at fourteen treaty
ports. From the date when Mr Hart took up his duties at Peking, in 1863,
he unceasingly devoted the whole of his energies to the work of the
department, with the result that the revenue grew from upwards of eight
million taels to nearly twenty-seven million, collected at the
thirty-two treaty ports, and the customs staff, which in 1864 numbered
200, reached in 1901 a total of 5704. From the first Mr Hart gained the
entire confidence of the members of the Chinese government, who were
wise enough to recognize his loyal and able assistance. Of all their
numerous sources of revenue, the money furnished by Mr Hart was the only
certain asset which could be offered as security for Chinese loans. For
many years, moreover, it was customary for the British minister, as well
as the ministers of other powers, to consult him in every difficulty;
and such complete confidence had Lord Granville in his ability and
loyalty, that on the retirement of Sir T. Wade he appointed him minister
plenipotentiary at Peking (1885). Sir Robert Hart, however--who was made
a K.C.M.G. in 1882--recognized the anomalous position in which he would
have been placed had he accepted the proposal, and declined the
proffered honour. On all disputed points, whether commercial, religious
or political, his advice was invariably sought by the foreign ministers
and the Chinese alike. Thrice only did he visit Europe between 1863 and
1902, the result of this long comparative isolation, and of his constant
intercourse with the Peking officials, being that he learnt to look at
events through Chinese spectacles; and his work, _These from the Land of
Sinim_, shows how far this affected his outlook. The faith which he put
in the Chinese made him turn a deaf ear to the warnings which he
received of the threatening Boxer movement in 1900. To the last he
believed that the attacking force would at least have spared his house,
which contained official records of priceless value, but he was doomed
to see his faith falsified. The building was burnt to the ground with
all that it contained, including his private diary for forty years. When
the stress came, and he retreated to the British legation, he took an
active part in the defence, and spared neither risk nor toil in his
exertions. In addition to the administration of the foreign customs
service, the establishment of a postal service in the provinces devolved
upon him, and after the signing of the protocol of 1901 he was called
upon to organize a native customs service at the treaty ports.
The appointment of Sir Robert Hart as inspector-general of the imperial
maritime customs secured the interests of European investors in Chinese
securities, and helped to place Chinese finance generally on a solid
footing. When, therefore, in May 1906 the Chinese government appointed a
Chinese administrator and assistant administrator of the entire customs
of China, who would control Sir Robert Hart and his staff, great anxiety
was aroused. The Chinese government had bound itself in 1896 and 1898
that the imperial maritime customs services should remain as then
constituted during the currency of the loan. The British government
obtained no satisfactory answer to its remonstrances, and Sir Robert
Hart, finding himself placed in a subordinate position after his long
service, retired in July 1907. He received formal leave of absence in
January 1908, when he received the title of president of the board of
customs. Both the Chinese and the British governments from time to time
conferred honours upon Sir Robert Hart. By giving him a Red Button, or
button of the highest rank, a Peacock's Feather, the order of the Double
Dragon, a patent of nobility to his ancestors for three generations, and
the title of Junior Guardian of the heir apparent, the Chinese showed
their appreciation of his manifold and great services; while under the
seal of the British government there were bestowed upon him the orders
of C.M.G.(1880), K.C.M.G.(1882), G.C.M.G. (1889), and a baronetcy
(1893). He has also been the recipient of many foreign orders. Sir
Robert Hart married in 1886 Hester, the daughter of Alexander Bredon,
Esq., M.D., of Portadown.
See his life by Julia Bredon (_Sir Robert Hart_, 1909).
HART, WILLIAM (1823-1894), American landscape and cattle painter, was
born in Paisley, Scotland, on the 31st of March 1823, and was taken to
America in early youth. He was apprenticed to a carriage painter at
Albany, New York, and his first efforts in art were in making landscape
decorations for the panels of coaches. Subsequently he returned to
Scotland, where he studied for three years. He opened a studio in New
York in 1853, and was elected an associate of the National Academy of
Design in 1857 and an academician in the following year. He was also a
member of the American Water Colour Society, and was its president from
1870 to 1873. As one of the group of the Hudson River School he enjoyed
considerable popularity, his pictures being in many well-known American
collections. He died at Mount Vernon, New York, on the 17th of June
1894.
His brother, JAMES MCDOUGAL HART (1828-1901), born in Kilmarnock,
Scotland, was also a landscape and cattle painter. He was a pupil of
Schirmer in Dusseldorf, and became an associate of the National Academy
of Design in 1857 and a full member in 1859. He was survived by two
daughters, both figure painters, Letitia B. Hart (b. 1867) and Mary
Theresa Hart (b. 1872).
HARTE, FRANCIS BRET (1839-1902), American author, was born at Albany,
New York, on the 25th of August 1839. His father, a professor of Greek
at the Albany College, died during his boyhood. After a common-school
education he went with his mother to California at the age of seventeen,
afterwards working in that state as a teacher, miner, printer,
express-messenger, secretary of the San Francisco mint, and editor. His
first literary venture was a series of _Condensed Novels_ (travesties of
well-known works of fiction, somewhat in the style of Thackeray),
published weekly in _The Californian_, of which he was editor, and
reissued in book form in 1867. _The Overland Monthly_, the earliest
considerable literary magazine on the Pacific coast, was established in
1868, with Harte as editor. His sketches and poems, which appeared in
its pages during the next few years, attracted wide attention in the
eastern states and in Europe.
Bret Harte was an early master of the short story, and his Californian
tales were regarded as introducing a new _genre_ into fiction. "The Luck
of Roaring Camp" (1868), "The Outcasts of Poker Flat" (1869), the later
sketch "How Santa Claus came to Simpson's Bar," and the verses entitled
"Plain Language from Truthful James," combined humour, pathos and power
of character portrayal in a manner that indicated that the new land of
mining-gulches, gamblers, unassimilated Asiatics, and picturesque and
varied landscape had found its best delineator; so that Harte became, in
his pioneer pictures, a sort of later Fenimore Cooper. Forty-four
volumes were published by him between 1867 and 1898. After a year as
professor in the university of California, Harte lived in New York,
1871-1878; was United States consul at Crefeld, Germany, 1878-1880;
consul at Glasgow, 1880-1885; and after 1885 resided in London, engaged
in literary work. He died at Camberley, England, on the 5th of May
1902.
A library edition of his _Writings_ (16 vols.) was issued in 1900, and
increased to 19 vols. in 1904. See also H. W. Boynton, _Bret Harte_
(1905) in the Contemporary Men of Letters series; T. E. Pemberton,
_Life of Bret Harte_ (1903), which contains a list of his poems,
tales, &c.
HARTEBEEST, the Boer name for a large South African antelope (also known
as caama) characterized by its red colour, long face with naked muzzle
and sharply angulated lyrate horns, which are present in both sexes.
This antelope is the _Bubalis cama_ or _Alcelaphus cama_ of naturalists;
but the name hartebeest has been extended to include all the numerous
members of the same genus, some of which are to be found in every part
of Africa, while one or two extend into Syria. Some of the species of
the allied genus _Damaliscus_, such as Hunter's antelope (_D. hunteri_),
are also often called hartebeests. (See ANTELOPE).
[Illustration: Cape Hartebeest (_Bubalis cama_).]
HARTFORD, a city and the capital of Connecticut, U.S.A., the county-seat
of Hartford county, and a port of entry, coterminous with the township
of Hartford, in the west central part of the state, on the W. bank of
the Connecticut river, and about 35 m. from Long Island Sound. Pop.
(1890), 53,230; (1900), 79,850, of whom 23,758 were foreign-born
(including 8076 Irish, 2700 Germans, 2260 Russians, 1952 Italians, 1714
Swedes, 1634 English and 1309 English Canadians); (1910 census) 98,915.
Of the total population in 1900, 43,872 were of foreign parentage (both
parents foreign-born), and of these 18,410 were of Irish parentage.
Hartford is served by two divisions of the New York, New Haven &
Hartford railway, by the Central New England railway, by the several
electric lines of the Connecticut Company which radiate to the
surrounding towns, and by the steamboats of the Hartford & New York
Transportation Co., all of which are controlled by the N.Y., N.H. & H.
The river, which is navigable to this point, is usually closed from the
middle of December to the middle of March.
The city covers an area of 17.7 sq. m.; it is well laid out and
compactly built, and streets, parks, &c., are under a city-plan
commission authorized in 1907. It is intersected by the sluggish Park
river, which is spanned by ten bridges. A stone arch bridge, with nine
arches, built of granite at a cost of $1,700,000 and dedicated in 1908,
spans the Connecticut (replacing the old Connecticut river bridge built
in 1818 and burned in 1895), and connects Hartford with the village of
East Hartford in the township of East Hartford (pop. 1900, 6406), which
has important paper-manufacturing and tobacco-growing interests. The
park system of Hartford is the largest in any city of the United States
in proportion to the city's population. In 1908 there were 21 public
parks, aggregating more than 1335 acres. In the extreme S. of the city
is Goodwin Park (about 200 acres); in the S.E. is Colt Park (106 acres),
the gift of Mrs Elizabeth Colt, the widow of Samuel Colt, inventor of
the Colt revolver; in the S.W. is Pope Park (about 90 acres); in the W.
is Elizabeth (100 acres); in the E., along the Connecticut river front,
is Riverside (about 80 acres); and in the extreme N. is Keney Park (680
acres), the gift of Henry Keney, and, next to the Metropolitan
Reservations near Boston, the largest park in the New England states.
Near the centre of the city are the Capitol Grounds (27 acres; until
1872 the campus of Trinity College) and Bushnell Park (41 acres),
adjoining Capitol Park. Bushnell Park, named in honour of Horace
Bushnell, contains the Corning Memorial Fountain, erected in 1899 and
designed by J. Massey Rhind, and three bronze statues, one, by J. Q. A.
Ward, of General Israel Putnam; one, by Truman H. Bartlett, of Dr Horace
Wells (1815-1848), the discoverer of anaesthesia; and one, by E. S.
Woods, of Colonel Thomas Knowlton (1749-1776), a patriot soldier of the
War of Independence, killed at the battle of Harlem Heights. On the
Capitol Grounds is the state capitol (Richard M. Upjohn, architect), a
magnificent white marble building, which was completed in 1880 at a cost
of $2,534,000. Its exterior is adorned with statues and busts of
Connecticut statesmen and carvings of scenes in the history of the
state. Within the building are regimental flags of the Civil War, a
bronze statue by Olin L. Warner of Governor William A. Buckingham, a
bronze statue by Karl Gerhardt of Nathan Hale, a bronze tablet (also by
Karl Gerhardt) in memory of John Fitch (1743-1798), the inventor; a
portrait of Washington, purchased by the state in 1800 from the artist,
Gilbert Stuart; and a series of oil portraits of the colonial and state
governors. The elaborately carved chair of the lieutenant-governor in
the senate chamber, made of wood from the historic Charter Oak, and the
original charter of 1662 (or its duplicate of the same date) are
preserved in a special vault in the Connecticut state library. A new
state library and supreme court building and a new state armoury and
arsenal, both of granite, have been (1910) erected upon lands recently
added to the Capitol Grounds, thus forming a group of state buildings
with the Capitol as the centre. Near the Capitol, at the approach of the
memorial bridge across the Park river, is the Soldiers' and Sailors'
memorial arch, designed by George Keller and erected by the city in 1885
in memory of the Hartford soldiers and sailors who served in the
American Civil War.
Near the centre of the city is the old town square (now known as the
City Hall Square), laid off in 1637. Here, facing Main Street, stands
the city hall, a beautiful example of Colonial architecture, which was
designed by Charles Bulfinch, completed in 1796, and until 1879 used as
a state capitol; it has subsequently been restored. In Main Street is
the present edifice of the First Church of Christ, known as the Centre
Congregational Church, which was organized in Cambridge, Massachusetts,
in 1632, and removed to Hartford, under the leadership of Thomas Hooker
and Samuel Stone, in 1636. In the adjoining cemetery are the graves of
Thomas Hooker, Governor William Leete (1603-1683), and Governor John
Haynes, and a monument in memory of 100 early residents of Hartford. In
the same thoroughfare is the Wadsworth Atheneum (built in 1842; enlarged
in 1892-1893 and 1907) and its companion buildings, the Colt memorial
(built in 1908 to accommodate the Elizabeth Colt art collection) and the
Morgan art gallery (built in 1908 by J. Pierpont Morgan in memory of his
father, Junius Morgan, a native of Hartford). In this group of buildings
are the Hartford public library (containing 90,000 volumes in 1908), the
Watkinson library of reference (70,000 volumes in 1908), the library of
the Connecticut historical society (25,000 volumes in 1908) and a public
art gallery. Other institutions of importance in Hartford are the
American school for the deaf (formerly the American asylum for the deaf
and dumb), founded in 1816 by Thomas H. Gallaudet; the retreat for the
insane (opened for patients in 1824); the Hartford hospital; St Francis
hospital; St Thomas's seminary (Roman Catholic); La Salette Missionary
college (R.C.; 1898); Trinity college (founded by members of the
Protestant Episcopal church, and now non-sectarian), which was
chartered as Washington College in 1823, opened in 1824, renamed
Trinity College in 1845, and in 1907-1908 had 27 instructors and 208
students; the Hartford Theological seminary, a Congregational
institution, which was founded at East Windsor Hill in 1834 as the
Theological Institute of Connecticut, was removed to Hartford in 1865,
and adopted its present name in 1885; and, affiliated with the last
mentioned institution, the Hartford School of Religious Pedagogy. The
Hartford grammar school, founded in 1638, long managed by the town and
in 1847 merged with the classical department of the Hartford public high
school, is the oldest educational institution in the state. In
Farmington Avenue is St Joseph's cathedral (Roman Catholic), the city
being the seat of the diocese of Hartford.
During the 18th century Hartford enjoyed a large and lucrative commerce,
but the railway development of the 19th century centralized commerce in
New York and Boston, and consequently the principal source of the city's
wealth has come to be manufacturing and insurance. In 1905 the total
value of the "factory" product was $25,975,651. The principal industries
are the manufacture of small arms (by the Colt's Patent Fire-Arms
Manufacturing Co., makers of the Colt revolver and the Gatling gun),
typewriters (Royal and Underwood), automobiles, bicycles, cyclometers,
carriages and wagons, belting, cigars, harness, machinists' tools and
instruments of precision, coil-piping, church organs, horse-shoe nails,
electric equipment, machine screws, drop forgings, hydrants and valves,
and engines and boilers. In 1788 the first woollen mill in New England
was opened in Hartford; and here, too, about 1846, the Rogers process of
electro-silver plating was invented. The city is one of the most
important insurance centres in the United States. As early as 1794
policies were issued by the Hartford Fire Insurance Company (chartered
in 1810). In 1909 Hartford was the home city of six fire insurance and
six life insurance companies, the principal ones being the Aetna (fire),
Aetna Life, Phoenix Mutual Life, Phoenix Fire, Travelers (Life and
Accident), Hartford Fire, Hartford Life, National Fire, Connecticut
Fire, Connecticut General Life and Connecticut Mutual Life. In 1906 the
six fire insurance companies had an aggregate capital of more than
$10,000,000; on the 1st January 1906 they reported assets of about
$59,000,000 and an aggregate surplus of $30,000,000. In the San
Francisco disaster of that year they paid more than $15,000,000 of
losses. Since the fire insurance business began in Hartford, the
companies of that city now doing business there have paid about
$340,000,000 in losses. Several large and successful foreign companies
have made Hartford their American headquarters. The life insurance
companies have assets to the value of about $225,000,000. The Aetna
(fire), Aetna Life, Connecticut Fire, Connecticut Mutual Life,
Connecticut General Life, Hartford Fire, Hartford Life, Hartford Steam
Boiler Inspection and Insurance Co., National Fire, Orient Fire, Phoenix
Mutual Life and Travelers companies have their own homes, some of these
being among the finest buildings in Hartford. The city has also large
banking interests.
The first settlement on the site of Hartford was made by the Dutch from
New Amsterdam, who in 1633 established on the bank of the Connecticut
river, at the mouth of the Park river, a fort which they held until
1654. The township of Hartford was one of the first three original
townships of Connecticut. The first English settlement was made in 1635
by sixty immigrants, mostly from New Town (now Cambridge),
Massachusetts; but the main immigration was in 1636, when practically
all the New Town congregation led by Thomas Hooker and Samuel Stone
joined those who had preceded them. Their settlement was called Newtown
until 1637, when the present name was adopted from Hertford, England,
the birthplace of Stone. In 1636 Hartford was the meeting-place of the
first general court of the Connecticut colony; the Fundamental Orders,
the first written constitution, were adopted at Hartford in 1639; and
after the union of the colonies of New Haven and Connecticut,
accomplished by the charter of 1662, Hartford became the sole capital:
but from 1701 until 1873 that honour was shared with New Haven. At
Hartford occurred in 1687 the meeting of Edmund Andros and the
Connecticut officials (see CONNECTICUT). Hartford was first chartered in
1784, was rechartered in 1856 (the charter of that date has been
subsequently revised), and in 1881 was made coterminous with the
township of Hartford. The city was the literary centre of Federalist
ideas in the latter part of the 18th century, being the home of Lemuel
Hopkins, John Trumbull, Joel Barlow and David Humphreys, the leading
members of a group of authors known as the "Hartford Wits"; and in
1814-1815 the city was the meeting-place of the famous Hartford
Convention, an event of great importance in the history of the
Federalist party. The War of 1812, with the Embargo Acts (1807-1813),
which were so destructive of New England's commerce, thoroughly aroused
the Federalist leaders in this part of the country against the National
government as administered by the Democrats, and in 1814, when the
British were not only threatening a general invasion of their territory
but had actually occupied a part of the Maine coast, and the National
government promised no protection, the legislature of Massachusetts
invited the other New England states to join with her in sending
delegates to a convention which should meet at Hartford to consider
their grievances, means of preserving their resources, measures of
protection against the British, and the advisability of taking measures
to bring about a convention of delegates from all the United States for
the purpose of revising the Federal constitution. The legislatures of
Connecticut and Rhode Island, and town meetings in Cheshire and Grafton
counties (New Hampshire) and in Windham county (Vermont) accepted the
invitation, and the convention, composed of 12 delegates from
Massachusetts, 7 from Connecticut, 4 from Rhode Island, 2 from New
Hampshire and 1 from Vermont, all Federalists, met on the 15th of
December 1814, chose George Cabot of Massachusetts president and
Theodore Dwight of Connecticut secretary, and remained in secret session
until the 5th of January 1815, when it adjourned _sine die_. At the
conclusion of its work it recommended greater military control for each
of the several states and that the Federal constitution be so amended
that representatives and direct taxes should be apportioned among the
several states "according to their respective numbers of free persons,"
that no new state should be admitted to the Union without the
concurrence of two-thirds of both Houses of Congress, that Congress
should not have the power to lay an embargo for more than sixty days,
that the concurrence of two-thirds of the members of both Houses of
Congress should be necessary to pass an act "to interdict the commercial
intercourse between the United States and any foreign nation or the
dependencies thereof" or to declare war against any foreign nation
except in case of actual invasion, that "no person who shall hereafter
be naturalized shall be eligible as a member of the Senate or House of
Representatives of the United States, nor capable of holding any civil
office under the authority of the United States," and that "the same
person shall not be elected president of the United States a second
time; nor shall the president be elected from the same state two terms
in succession." After making these recommendations concerning amendments
the Convention resolved: "That if the application of these states to the
government of the United States, recommended in a foregoing resolution,
should be unsuccessful, and peace should not be concluded, and the
defence of these states should be neglected, as it has been since the
commencement of the war, it will, in the opinion of this convention, be
expedient for the legislatures of the several states to appoint
delegates to another convention, to meet at Boston in the state of
Massachusetts on the third Thursday of June next, with such powers and
instructions as the exigency of a crisis so momentous may require." The
legislatures of Massachusetts and Connecticut approved of these proposed
amendments and sent commissioners to Washington to urge their adoption,
but before their arrival the war had closed, and not only did the
amendments fail to receive the approval of any other state, but the
legislatures of nine states expressed their disapproval of the Hartford
Convention itself, some charging it with sowing "seeds of dissension and
disunion." The cessation of the war brought increased popularity to the
Democratic administration, and the Hartford Convention was vigorously
attacked throughout the country.
Hartford was the birthplace of Noah Webster, who here published his
_Grammatical Institute of the English Language_ (1783-1785), and of
Henry Barnard, John Fiske and Frederick Law Olmsted, and has been the
home of Samuel P. Goodrich (Peter Parley), George D. Prentice, Harriet
Beecher Stowe, Charles Dudley Warner, Samuel L. Clemens (Mark Twain) and
Horace Bushnell. More than 100 periodicals have been established in
Hartford, of which the oldest is the _Hartford Courant_ (1764), the
oldest newspaper in the United States. This paper was very influential
in shaping public opinion in the years preceding the War of
Independence; after the war it was successively Federalist, Whig and
Republican. _The Times_ (semi-weekly 1817; daily 1841) was one of the
most powerful Democratic organs in the period before the middle of the
19th century, and had Gideon Wells for editor 1826-1836. The
_Congregationalist_ (afterwards published in Boston) and the _Churchman_
(afterwards published in New York) were also founded at Hartford.
See _Scaeva, Hartford in the Olden Times: Its First Thirty Years_
(Hartford, 1853), edited by W. M. B. Hartley; and J. H. Trumbull,
_Memorial History of Hartford County_ (Boston, 1886). For the Hartford
Convention see _History of the Hartford Convention_ (Boston, 1833),
published by its secretary, Theodore Dwight; H. C. Lodge, _Life and
Letters of George Cabot_ (Boston, 1877); and Henry Adams, _Documents
Relating to New England Federalism_ (Boston, 1877).
HARTFORD CITY, a city and the county-seat of Blackford county, Indiana,
U.S.A., 62 m. N.E. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 2287; (1900) 5912 (572
foreign-born); (1910) 6187. The city is served by the Fort Wayne,
Cincinnati & Louisville, and the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St
Louis railways, and the Indiana Union Traction line (electric). There
are oil and natural gas wells in the vicinity, and the city has pulp and
paper mills, glass and tile works, and manufactories of woodenware, and
nitro-glycerine and powder. The municipality owns and operates its
water-works system. The first settlement in the vicinity was made in
1832. Hartford City became the county-seat of Blackford county when that
county was erected in 1837; it was laid out in 1839 and was first
incorporated as a town in 1867.
HARTIG, GEORG LUDWIG (1764-1837), German agriculturist and writer on
forestry, was born at Gladenbach, near Marburg, on the 2nd of September
1764. After obtaining a practical knowledge of forestry at Harzburg, he
studied from 1781 to 1783 at the university of Giessen. In 1786 he
became manager of forests to the prince of Solms-Braunfels at Hungen in
the Wetterau, where he founded a school for the teaching of forestry.
After obtaining in 1797 the appointment of inspector of forests to the
prince of Orange-Nassau, he continued his school of forestry at
Dillenburg, where the attendance thereat increased considerably. On the
dissolution of the principality by Napoleon I. in 1805 he lost his
position, but in 1806 he went as chief inspector of forests to
Stuttgart, whence in 1811 he was called to Berlin in a like capacity.
There he continued his school of forestry, and succeeded in connecting
it with the university of Berlin, where in 1830 he was appointed an
honorary professor. He died at Berlin on the 2nd of February 1837. His
son Theodor (1805-1880), and grandson Robert (1839-1901), were also
distinguished for their contributions to the study of forestry.
G. L. Hartig was the author of a number of valuable works: _Lehrbuch
fur Jager_ (Stuttgart, 1810); _Lehrbuch fur Forster_ (3 vols.,
Stuttgart, 1808); _Kubiktabellen fur geschnittene, beschlagene, und
runde Holzer_ (1815, 10th ed. Berlin, 1871); and _Lexikon fur Jager
und Jagdfreunde_ (1836, 2nd ed. Berlin, 1859-1861). Theodor Hartig and
his son Robert also published numerous works dealing with forestry,
one of the latter's books being translated into English by W.
Somerville and H. Marshall Ward as _Diseases of Trees_ (1894).
HARTLEPOOL, a parliamentary borough of Durham, England, embracing the
municipal borough of Hartlepool or East Hartlepool and the municipal and
county borough of West Hartlepool. Pop. (1901) of Hartlepool, 22,723; of
West Hartlepool, 62,627. The towns are on the coast of the North Sea
separated by Hartlepool Bay, with a harbour, and both have stations on
branches of the North Eastern railway, 247 m. N. by W. from London. The
surrounding country is bleak, and the coast is low. Caves occur in the
slight cliffs, and protection against the attacks of the waves has been
found necessary. The ancient market town of Hartlepool lies on a
peninsula which forms the termination of a south-eastward sweep of the
coast and embraces the bay. Its naturally strong position was formerly
fortified, and part of the walls, serving as a promenade, remain. The
parish church of St Hilda, standing on an eminence above the sea, is
late Norman and Early English, with a massive tower, heavily buttressed.
There is a handsome borough hall in Italian style. West Hartlepool, a
wholly modern town, has several handsome modern churches, municipal
buildings, exchange, market hall, Athenaeum and public library. The
municipal area embraces the three townships of Seaton Carew, a seaside
resort with good bathing, and golf links; Stranton, with its church of
All Saints, of the 14th century, on a very early site; and Throston.
The two Hartlepools are officially considered as one port. The harbour,
which embraces two tidal basins and six docks aggregating 83(1/2) acres,
in addition to timber docks of 57 acres, covers altogether 350 acres.
There are five graving docks, admitting vessels of 550 ft. length and 10
to 21 ft. draught. The depth of water on the dock sills varies from
17(1/2) ft. at neap tides to 25 ft. at spring tides. A breakwater
three-quarters of a mile long protects the entrance to the harbour. An
important trade is carried on in the export of coal, ships, machinery,
iron and other metallic ores, woollens and cottons, and in the import of
timber, sugar, iron and copper ores, and eggs. Timber makes up 59% of
the imports, and coal and ships each about 30% of the exports. The
principal industries are shipbuilding (iron), boiler and engineering
works, iron and brass foundries, steam saw and planing mills,
flour-mills, paper and paint factories, and soapworks.
The parliamentary borough (falling within the south-east county
division) returns one member. The municipal borough of Hartlepool is
under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors, and has an area of 972
acres. The municipal borough of West Hartlepool is under a mayor, 8
aldermen and 24 councillors, and has an area of 2684 acres.
Built on the horns of a sheltered bay, Hartlepool (Hertepull, Hertipol),
grew up round the monastery founded there in 640, but was destroyed by
the Danes in 800 and rebuilt by Ecgred, bishop of Lindisfarne. In 1173
Bishop Hugh de Puiset allowed French and Flemish troops to land at
Hartlepool to aid the Scots. It is not mentioned in Boldon Book as,
being part of the royal manor of Sadberg held at this time by the family
of Bruce, it did not become the property of the see of Durham until the
purchase of that manor in 1189. The bishops did not obtain possession
until the reign of John, who during the interval in 1201 gave Hartlepool
a charter granting the burgesses the same privileges that the burgesses
of Newcastle enjoyed; in 1230 Bishop Richard Poor granted further
liberties, including a gild merchant. Edward II. seized the borough as a
possession of Robert Bruce, but he could control it very slightly owing
to the bishop's powers. In 1328 Edward III. granted the borough 100
marks towards the town-wall and Richard II. granted murage for seven
years, the term being extended in 1400. In 1383 Bishop Fordham gave the
burgesses licence to receive tolls within the borough for the
maintenance of the walls, while Bishop Neville granted a commission for
the construction of a pier or mole. In the 16th century Hartlepool was
less prosperous; in 1523 the haven was said to be ruined, the
fortifications decayed. An act of 1535 declared Hartlepool to be in
Yorkshire, but in 1554 it was reinstated in the county of Durham. It
fell into the hands of the northern earls in 1563, and a garrison was
maintained there after the rebellion was crushed. In 1593 Elizabeth
incorporated it, and gave the burgesses a town hall and court of pie
powder. During the civil wars Hartlepool, which a few years before was
said to be the only port town in the country, was taken by the Scots,
who maintained a garrison there until 1647. As a borough of the
Palatinate Hartlepool was not represented in parliament until the 19th
century, though strong arguments in its favour were advanced in the
Commons in 1614. The markets of Hartlepool were important throughout
the middle ages. In 1216 John confirmed to Robert Bruce the market on
Wednesday granted to his father and the fair on the feast of St
Lawrence; this fair was extended to fifteen days by the grant of 1230,
while the charter of 1595 also granted a fair and market. During the
14th century trade was carried on with Germany, Spain and Holland, and
in 1346 Hartlepool provided five ships for the French war, being
considered one of the chief seaports in the kingdom. The markets were
still considerable in Camden's day, but declined during the 18th
century, when Hartlepool became fashionable as a watering-place.
HARTLEY, SIR CHARLES AUGUSTUS (1825- ), English engineer, was born in
1825 at Heworth, Durham. Like most engineers of his generation he was
engaged in railway work in the early part of his career, but
subsequently he devoted himself to hydraulic engineering and the
improvement of estuaries and harbours for the purposes of navigation. He
was employed in connexion with some of the largest and most important
waterways of the world. After serving in the Crimea as a captain of
engineers in the Anglo-Turkish contingent, he was in 1856 appointed
engineer-in-chief for the works carried out by the European Commission
of the Danube for improving the navigation at the mouths of that river,
and that position he retained till 1872, when he became consulting
engineer to the Commission (see Danube). In 1875 he was one of the
committee appointed by the authority of the U.S.A. Congress to report on
the works necessary to form and maintain a deep channel through the
south pass of the Mississippi delta; and in 1884 the British government
nominated him a member of the international technical commission for
widening the Suez Canal. In addition he was consulted by the British and
other governments in connexion with many other river and harbour works,
including the improvement of the navigation of the Scheldt, Hugli, Don
and Dnieper, and of the ports of Odessa, Trieste, Kustendjie, Burgas,
Varna and Durban. He was knighted in 1862, and became K.C.M.G. in 1884.
HARTLEY, DAVID (1705-1757), English philosopher, and founder of the
Associationist school of psychologists, was born on the 30th of August
1705. He was educated at Bradford grammar school and Jesus College,
Cambridge, of which society he became a fellow in 1727. Originally
intended for the Church, he was deterred from taking orders by certain
scruples as to signing the Thirty-nine Articles, and took up the study
of medicine. Nevertheless, he remained in the communion of the English
Church, living on intimate terms with the most distinguished churchmen
of his day. Indeed he asserted it to be a duty to obey ecclesiastical as
well as civil authorities. The doctrine to which he most strongly
objected was that of eternal punishment. Hartley practised as a
physician at Newark, Bury St Edmunds, London, and lastly at Bath, where
he died on the 28th of August 1757. His _Observations on Man_ was
published in 1749, three years after Condillac's _Essai sur l'origine
des connaissances humaines_, in which theories essentially similar to
his were expounded. It is in two parts--the first dealing with the frame
of the human body and mind, and their mutual connexions and influences,
the second with the duty and expectations of mankind. His two main
theories are the doctrine of vibrations and the doctrine of
associations. His physical theory, he tells us, was drawn from certain
speculations as to nervous action which Newton had published in his
_Principia_. His psychological theory was suggested by the _Dissertation
concerning the Fundamental Principles of Virtue or Morality_, which was
written by a clergyman named John Gay (1699-1745), and prefixed by
Bishop Law to his translation[1] of Archbishop King's Latin work on the
_Origin of Evil_, its chief object being to show that sympathy and
conscience are developments by means of association from the selfish
feelings.
The outlines of Hartley's theory are as follows. With Locke he
asserted that, prior to sensation, the human mind is a blank. By a
growth from simple sensations those states of consciousness which
appear most remote from sensation come into being. And the one law of
growth of which Hartley took account was the law of contiguity,
synchronous and successive. By this law he sought to explain, not only
the phenomena of memory, which others had similarly explained before
him, but also the phenomena of emotion, of reasoning, and of voluntary
and involuntary action (see ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS).
By his physical theory Hartley gave the first strong impulse to the
modern study of the intimate connexion of physiological and psychical
facts which has proved so fruitful, though his physical theory in
itself is inadequate, and has not been largely adopted. He held that
sensation is the result of a vibration of the minute particles of the
medullary substance of the nerves, to account for which he postulated,
with Newton, a subtle elastic ether, rare in the interstices of solid
bodies and in their close neighbourhood, and denser as it recedes from
them. Pleasure is the result of moderate vibrations, pain of
vibrations so violent as to break the continuity of the nerves. These
vibrations leave behind them in the brain a tendency to fainter
vibrations or "vibratiuncles" of a similar kind, which correspond to
"ideas of sensation." Thus memory is accounted for. The course of
reminiscence and of the thoughts generally, when not immediately
dependent upon external sensation, is accounted for on the ground that
there are always vibrations in the brain on account of its heat and
the pulsation of its arteries. What these vibrations shall be is
determined by the nature of each man's past experience, and by the
influence of the circumstances of the moment, which causes now one now
another tendency to prevail over the rest. Sensations which are often
associated together become each associated with the ideas
corresponding to the others; and the ideas corresponding to the
associated sensations become associated together, sometimes so
intimately that they form what appears to be a new simple idea, not
without careful analysis resolvable into its component parts.
Starting, like the modern Associationists, from a detailed account of
the phenomena of the senses, Hartley tries to show how, by the above
laws, all the emotions, which he analyses with considerable skill, may
be explained. Locke's phrase "association of ideas" is employed
throughout, "idea" being taken as including every mental state but
sensation. He emphatically asserts the existence of pure disinterested
sentiment, while declaring it to be a growth from the self-regarding
feelings. Voluntary action is explained as the result of a firm
connexion between a motion and a sensation or "idea," and, on the
physical side, between an "ideal" and a motory vibration. Therefore in
the Freewill controversy Hartley took his place as a determinist. It
is singular that, as he tells us, it was only with reluctance, and
when his speculations were nearly complete, that he came to a
conclusion on this subject in accordance with his theory.
See life of Hartley by his son in the 1801 edition of the
_Observations_, which also contains notes and additions translated
from the German of H. A. Pistorius; Sir Leslie Stephen, _History of
English Thought in the Eighteenth Century_ (3rd ed., 1902), and
article in the _Dictionary of National Biography_; G. S. Bower,
_Hartley and James Mill_ (1881); B. Schonlank, _Hartley und Priestley
die Begrunder des Assoziationismus in England_ (1882). See also the
histories of philosophy and bibliography in J. M. Baldwin's
_Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology_ (1905), vol. iii.