sulphuretted hydrogen in smoke blackens, disfigures or tarnishes nearly
all metals. Copper and bronze rapidly darken, iron rapidly corrodes,
aluminum is affected by vapors and acids, many metals become pitted
from electro-chemical action, and even gold or gilded articles become
dull. Gilt titles on books will fade in the city while retaining their
luster in the country. Bright and uneven metallic surfaces may also
become coated with a mottled, sooty smear. To keep sign plates on any
metal work bright and shiny requires constant work in smoky cities. The
protective coatings used are not entirely satisfactory because they
tend to crack or to peel off, or to leave pin holes. Constant cleaning
entails large expense both because of the labor required and because
of the wear on the metal. Rather than assume this added burden of
expense merchants in smoky cities tend to minimize the use of brilliant
metallic ornaments. In consequence such cities often lack that polished
metallic splendor which is one of the charms of the tourist cities of
the earth.
Outdoor statuary in metal or stone in smoky cities suffers from all
the disadvantages affecting buildings and metal work. The bituminous
deposits cannot be removed by washing, and statues can only be
protected by layers of water proofing. But even then ugly layers of
grime will cover the exterior and render unsightly some of our best
treasures of municipal art.
The possibilities of landscape or decorative gardening are also
artificially restricted in a smoky atmosphere. Cloudiness as such is
one of the most important items in agricultural climatology. But in
addition to this there are many shrubs and trees which do not thrive
in smoke--rhododendrons, conifers, evergreens--while the beauty of all
trees, shrubs and flowers is marred by deposits of smoky opacity.
In consequence of the above artistic limitations, the artistic
education available not only for the masses but particularly for
students of art in smoky cities, is necessarily restricted. Their
first, and sometimes only, artistic impressions are derived from an
artistically limited and ultra-utilitarian environment, and from
besmirched and sordid surroundings instead of from a clear, clean
atmosphere of artistic excellence.
Not only do grimy, physical surroundings debase the aesthetic ideals
of the dweller in smoke, but they also probably tend to foster
personal habits of carelessness. The children playing in the streets
in grimy cities become so accustomed to soot and smut that they
learn to revel in grime and to glory in grease. To say that we have
become a “well washed” race (as say Sir Thomas Oliver and Dr. Woods
Hutchinson) because we are being constantly defiled by atmospheric
smut is tantamount to saying that we have become moral, healthy and
vigorous because of contamination by the social plague or infection by
virulent bacteria. It is not so. Even if we do resort to more frequent
external cleansing this does not render us any cleaner, because we
may forthwith become begrimed by the omnipresent smut of the air.
Moreover, our lungs and alimentary canal can not so readily be “washed
out,” so that smoke at least keeps us interiorally begrimed. So far as
the young child is concerned, the labor of cleaning is usually thrown
upon the mother. Mothers evidently grow weary of washing the faces
and hands and changing the clothes of their youthful progeny several
times a day. Hence the child is left to wallow in dirt. Adults may
tend to continue the habits which they formed as children. They, too,
at any rate, grow weary of constant ablutions and changes of garments,
and will tend to adopt the more somber shades of apparel which are
less readily soiled by soot. The lighter raiment which often is more
pleasing to the eye, and in the summer time is more conducive to
comfort, must often be tabooed in smoky cities. The wearing apparel
in such cities in consequence will offer less variety than in cities
of low-smoke content. Women in white fabrics must not venture to sit
down on an unprotected park seat in smoky cities less they carry away a
conspicuous ribbon of grime across their backs.
* * * * *
It is possible that habits of carelessness, indifference, or ready
satisfaction which the dwellers in smoky cities may tend to acquire,
in respect to personal cleanliness and dress and in respect to the
artistic and cleanly appearance of the external city surroundings, may
transfer to other aspects of their psychic existence, because, while
the doctrine of formal discipline has been exploded in its crass form,
psychological experiments show that habits which have been acquired in
one phase of mental action will transfer more or less to other phases
of mental action which have similar or identical elements (36).
Finally it should be emphasized that cities befouled with murky smoke
are at a decided disadvantage as tourist or residential places. Wealthy
tourists and globe trotters go to the brilliant, resplendent, ornate,
clean cities--the show places--and not to the nasty, pungent smoke
producers. Even if the tourist perchance does come to a dirty town
he will rarely tarry there for any length of time. Few towns which
tolerate the smoke nuisance can hope to compete for tourist trade. The
loss in tourist trade caused by preventable smoke in manufacturing
cities represents an enormous economic loss to the trades and
professions of those cities. Not only so, people looking for a city
residence will not seek centers reeking with smoke. Retired people of
wealth will prefer the smoke-free cities of culture and art where they
can inhale the uncontaminated, invigorating ozone of sun-kissed skies.
Summary of Conclusions
I. The injurious organic effects exerted by smoke on human beings are
both direct and indirect. The direct effects are due to the injury
caused by the smoke contents themselves, while the indirect effects
arise from meteorological changes produced by atmospheric smoke.
II. The mental effects of smoke and smoke-produced weather states are
likewise both direct and indirect. The indirect effects issue from
bodily changes produced by smoke or smoke-produced weather states,
while the direct effects are due to the influences of the mind’s own
states upon its subsequent thoughts, disposition and conduct.
III. Smoke fills the atmosphere with acrid, poisonous compounds and
soot particles which may serve as carriers of the obnoxious products
of human fatigue, which irritate the sensitive membranes of the
eyes, nose, throat, lungs and gastro-intestinal tract, increase the
susceptibility of gastro-intestinal, pulmonary and naso-pharyngeal
disorders, diminish the potential reserve, working capacity and well
being of the individual, increase fatigue, irritability and malcontent,
and may tend to hasten premature decay.
IV. Smoke lessens the duration and intensity of sunshine, reduces the
intensity of daylight, the limit of visibility and the diurnal winter
temperature; increases humidity, mists, the frequency and duration of
fogs and possibly alters the electrical potential.
V. Sunshine is an important bio-dynamic agent. It promotes anabolism,
transpiration and perspiration, and increases the percentage of
hemoglobin. The blue and ultra-violet rays of sunshine exert a
bactericidal effect on pathogenic bacteria, and a tonic, vitalizing
influence upon the human organism. Sunshine exerts an exuberant
influence on the feelings. Moreover, colorless daylight is superior for
visual efficiency, optical health and affective quality.
VI. Dark clouds have a depressing, devitalizing effect. They may cause
fear in children, reduce working efficiency, and labor returns; give
rise to eye strain and dioptric disorders; give rise to disquietude,
restlessness and forebodings in the insane; and may increase
drunkenness because of the reduction of the diurnal temperature in the
winter time.
VII. Humidity increases the solid, poisonous, bactericidal contents
of the air, aggravates various pathological conditions of the body,
reduces the sensitivity of some sense organs and depletes the vital
potential. Fogs, in addition, increase the inaccuracy of mental work
(bank errors), increase the prevalence of diseases, and augment the
death rate.
VIII. Clear, dry days are anabolic in character and thus produce a
superabundance of energy. While this may lead, as statistics seem
to show, to an increase of school misdemeanors, assaults, suicides
and arrests for drunkenness in emotionally and nervously unstable
individuals, it also tends to energize the human organism, augment its
functional efficiency and enhance its achievement capacity. Negatively
the data seem to indicate that smoky weather states (just because they
deplete energy and thereby inhibit action) lessen rather than increase
crimes of violence.
IX. Smoke clouds are inimical to the highest aesthetic development of
urban communities. They seriously limit not only the possibilities
of municipal art, in respect to architecture, statuary, painting,
and ornamental gardening, but also limit the possibilities of art
education in the community in question. They begrime, deface, decolor,
destroy and corrode interior and exterior artistic effects in color,
brick, stone, marble or metal. They befoul the persons as well as the
dress of the inhabitants, limit the range of wearing apparel, and may
foster habits of indifference. They obliterate the natural terrestrial
panorama of art, the iridescent clouds of the sky. Because of the
murky, abject inartistic appearance of these cities, they are avoided
by the wealthy tourist and the retired person of wealth who is in
search of a desirable place for residence.
X. Our knowledge of the mental influences of atmospheric smoke
pollution should be rendered more complete by systematic psychological
research. Two methods are available for this investigation, namely,
the questionnaire method and the experimental method. By means of
the questionnaire a mass of interesting and valuable experiential,
observational and impressionistic data can be collected from children
and adults bearing on smoke psychology. By the experimental method
it is possible to measure in quantitative terms under controlled
conditions of smoke density, the influence of smoke upon the functional
efficiency of various sensory, motor and intellectual processes. To
prosecute such a research one requires controlled subjects, controlled
apparatus and controlled smoke rooms.
My thanks for courtesies extended to me in connection with this
research are due to Dr. R. C. Benner, Mr. J. J. O’Connor, Jr., Dr. W.
W. Strong and Mr. E. H. McClelland.
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Transcriber’s Notes
Page 6: “entry of soluable” changed to “entry of soluble”
Page 22: “inbalance or dioptric distortions” changed to “imbalance or
dioptric distortions”
Page 25: “mucuous membrane” changed to “mucous membrane”
Page 30: “worst smoke-effending” changed to “worst smoke-offending”
Page 35: “gods and godesses” changed to “gods and goddesses”
Page 36 & 42: “natural terrestial” changed to “natural terrestrial”
Page 44: “sur la végetation et les propriétés pathogènes” changed
to “sur la végétation et les propriétés pathogènes” “séances de
L’Academie” changed to “séances de L’Académie”